Good Ozone

The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from 10 to 30 miles above sea level.
"The ozone layer" refers to the ozone within stratosphere, where over 90% of the
earth's ozone resides. The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency
ultraviolet light , light which is potentially damaging to life on earth.
In the absence of this gaseous shield in the stratosphere, the harmful radiation has a
perfect portal through which to strike Earth.
The amounts of "good" and "bad" ozone in the atmosphere depend on a balance
between processes that create ozone and those that destroy it. An upset in the ozone
balance can have serious consequences for life on Earth. Scientists are finding
evidence that changes are occurring in ozone levels—the "bad" ozone is increasing in
the air we breathe, and the "good" ozone is decreasing in our protective ozone shield.
 NASA GSFC Graphic
Good Ozone. Ozone occurs naturally in the Earth’s upper atmosphere—10 to 30 miles
above the Earth’s surface—where it forms a protective layer that shields us from the
sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. This beneficial ozone is gradually being destroyed by
manmade chemicals. An area where ozone has been significantly depleted—for
example, over the North or South pole—is sometimes called a “hole in the ozone.”
Ozone: The Good and Bad of Ozone
Origins and Characteristics of Stratospheric and Ground-Level Ozone
Essentially, ozone (O3) is an unstable and highly reactive form of oxygen. The ozone
molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms that are bound together, whereas the
oxygen we breathe (O2) contains only two oxygen atoms.

From a human perspective, ozone is both helpful and harmful, both good and bad.

The Benefits of Good Ozone

Small concentrations of ozone occur naturally in the stratosphere, which is part of the
Earth’s upper atmosphere. At that level, ozone helps to protect life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun, particularly UVB radiation that can cause
skin cancer and cataracts, damage crops, and destroy some types of marine life.

The Origin of Good Ozone

Ozone is created in the stratosphere when ultraviolet light from the sun splits an oxygen
molecule into two single oxygen atoms. Each of those oxygen atoms then binds with an
oxygen molecule to form an ozone molecule.

Depletion of stratospheric ozone poses serious health risks for humans and
environmental hazards for the planet, and many nations have banned or limited the use
of chemicals that contribute to ozone depletion.

The Origin of Bad Ozone

Ozone is also found much nearer the ground, in the troposphere, the lowest level of
Earth’s atmosphere. Unlike the ozone that occurs naturally in the stratosphere,
tropospheric ozone is man-made, an indirect result of air pollution created by
automobile exhaust and emissions from factories and power plants.

When gasoline and coal are burned, nitrogen oxide gases (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOC) are released into the air. During the warm, sunny days of spring,
summer and early fall, NOx and VOC are more likely to combine with oxygen and form
ozone. During those seasons, high concentrations of ozone are often formed during the
heat of the afternoon and early evening, and are likely to dissipate later in the evening
as the air cools.

The Risks of Bad Ozone

The man-made ozone that forms in the troposphere is extremely toxic and corrosive.
People who inhale ozone during repeated exposure may permanently damage their
lungs or suffer from respiratory infections. Ozone exposure may reduce lung function or
aggravate existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, emphysema or bronchitis.
Ozone may also cause chest pain, coughing, throat irritation or congestion.

The adverse health effects of ground-level ozone are particularly dangerous for people
who work, exercise, or spend a lot of time outdoors during warm weather. Seniors and
children are also at greater risk than the rest of the population, because people in both
age groups are more likely to have reduced or not fully formed lung capacity.

In addition to human health effects, ground-level ozone is also hard on plants and
animals, damaging ecosystems and leading to reduced crop and forest yields. In the
United States alone, for example, ground-level ozone accounts for an estimated $500
million in reduced crop production annually. Ground-level ozone also kills many
seedlings and damages foliage, making trees more susceptible to diseases, pests and
harsh weather.

No Place is Completely Safe from Ground-Level Ozone

Ground-level ozone pollution is often considered an urban problem, because it is
formed primarily in urban and suburban areas. Nevertheless, ground-level ozone also
finds its way to rural areas, carried hundreds of miles by the wind or forming as a result
of auto emissions or other sources of air pollution in those areas.
PAST YEAR
Q1s

 Define the following terms:

 Air pollution
 Persistence-Environmental persistence is an important property that can enhance
the potential of a chemical substance to exert adverse effects and be transported to
remote environments. The persistence of organic compounds is governed by the rates
at which they are removed by biological and chemical processes, such as
biodegradation, hydrolysis, atmospheric oxidation, and photolysis. The persistence
workgroup in a recent Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)
Pellston workshop (Pensacola, FL, USA, January 2008) focused on evaluating
persistence of organic compounds in environmental media (air, water, soil, sediment) in
terms of their single-medium degradation half-lives. The primary aim was to provide
guidance to authors and reviewers of chemical dossiers for persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) and persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBTs) proposed for
action. A second objective was to provide a summary of the current state of the science
with respect to POP fate assessment. Assessing the persistence of chemical
substances in the environment is not straightforward. A common misconception is that,
like many chemical properties, environmental persistence is an inherent property of the
substance and can be readily measured. In fact, rates of degradation of a substance in
the environment are determined by a combination of substance-specific properties and
environmental conditions. This article addresses how persistence can be evaluated
based on an assortment of supporting information. Special attention is given to several
critical issues, including transformation products, nonextractable residues, and
treatment of uncertainty and conflicting data as part of a weight-of-evidence
assessment.

 Pollution

 Bioaccumulation

 Secondary pollutants

 Bioaccumulation

 Secondary pollutants

 Bioaccumulation

 Haze

 Greenhouse effect

 Persistent
 Haze

 Pollution

 Bioaccumulation

 Greenhouse effect

 Persistent

 Haze

 Secondary pollutants

 Bioaccumulation

 Global warming

 Air pollution index

NOV 2005
 Pollution can be classified in several ways. Explain + examples (3 m)

 Differentiate between primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. Examples (3 m)

 "Dilution is the solution to pollution". Discuss (4 m)
The dilution strategy is no longer an acceptable method of dealing with pollution.
Scientists and policymakers now understand the need to reduce and
eliminate the discharge of pollution into our environment and waterways, not
divert it to another location.
The `Solution' to Pollution is Still `Dilution'
Nearly 30 years after passage of the Clean Water Act (CWA), toxic industrial and
municipal wastes are still being dumped into our rivers, streams, lakes and coastal
waters. Congress intended the CWA and federal pollution regulations to end the idea
that "dilution is the solution to pollution." But pressure from the nation's biggest polluters
prompted the creation of a loophole called "mixing zones" -- special dilution areas
approved for nearly every discharge where state water quality standards (WQS) don't
apply.
The Campaign to Safeguard America's Waters (C-SAW) is the only project devoted
solely to closing the mixing-zone loophole in the Clean Water Act. C-SAW is working
with local and national organizations to reduce or eliminate specific mixing zones, to
tighten state and federal mixing-zone regulations and to challenge the rules supporting
mixing-zone use in federal court.
Late last year, the EPA finalized rules for the Great Lakes that prohibited the
assignment of new mixing zones for toxic "bioaccumulative chemicals of concern"
(BCC). The EPA also promised to eliminate existing BCC mixing zones within 10 years.
C-SAW's efforts to push the EPA to extend the Great Lakes standard to all US waters
before the November 2000 election fell short but the idea is spreading. Across the
country, clean-water activists are mounting challenges to the use of mixing zones.
Meanwhile, Maryland's Governor Pards N. Glendening is considering a BCC mixing-
zone ban and a legislative effort to end all BCC mixing-zones is underway in
Washington State.

Pollution Dilution Not A Solution

Pollution mixing zones are streams or bodies of water where polluters (industrial,
municipal or individual) can legally obtain a permit to dump bio-accumulative chemicals,
sewage, mining waste water at high concentrations based on the mistaken old rule that
“dilution is the solution to pollution.” Toxins dumped into mixing zones can include
mercury, BCBs, chlordane, BCD, dioxins, mirex, etc. as defined under Section 307 of
the Clean Water Act. These substances can accumulate and persist on the bottom of
these water bodies and make their way into the food chain. Toxic chemicals can
interfere with human (and animal) reproduction and development, immune
responsiveness and neurological functions.

Dilution is the Solution to Pollution?

Thursday, January 29, 2009

Yes, once upon a time chemists could be heard saying things like "Dilution is
the Solution to Pollution", but they have learned the error of their own ways and are now
trying to clean up their act! Partially by letting people know what they can use as
alternatives to harsh chemicals. There are lots of little ways to lessen our everyday use
of "bad" chemicals.
Some of the harshest chemicals that people tend to use are cleaning agents. With the
need to obtain godliness through cleanliness we often over look its far reaching effects.
Hear are some Green Cleaning ideas that we can use at home.
Laundry detergent can contain nasty things called ethyoxylates. Ethyoxylate can act
as hormone mimicking agents and mess with DNA and reproduction in many living
creatures. To get your clothes clean without creating two-headed frogs try using a mix
of borax, lemon juice, and hydrogen peroxide. The borax cleans most stains; the lemon
juice gets out grease and the peroxide bubbles away what gets left behind.
Ammonia and Bleach are two of the most common, and most powerful cleaners
available. Unfortunately, bleach can aid in the formation of organochlorides. Other
infamous organochlorides include DDT, you know, that stuff that has been banned in 98
countries? Instead of bleaching, try using a mix of baking soda and water on your
counter tops and in your toilet. It even works on oven grease!
When it comes to windows, Windex is usually what we reach for first, but it is not the
most environmentally friendly product available, thought they have recently reformulated
to a more green combination. For a cheap but powerful substitute use diluted
white vinegar or isopropyl alcohol. If the smell puts you off, remember, lemon juice is a
great cleaner but it might take away from that streak free shine!
APR 2006
 Two types of air pollutants have been recognized: primary and secondary. Explain
with an example each (3 m)
 Can environmental problems be solved by technology? Give reasons (3 m)
'In contradiction to what environmental sceptics often say, this report definitely confirms,
that technology alone will not solve all problems. Even in the best case scenario,
irreversible consequences are expected, and these can have serious local and global
impacts'. The future is in our hands: 'It is possible to create a more balanced planet for
our grandchildren. We need to combine strong political commitments, better
environmental awareness, environmental friendly technologies, and higher prices for
exploiting natural resources'.
It is currently believed that science and technology can provide effective solutions to
most, if not all, environmental problems facing western industrial societies. The validity
of this optimistic assumption is highly questionable for at least three reasons: First,
current mechanistic, reductionist science is inherently incapable of providing the
complete and accurate information which is required to successfully address
environmental problems. Second, both the conservation of mass principle and the
second law of thermodynamics dictate that most remediation technologies — while
successful in solving specific pollution problems — cause unavoidable negative
environmental impacts elsewhere or in the future. Third, it is intrinsically impossible to
design industrial processes that have no negative environmental impacts. This follows
not only from the entropy law but also from the fact that any generation of energy is
impossible without negative environmental consequences. It can therefore be
concluded that science and technology have only very limited potential in solving
current and future environmental problems. Consequently, it will be necessary to
address the root cause of environmental deterioration, namely, the prevailing
materialistic values that are the main driving force for both overpopulation and
overconsumption. The long-term protection of the environment is, therefore, not
primarily a technical problem but rather a social and moral problem that can only be
solved by drastically reducing the strong influence of materialistic values.
OCT 2006
 Two types of air pollutants have been recognized: primary and secondary. Explain
with an example each (3 m)
 The following statement was overheard in an elevator; CFCs cannot be the cause of
stratospheric ozone depletion over Antarctica because there are no refrigerators in
Antarctica. Criticize the reasoning behind this statement. (3 m)
APR 2007
 Pollution can be classified in several ways. Explain + examples (3 m)
 Do you think that all or most environmental problems can be solved by technology?
Why or why not? (3 m)
OCT 2007
 Pollution can be classified in several ways. Explain + examples (3 m)
APR 2008
 In general, two types of air pollutants have been recognized: primary and secondary.
Explain and give examples for each type of pollutants. (3 m)
OCT 2008
 In general, two types of air pollutants have been recognized: primary and secondary.
Explain and give examples for each type of pollutants. (3 m)
 The following statement was overheard in an elevator; CFCs cannot be the cause of
stratospheric ozone depletion over Antarctica because there are no refrigerators in
Antarctica. Criticize the reasoning behind this statement. (3 m)
 Due to the Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in
enhancing ozone depletion.[8] PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of Antarctic stratosphere

 These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark,
consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in
temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air.

 During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive the
chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive
photochemical reactions, and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing the trapped compounds.
Warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm,
ozone-rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the ozone depletion process shuts
down, and the ozone hole closes. Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere in
contrast in the upper stratosphere.

Ozone-depleting gases are present throughout the stratospheric ozone layer because they are transported great
distances by atmospheric air motions. The severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer known as the “ozone hole”
occurs because of the special weather conditions that exist there and nowhere else on the globe. The very low
temperatures of the Antarctic stratosphere create ice clouds called polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). Special
reactions that occur on PSCs and the relative isolation of polar stratospheric air allow chlorine and bromine
reactions to produce the ozone hole in Antarctic springtime.

APR 2009
 In general, two types of air pollutants have been recognized: primary and secondary.
Explain and give examples for each type of pollutants. (3 m)

OCT 2009
 Pollution can be classified in several ways. Explain this statement with appropriate
examples. (3 m)
 Can environmental problems be solved by technology? Give reasons (3 m)
APR 2010
 Define pollution and state two types of pollutants. Give two examples for each type
of pollutant. (5 m)

Q2s
NOV 2005
 Write the reaction equations for the formation of ozone in the stratosphere. (3 m)
 What is causing a hole in the ozone layer? Write the equation for the reactions
that contributes to ozone destruction in the stratosphere. (4 m)
 State three effects of ozone layer depletion. (3 m)

APR 2006
 Name and identify the sources of two pollutants that are responsible for the
depletion of the ozone layer. (3 m)
 State two control measures that could be taken to ensure that the ozone layer is
protected and recovered. (4 m)
 What are the measures that you can take as an individual consumer and as a
member of the society to safeguard the ozone layer? (3 m)

OCT 2006
 Write the equation for the reaction that contributes most significantly to ozone
destruction in the stratosphere. (4 m)
 Discuss possible solutions to the problem of CFCs pollution. (6 m)
APR 2007
 State two consequences of depletion in the ozone layer. (4 m)
 Discuss possible control measures to the problem of CFCs pollution. (6 m)

OCT 2007
 Name two (2) pollutants that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
State the sources of these pollutants. (3 m)
 The injection of propane into the Antarctic stratosphere might help heal the
ozone hole. Justify this statement. (4 m)

APR 2008
 "Ozone: Good up high, bad nearby" is an EPA fact sheet that explains the
difference between "good" ozone and "bad" ozone. Explain this fact (4 m)
 What is happening to the "good" ozone? (5 m)

OCT 2008
 Write the equation for the reaction that contributes most significantly to ozone
destruction in the stratosphere. (4 m)
 Discuss possible solutions to the problem of CFCs pollution. (6 m)

APR 2009

 Name two pollutants that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer and
identify its sources. (3 m)
 Recommend three control measures or actions that could be taken to ensure that
the ozone layer is protected and recovered. (6 m)

OCT 2009

 State two consequences of depletion in the ozone layer on health and the
environment (two consequences each). (4 m)
 Discuss three possible control measures to solve the problem of CFCs pollution.
(6 m)

APR 2010

 Explain what is happening to the high altitude "good" ozone layer? (4 m)

 Name two ozone depleting substances (ODS) and identify the source of each
ODS. (2 m)
 Suggest four significant steps that you can take as an individual consumer and
as a responsible member of the society. (4 m)
Q3s
NOV 2005
 Outline the processes required for the formation of two most dominant toxic
components of smog; ozone and peroxylacetyl nitrate. (8 m)
 Conditions required for the development of photochemical smog? (2 m)

APR 2006
 Compare and contrast between an industrial smog and a photochemical smog.
(6 m)
 Impacts of photochemical smog on materials. (4 m)

OCT 2006
 Differentiate photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its sources, its
reactants, its conditions favoring development of the particular type of smog, its
reaction(s), and its products. (10 m)

APR 2007
 Differentiate photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its sources, its
reactants, its conditions favoring development of the particular type of smog, its
reaction(s), and its products. (10 m)

OCT 2007

 Explain the term "industrial smog". (2 m)

 Conditions for industrial smog formation. (6 m)

APR 2008
 Differentiate photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its sources, its
reactants, its conditions favoring development of the particular type of smog, its
reaction(s), and its products. (10 m)

OCT 2008

 Differentiate photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its sources, its
reaction and its conditions favoring development of the particular type of smog.
(10 m)

APR 2009
  Differentiate photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its sources, its
reactants, its conditions favoring development of the particular type of smog, its
reaction(s), and its products. (10 m)

OCT 2009

 Outline the processes required for the formation of two most dominant toxic
components of smog; ozone and peroxylacetyl nitrate. (8 m)
 Conditions required for the development of photochemical smog? (2 m)

APR 2010

 Compare and contrasts photochemical smog from industrial smog, in terms of its
sources, its reactants, its conditions favoring development of the particular type
of smog, its reaction(s), and its products. (12 m)

Q4s
NOV 2005
 Three major components of haze and state the anthropogenic sources for each.

(3 m)
 General conditions necessary for the formation of haze? (3 m)
 Effects of haze on materials and vegetation. (4 m)

APR 2006
 Two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic sources for each.

(4 m)
 Explain the industries response and government response in coping with the
haze crisis? (6 m)

OCT 2006

 The atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of haze? (3 m)

 Two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic sources for each.

(2 m)
 Effects of haze on the environment and material. (5 m)

APR 2007
 Define haze. List two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic
sources for each. (5 m)
 Effects of haze on vegetation and on building. (5 m)
OCT 2007
 Identify the sources of tropospheric ozone and illustrate its formation. (6 m)
 Four (4) effects of haze gases. (4 m)

APR 2008
 Two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic source for each.

(3 m)
 Effects of haze components on materials. (6 m)

OCT 2008

 The atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of haze? (3 m)

 Two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic sources for each.

(2 m)
 Effects of haze on the environment and material. (5 m)

APR 2009

 Two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic sources for each.

(3 m)
 Explain the industries response and government response in coping with the
haze crisis? (6 m)

OCT 2009

 Define haze. List two major components of haze and state the anthropogenic
sources for each. (5 m)
 Effects of haze on vegetation and on building. (5 m)
APR 2010

 Identify the sources of tropospheric ozone and illustrate its formation, complete
with all the equations involved. (6 m)
 Two haze components and describe the effects of these haze gases on
materials, building and vegetation (if applicable). (4 m)

Q5s
NOV 2005

 Explain how the energy conservation efforts contributed to indoor air pollution.

(4 m)
  Three major sources of indoor air pollution. Identify the pollutants emitted from
these sources, and describe the strategies to control these air pollutants. (6 m)

APR 2006

 The causes of indoor air pollution?

(4 m)
 Four strategies that could be taken to recover good indoor air quality either at
home or workplace.
(6 m)

OCT 2006

 Why is indoor air quality important?

(2 m)
 Four indoor air pollutant sources that is responsible for the indoor air quality
problem. Suggest how the indoor air quality is affected by these pollutant sources
and identify the four indoor air pollutants involved.
(8 m)

APR 2007

 What induces (causes) indoor air pollution?

(4 m)
 The major sources of indoor air pollutant exposures to an individual? Identify the
pollutants emitted from these sources. (6 m)

OCT 2007
QUESTION 7
a) Indicate four (4) factors that can induce indoor air pollution. (4 m)
b) Recommend six (6) control strategies that could be taken to recover good indoor air
quality at home and workplace. (6 m)

APR 2008
QUESTION 7
a) State four factors that affect the presence and concentration of indoor air
contaminants. (4 m)
b) Identify four indoor air pollutants and its sources. (6 m)

OCT 2008

 Why is indoor air quality important? (2 m)

 Name four indoor air pollutant sources that are responsible for the indoor air
quality problem. Suggest how the indoor air quality is affected by these pollutant
sources and identify the four indoor air pollutants involved. (8 m)
APR 2009
QUESTION 7
a) State four factors that affect the presence and concentration of indoor air
contaminants.
(4 marks)
b) Identify four indoor air pollutants and their sources.
(6 marks)
OCT 2009

 Explain briefly how the energy conservation efforts contribute to indoor air
pollution. (4 m)
 Name three major sources of indoor air pollution. Identify the pollutants emitted
from these sources, and describe the strategies to control these air pollutants. (6
m)

APR 2010

 State four principal factors that affect the presence and concentration of indoor
air contaminants. (4 m)
 Name four indoor air pollutants that are responsible for the indoor air quality
problem. Propose one control strategy for each pollutant to recover good indoor
air quality either at home or at workplace. (6 m)

Q6s
NOV 2005

 Identify the anthropogenic sources and the four components of acid rain. Explain
with equations, how these components are formed. (10 m)

APR 2006

 Name the two principal (main) primary air pollutants that produce acid rain and
identify its anthropogenic sources. (2 marks)
 Describe strategies by which emission of these primary air pollutants can be
reduced. (3 marks)
 What are the impacts of acid deposition to soil system? (5 marks)
OCT 2006

 State the two main components of acid rain. Explain and show the chemical
equations for its formation. (4 marks)
 Discuss the impacts of acid deposition to soil system. (6 marks)

APR 2007
State the two main components of acid rain. Explain and show the chemical equations
for its formation. (4 marks)
Is acid deposition occurring to the same extent across Malaysia? Justify. (6 marks)

OCT 2007
QUESTION 5
a) If rain is naturally acidic, why does it matter if pollution makes it more acidic?
(5 marks)
b) Predict four (4) impacts of acid deposition to soil system.
(4 marks)
APR 2008
QUESTION 5
Acid rain is classified as a secondary pollutant. Rationalise this classification and
complete
your answer with the chemical equations involved.
(10 marks)
OCT 2008

 State the two main components of acid rain. Explain and show the chemical
equations for its formation. (4 marks)
 Discuss the impacts of acid deposition to soil system. (6 marks)

APR 2009
QUESTION 5
Acid rain is classified as a secondary pollutant. Rationalise this classification and
complete
your answer with the chemical equations involved.
(10 marks)
OCT 2009

 Name the two principal (main) primary air pollutants that produce acid rain and
identify their anthropogenic sources. (2 marks)
 Describe strategies by which emission of these primary air pollutants can be
reduced. (4 marks)
 What are the impacts of acid deposition to soil system? (4 marks)

APR 2010

 List the four components of acid rain. Describe the processes involved in the
formation of acid rain. Complete your answer with the appropriate chemical
equations. (10 marks)
Q7s
NOV 2005

 Methane is one of the greenhouse gases. How is methane formed in the

atmosphere? (2 marks)
 What are the effects of the presence of these greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere? (4 marks)
 Besides adapting to the changes in climate, give other examples of the
approaches that can be taken in responds to the threat of climate change. (4
marks)

APR 2006

 Explain the mechanism of the greenhouse effect. (4 marks)

 Is water vapour a greenhouse gas? Explain.(4 marks)
 List two other greenhouse gases and identify its anthropogenic sources. (2
marks)

OCT 2006

 Compare and contrast the greenhouse factor of three different greenhouse gases
in relation to their potential to cause global warming. (6 marks)
 "Most likely adjustment to potential global warming is to do little or nothing and
learn to live with change". Criticize or defend the statement. (4 marks)

APR 2007

 Discuss four strategies that an individual or a group can take in responds to the
threat of climate change. (6 marks)
 Predict the effect of rising sea levels. (4 marks)

OCT 2007
QUESTION 6
a) What is the greenhouse effect?
(3 marks)
b) Discuss the effects of global warming on rainfall or weather patterns.
(7 marks)
APR 2008
QUESTION 6
Illustrate the environmental consequences of climate change.
(10 marks)
OCT 2008

 Compare and contrast the greenhouse factor of three different greenhouse gases
in relation to their potential to cause global warming. (6 marks)
  "Most likely adjustment to potential global warming is to do little or nothing and
learn to live with change". Criticize or defend the statement. (4 marks)

APR 2009
QUESTION 6
Illustrate the environmental consequences of climate change.
(10 marks)
OCT 2009

 Methane is one of the greenhouse gases. How is methane formed in the

atmosphere? (2 marks)
 What are the effects of the presence of these greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere? (4 marks)
 Besides adapting to the changes in climate, give other examples of the
approaches that can be taken in responds to the threat of climate change. (4
marks)

APR 2010

 Is water vapour a greenhouse gas (GHG)? Explain. (4 marks)

 Define the term "greenhouse factor". Comment on the greenhouse factor of
threedifferent GHGs in relation to their potential to cause global warming. (6
marks)

Q8s
NOV 2005

 Dioxins are highly toxic organic compounds and are also known as persistent
organic pollutants (POPs). Explain why. (2 marks)
 Write an essay on the behaviour of dioxin in soil and water. (8 marks)

APR 2006
State four characteristics of PCBs. Write an essay on the environmental concerns of
PCBs
release to the environment based on these characteristics.
(10 marks)
OCT 2006
Identify three sources of contamination of dioxin in the environment. Describe the
behavior
of dioxins in soil and in water bodies.
(10 marks)
APR 2007
Summarize the environmental pathways of polychlorinated biphenyls. (10 marks)
OCT 2007
Illustrate the environmental pathways of polychlorinated biphenyls.
(10 marks)
APR 2008
a) Define "PAHs" and give two examples of PAHs.
(3 marks)
b) Discuss the environmental fate of PAHs in the environment.
(6 marks)
OCT 2008
Identify three sources of contamination of dioxin in the environment. Describe the
behavior
of dioxins in soil and in water bodies.
(10 marks)
APR 2009
a) Define "PAHs" and give two examples of PAHs.
(3 marks)
b) Discuss the environmental fate of PAHs in the environment.
(6 marks)
OCT 2009
Identify three sources of contamination of dioxin in the environment. Describe the
behavior
of dioxins in soil and in water bodies.
(10 marks)
APR 2010
a) Explain two routes of distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the
environment.
(2 marks)
b) Summarize the environmental fate of PAHs in the environment.
(7 marks)

Q9s
NOV 2005

 State four anthropogenic sources of cadmium in the environment. (4 marks)

 Describe the environmental fate of cadmium in soil and water. (6 marks)

APR 2006

 Explain why aquatic system has more mercury than soil or air. (4 marks)
 Mercury releases to the environment can be intentional or unintentional. Explain
this statement, and give appropriate examples. (6 marks)

OCT 2006
a) List two occupational sources and two environmental sources of cadmium to
humans.
(2 marks)
b) Summarize the environmental fate of cadmium in the three media of the environment.
(8 marks)
APR 2007
a) List two occupational sources and two environmental sources of lead to humans.
(2 marks)
b) Compare the environmental fate of lead in the three media of the environment.
(8 marks)
OCT 2007
a) Classify cadmium in soil, at three (3) separate areas with regards to their relative
effects
on the environment and human health.
(6 marks)
b) State two (2) routes of entry of cadmium to human.
(4 marks)
APR 2008
a) Mercury releases to the environment can be unintentional. Explain and give
appropriate
examples.
(3 marks)
b) State the three forms of mercury and describe the mechanism of mercury toxicity
which
is common to all three forms.
(4 marks)
OCT 2008
a) List two occupational sources and two environmental sources of lead to humans.
(2 marks)
b) Summarize the environmental fate of lead in the three media of the environment.
(8 marks)
APR 2009
a) Mercury releases to the environment can be unintentional. Explain and give
appropriate
examples.
(3 marks)
b) State the three forms of mercury and describe the mechanism of mercury toxicity
which
is common to all three forms.
(4 marks)
OCT 2009
a) List two occupational sources and two environmental sources of lead to humans.
(2 marks)
b) Summarize the environmental fate of lead in the three media of the environment.
(8 marks)
APR 2010
Write an essay on the environmental pathways and fate of mercury in the three media
of the
environment.
(10 marks)

Q10s
NOV 2005

 Explain the term "solid waste management". (6 marks)

 Eutrophication is one of the effects of aquatic pollution. Explain. (4 marks)

APR 2006
a) Define water pollution.
(2 marks)
b) What are the common pollutants associated with landfills?
(4 marks)
c) In developing countries a devastating cycle can cause soil degradation. Explain two
ways how these cycles could lead to environmental issues.
(4 marks)
OCT 2006
a) The most common non-point source pollutants are sediments and nutrients. Justify
the effects of these pollutants in aquatic systems. (4 marks)
b) Illustrate the general waste management hierarchy which can be carried out in a
community. (6 marks)

APR 2007
a) Outline and explain the hierarchy of waste minimisation. (6 marks)
b) Suggest the operations that can be referred to "waste recovery". (4 marks)

OCT 2007
a) Explain three (3) objectives of waste minimization. (6 marks)
b) "All or most environmental problems can be solved by technology" Criticize this
statement. (4 marks)

QUESTION 11
a) Differentiate between point source and non-point source pollution of water resources.
(4 marks)
b) List four (4) common non-point source pollutants.
(3 marks)

APR 2008
a) Define the term "waste prevention". (3 marks)
b) The USEPA has a hierarchy of options in managing solid waste. Explain. (6 marks)

QUESTION 11
a) Soil pollution can be of two types; dispersed and concentrated. Differentiate between
these two types and give examples.
(4 marks)
b) Criticise or defend this statement. "Dilution is the solution to pollution"
(4 marks)

OCT 2008
a) Explain the term "solid waste management". (6 marks)
b) Eutrophication is one of the effects of aquatic pollution. Explain. (4 marks)

APR 2009
a) Define the term "waste prevention". (3 marks)
b) The USEPA has a hierarchy of options in managing solid waste. Explain. (6 marks)
Q11
a) Differentiate between point source and non-point source pollution of water resources.
(4 marks)
b) Criticize or defend this statement. "Dilution is the solution to pollution".
(4 marks)

OCT 2009
a) In developing countries a devastating cycle can cause soil degradation. Explain two
ways how these cycles could lead to environmental issues. (4 marks)
b) Outline and explain the hierarchy of waste minimisation. (4 marks)
c) What are the common pollutants associated with landfills? (2 marks)

APR 2010
a) Define Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM). (4 marks)
b) List four major environmental factors affecting the rate and extent of the biochemical
decomposition in the landfill. (4 marks)
c) Suggest two ways to conserve polluted soil. (2 marks)

Q11s
NOV 2005
APR 2006
OCT 2006
APR 2007
OCT 2007
APR 2008
OCT 2008
APR 2009
OCT 2009
APR 2010