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Materials a n d Structures 38 (March 2005) 249-256

Failure mechanism of masonry prism loaded in axial

compression: computational aspects

L. Berto 1, A. Saetta 2, R. Scotta 1 and R. Vitaliani 1

(1) Department of Construction and Transportation, University of Padova, Italy
(2) Department of Architectural Construction, IUAV - Venice, Italy

Received." 22 April 2004; accepted." 26 June 2004

ABSTRACT
In this paper, the mechanical behaviour of masonry prism under typical laboratory testing conditions, such as uniaxial compression, was
simulated by means of finite element analysis by both two-dimensional and three dimensional models. The analyses were performed by assuming
damage constitutive law for the component materials (mortar and bricks). The effect of lateral stresses arising from the Poisson's effect is
emphasised and the main failure mechanism is identified, demonstrating the inability of usual plain-stress and plain-strain 2-D analysis to capture
the actual structural response in the most common practical cases. A modified 2-D model accounting for the out-of-plane interaction between
mortar and units is therefore proposed and comparative stress-strain diagrams are presented.
1359-5997 9 2004 RILEM. All rights reserved.

RI~SUMI~
Dans cet article, on analyse le comportement m~canique de briques sous chargement &pique de laboratoire, comme par exemple compression
uniaxiale, grdce (I la m(thode des Ol~mentsfinis avec des modkles 21) et 3D. L 'endommagement est pris en compte pour les dew: mat(riaux (briques et
mortier). On met en avant les effets de tension lat~rale provenant du coeflqcient de Poisson et on identifie les m(canismes principaux de rupture,
d~montrant l 'inccqJacit(des rnodkles 2D de tension plane de reproduire le comportement du mate'riau. On propose donc an modkle modifi~ 21:)qui prend
en eompte les interactions hors du plan entre le mortier et une brique, et on prOsente une comparaison tension-d~formation entre les deux modkles.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N the bricks. As a consequence, in such a mode of failure the

The behaviour of masonry subjected to compression in the
direction normal to the bed joints has widely been studied and
many investigations, based on experimental as well as
numerical approaches, (e.g. [1-5]) have been carried out.
The failure of masonry in compression depends basically
on the interaction of unit and mortar joint as the result of their
different deformation characteristics. In particular, the
difference of the elastic properties of the component materials
strongly influences the failure mode which can cause either
tension cracks parallel to the direction of loading or a kind of
shear failure along some lines of weakness [6]. The latter
occurs in some cases when the mortar mechanical
characteristics are similar, or even greater than, the unit ones
(i.e. certain types of concrete brickwork), while the first mode
of failure, i.e. the usual tensile splitting failure, always occurs
when the units, which are stiffer than mortar, restrain the
lateral defornaation of the mortar leading to a state of triaxial
compression in the mortar and compression/biaxial tension in
compressive strength of the masonry may greatly exceed the
cube crushing strength of the mortar, while it remains lower
than the compressive strength of the unit.
Some interesting experimental tests about the effect of the
properties of bed materials have been conducted e.g. by the
Structural Clay Products Research Foundation in the United
States [7], by Morsy [8], and by Binda et al. [3].
The other basic factor affecting the masonry compressive
strength (and the correspondent failure mode) is the transverse
tensile strength of the units. It is influenced by the clay quality,
the fLring temperature, the porosity, etc, Schubert in [9] has
evidenced some other factors which may be fundamental in
characterizing the tensile strength of the unit (e.g. the inner
stresses caused by firing and cooling, as well as cracks due to
draining and firing for clay bricks; the matrix strength -
binding agents, finest material, water - as well as the bonding
with the aggregates for calcium silicate and concrete units; the
percentage and pattern of perforation in case of perforated
units). All these parameters together with the texture, and the

1359-5997 9 2004 RILEM. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1617/14096
250 L. Berto et al. / Materials' and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256

geometrical characteristics of masonry panel influence its

Cry
compressive behaviour, so that various experimental results
have been carried out during the years.
Anyway, the response of masonry under ulaiaxial
compression is the object of a long-going debate among
researches and is out of the aims of this study. A discussion
can be found in [6, 9, 10].
The goal of the present paper is to investigate whether the
proposed numerical analyses can reproduce the actual response
of masonry under compression. Moreover, the effect of the
presence of out-of-plane stresses oz is carefully analysed, by
considering the usual case with mortar weaker than units and its ~y
complementary case, although this one rarely occurs. Therefore
finite element analyses were performed to characterize the Fig. 1 - Brick-mortar prism subjected to compression orthogonal
mechanical and structural behaviour of a masonry prism in to the bed joints.
compression, with particular attention to the lateral stress
effects. The study has been carried out by assuming a non linear component materials and a uniform stress state holding in
behaviour for both the mortar and bricks. the specimen.
It is worth nothing that the importance of the out-of-plane With such hypotheses the lateral strains in the bricks and
stresses in the vertical uniaxial compression of masonry and in the mortar joints in the x and z directions can be easily
the benefit derived from numerical methods able to capture derived:
them have been underlined by Pegon and Anthoine in [11],
b_ 1 b
who have preferred the generalized plane stress analysis
instead of the plane stress, and by Lourengo [12].
Within the isotropic damage approach, firstly a fully 3D b 1 b
analysis is carried out in order to capture the real behaviour of (1)
the sample; then a usual 2D stress plane analysis is considered.
Finally the same 2D analysis is enhanced by implementing in gxm = F o1mr n[-E • _ v r n ( ~ y + O . 2 ) l
the finite element code the formulae which provide the lateral
stresses ~z in mortar and brick. The obtained results are then s = FOmEm
1 [ z -vm(Oy+Om)l
compared.
These analyses have been performed for two cases where Eb and ETM are the Young's moduli of brick and
characterised by a different ratio between the elastic properties mortar respectively, and v b and v m the corresponding
of the masonry components. The comparison of the obtained Poisson's ratios.
results shows that only a numerical analysis which takes into As the lateral strains in the bricks and mortar at their
account the presence of stresses crz is able to reproduce the real interface are the same, we have:
compressive strength and failure mode of masonry in
whichever situation, while the usual 2D plane stress analysis b m and b m
ex = gx ~z = ez (2)
may significantly underestimate the peak strength and
incorrectly predict the failure mode in the more common Besides, for the equilibrium, the total lateral force in the
situations in which the mortar is weaker than the units. mortar must be equal to the ones in the bricks; hence, by
Obviously, the 2D plane strain analysis approach is not assuming that each of the component materials is subjected
suitable for the analysis of masonry, since it leads to to a uniform stress state, it follows:
overestimate the compressive stresses % in both the mortar m b
and bricks. Finally, it is worth underlining that the proposed % = - ~ ~x (3)
analyses deal with the mechanical behaviour of brickwork type m b
(5"z = -Or (5"z
masonry, characterized by a ratio of joint thickness to unit
height ranging from 0.15-0.2. where c~ is the ratio of the height of the unit and the
thickness of the mortar joints.
The substitution of the formulae(l) together with (3) in
2. COMPRESSION BEHAVIOUR BASED Equations (2), with the introduction of the dimensionless
ON ELASTIC ANALYSIS parameter t3 = Eb/E ra, gives:

b _ b O'Y( -13Vm + v b )
A simple and very intuitive way to estimate the lateral
(5"x -- r =
stresses induced by a vertical compression load in a 1 + a[~ --Vb -- al~V m (4)
masonry prism can be derived from the classical continuum
conditions (e.g. [6, 13]). m _ m =

Let us consider a brick-mortar prism subjected to an ~x -- ~ z

1 + otl3 --V b -- U,~V m
axial compressive test along y direction (Fig. 1) by
assuming a linear elastic isotropic hehaviour for the that provide the relationships between the lateral stresses in the
 L. Berto et al. / Materials and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256
b
~y
Cyb
b
(Yx z well as from homogeneization techniques or by means of
b
b ~x
CYz
b
Gy
in
O'y in
in (3"z
(Yx In
m O"x
CYz
in
(Yy
Fig. 2 - State of stress in the case in which the mortar is weaker
than the units.
component materials and the vertical compressive stress Cry.
In the usual cases characterised by mortar weaker than
units, from the formulae (4) we can obtain %b = %b >0 and
%m = crm<0 , that lead to a triaxial compression state in the
mortar and compression/biaxial tension state in the bricks, as
shown in Fig. 2. As a consequence the failure occurs by
splitting in the units with the usual development of tension
cracks parallel to the axis of loading.
It is worth noting that a compressive vertical load
induces lateral stresses crx (in the plane of masonry) and Crz
(out of plane of masonry) that are equal to each other.
Hence both of them have to be taken into account to
properly simulate the behaviour of the material.
3. NUMERICAL M O D E L L I N G OF
MASONRY
Depending on the level of accuracy and the
computational effort required, the numerical analysis of
masonry can be performed by following two different
approaches: the micro and the macro-modelling.
Micro-modelling is probably the best tool available to
analyse and understand the real behaviour of masonry,
particularly concerning its local response. Within such an
approach is possible to characterise separately mortar,
blocks and their interfaces, adopting suitable constitutive
laws for each component, which take into account their
different mechanical behaviour ([ 14-19]).
On the other side, when large real structures have to be
studied in order to capture their global response, the macro-
modelling is often the only effective option. Within such an
approach, masonry is regarded as an equivalent material,
where mortar and blocks are melted together, and appropriate
relations are established between averaged masonry strains and
averaged masonry stresses. A number of such models have
been developed (e.g. [20-23]), the most complete reproduce
the masonry as a macroscopically orthotropic material
characterised by a non linear behaviour for each materials axis.
Some of these ([24-27]) have been developed in the
framework of damage mechanics, other ones (e.g. [12, 28]) are
based on the plasticity theory. Generally these models consider
251
the masonry structures as being in a state of plane stress, which
is a typical condition for panels and shear walls.
The properties of masonry to be introduced in the macro-
models may be derived from specific experimental tests as
micro-modeling analyses. In the two last cases, the evaluation
of masonry properties should be performed by considering the
importance of the 3D effect for masonry subjected to uniaxial
compression, even if full three- dimensional analyses can not
be afforded because too expensive in computing terms. In the
case of homogeneization approach, such a concept is stressed
also by Pegon and Anthoine in [11] and Lourengo in [12].
In the following the micro-modelling technique is adopted
to analyse the response of masonry under compression.
Bricks and mortar are represented by different elements
whose non linear behaviour is described by means of an
isotropic damage model. To this aim a full 3D analysis is
carried out so that the effect of the out of plane stresses can
be captured; then, an enhanced 2D stress plane analysis is
proposed, which includes the 3D effect without turning to a
more expensive three dimensional analysis.
4. ISOTROPIC D A M A G E MODEL
In order to investigate the compressive response of
masonry the non linear behaviour of the component
materials (mortar and bricks) has been simulated by means
of a phenomenological isotropic damage model based on
the hypothesis of"strain equivalence"([29-31]).
This model is able to describe the different behaviour of the
material under tensile and compressive loading by introducing
two internal independent damage variables d+ and d-(which
vary between 0 and 1). According to this formulation, the
effective stress tensor is split into two components N+ and
N- related to its tensile and compressive components:
3
i=1
3 (5)
~- ---- ( - - ~ ) : Z (--~i)Pi | P i = cr -O'+
i=1
where Pi ([[Pill = 1) is the unit vector for the direction of the im
principal stress, and symbol /. ./. is the MacAuley operator,
which returns the value of the enclosed expression if positive,
a zero value if negative.
Moreover two equivalent effective stresses are introduced,
one in tension:
!
z = X/~+ : ~+ (6)
and one in compression:
(7)
where ~o-ct and Z-oct are respectively the octhaedreal normal
stress and the octhaedreal shear stress obtained fi'om N - , and
252 L. Berto et al. / M a t e r i a l s and Structures 38 (2005) 2 4 9 - 2 5 6

K is a material property which is related to the strength depicted in Fig. 5.

increase observed in the biaxial and triaxial compression state.
This set of equations gives a sort of Drucker -Prager failure
criterion in the triaxial compression field with a cap - closure
in the tensile field. The intersection o f the damage surface with
the ~3 = 0 plane is depicted in Fig. 3.
The assumed constitutive law can be written in the form:
The evolution laws o f the damage variables d + and d are
expressed respectively as function of ~+ and ~- :
+ mortar 25 % higher than the units ones, and the Poisson's
d + = l-r~ -e ~" ~" tO))
u (9)
rE l x
d- = 1- ~--x--.,I-B-,-B-.e -
where A + is dependent on some characteristics of the material
and of the adopted mesh, A and B are material parameters
which describe the compressive constitutive law.
Fig. 4 shows the constitutive curves ~ - e for both cases of
uniaxial tension and compression.
All the details about the formulation o f this model and the
strategy adopted to control the mesh-dependency are described
in [31-33].
The compressive test is simulated by imposing a history
o f monotonically increasing vertical displacements on the
top face, while the nodes on the bottom face are restrained
in the direction o f the load.
In the following two different cases will be studied
characterised respectively by mortar weaker or stronger than
the units. The first case (i.e. mortar weaker than bricks) is the
most common in classical brickwork; it will be analysed by
using the previously described damage model and by
assuming for the constituent materials the properties
summarised in Table 1. The second analysis is performed by
considering the strength and the Young's modulus E m o f the
moduli v m = v b =0.1.
5.1 F i r s t case : m o r t a r w e a k e r t h a n u n i t s
5.1.1 319 analysis
In order to accurately simulate the real response o f the
specimen a three-dimensional numerical analysis has been
115

5. CASE STUDY: MASONRY PRISM

SUBJECTED TO UNIAXIAL
COMPRESSION LOAD

We are focusing on the 115 m m thick masonry pr~fn

'I
1
Fig. 5 - Case study: masonry prism.
151
Table 1 - Material parameters of the tested specimen
mortar brick
Young's modulus (MPa) E = 6000 E = 15000

Poisson's ratio v =0.30 v = 0.10

Uniaxial linear-elastic limit fD =3.5 f ~ =14.9

Fig. 3 - Initial damage surface adopted in the model. in compression (MPa)
Uniaxial compressive strength ~'lV =5 fl~) = 14.9
(MPa)
Strain
Uniaxial tensile strength (MPa) Jo+ =1.3 J'0+ = 1.4

Fracture energy (N/mm) Gf=0.06 G.f= 0.08

Compression parameter A A- =1 A- = 0.9

Compression parameter B B- =1.1 B_ = 1.6

Fig. 4 - Constitutive law adopted in the model. Rate fzD /flD R0 = 1.25 R0 = 1.1
 L. Berto et al. / Materials and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256
Fig. 6 - 3D finite element mesh.
Fig. 7 - First case. 3D analysis - Contours of the damage variables at
failure: (a) tensile damage d+; (b) compressive damage d.
performed.
The modelling of the sample is carried out with a structured
mesh made up of with 3400 8-noded brick element. The
adopted finite element mesh is depicted in Fig. 6.
The damage contours at failure are shown in Fig. 7. As
expected, although the mortar joints are rather damaged in
compression, the failure is governed by the tensile damage
in the central brick, while the concurrent lower compressive
damage is due to the tensile-compressive behaviour of the
brick. Hence the resulting failure mode is tensile splitting
on the vertical plane in the middle of the central brick,
which is the usual mode for the case characterised by
mortar weaker than units.
5.1.2 2D analysis -plane stress approach
The same analysis has been repeated by following a 2D
approach. In particular, as usual in the numerical modelling
of masonry structures, initially a plane stress analysis has
been performed.
The mesh adopted for the bi-dimensional analysis is
depicted in Fig. 8. It consists of 340 rectangular four noded
elements.
The obtained results are shown in Fig. 9, in terms of
damage contours at failure. It is evident that the failure is
connected with the compression damage of the bed joints,
while the tensile damage is almost negligible and localised
in some edge zones.
It is worth noting that the plane stress analysis, due to its
own characteristics, may not be able to capture the real
behaviour of the masonry in compression, because it does not
253
Fig. 8 - Bi-dimensional analysis. Finite element mesh.
Fig. 9 - First case. Plane stress analysis - Contours of the damage
variables at failure: (a) tensile damage d§ (b) compressivedamage d-.
take into account the occurrence of the out of plane stresses Cyz.
As a consequence, this technique underestimates the real
compressive strength of the mortar (which is, in this case,
subjected to a triaxial compressive state of stress) and delays
the tensile splitting failure of the bricks.
5.1.3 21) analysis- enhanced plane stress approach
On the basis of the previous considerations a new 2D
analysis has been carried out by implementing in the numerical
code the formulae (4) in order to consider the out of plane
stresses ~z. In such a way we have developed a method, which
could be called "enhanced plane stress", able to macro-
scopically reproduce in the 2D framework the triaxial effect.
The damage contours obtained by this third numerical
analysis are given in Fig. 10. It is evident the similarity
between these results and the ones obtained with the "3D
analysis".
The tensile damage is concentrated in the middle of the
central brick, which fails when its tensile strength is
exhausted, in a completely different way with respect to the
usual 2D analysis.
5.1.4 Results and discussion
A comparison between the results of the three numerical
tests is given in Fig. 11 in terms of stress-strain curves and
the following remarks can be made.
Firstly, as expected (see section 2), the compressive
strength of the sample, which is carried out by the 3D analysis,
is nearly 8.5 N/mm 2, which is lower than the compressive
254 L. Berto et al. /Materials and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256
Fig. 10 - First case. Enhanced plane stress - Contours of the
damage variables at failure: (a) tensile damage d+; (b) compressive
damage d-.
Fig. l 1 - First case. Curve r comparison between the
numerical results.
strength of the bricks (14.9N/mm2), but higher than the
uniaxial compressive strength of the mortar (5 N/mmZ).
Moreover, we can observe that, in spite of its simplified
formulation, the enhanced plane stress analysis is able to
properly capture the compressive masonry behaviour both in
terms of failure mode (as it is proved by the damage contours)
and of peak strength (as proved by the stress-strain diagram).
Finally, we can remark that the application of the usual
"plane stress analysis" in the simulation of the compressive
response of the masonry may lead to completely incorrect
results. In particular, in this first case such a kind of
analysis not only has underestimated the real compressive
strength of the sample (nearly one third lower) but has
predicted a failure mode substantially different from the
real one (failure due to compression of the bed joints
instead of tensile splitting of the central brick).
5.2 S e c o n d case : m o r t a r stronger than units
To complete this study the three types of numerical
analyses (i.e. 3D - 2D plane stress- 2D enhanced plane stress
analyses) have also been carried out for the case in which the
mortar is stronger than the units. This situation rarely occurs
in the common construction where masonry is usually
characterised by mortar properties lower or similar to those
of the units. For such a reason in this case we have assumed
the strength and Young's modulus of the 25% higher than the
bricks ones.
Fig. 12 - Second case. 3D analysis - Contours of the damage
variables before the failure: (a) tensile damage d+; (b) compressive
damage d-.
Fig. 13 - Second case. Enhanced plane stress analysis - Contours
of the damage variables before the failure: (a) tensile damage d+;
(b) compressive damage d-.
Contrary to the first case, in this situation the mortar,
because of its higher stiffness, tends to reduce the lateral
strains in the bricks, leading to a state of compression-biaxial
tension in the mortar mad of triaxial compression in the units.
According to such a stress state the numerical results before
the failure, which are given in terms of damage contours in
Figs. 12 and 13 respectively for the 3D and the 2D analysis,
show a significant tensile damage in the mortar joints.
The increasing of this damage in the joints is related to a
reduction of the stiffness characteristics of the mortar
resulting in a reduction of its restraining action. As a
consequence, the collapse is not directly connected with the
damage in the mortar, but, according to what is stated in [6],
a kind of shear failure occurs, as evidenced by the damage
contours in Figs. 14 and 15 and by the deformed mesh at
failure given in Figs. 16 and 17.
Such a behaviour can be ascribed to the phenomenon of
shear failure which can be found in multiaxial compression
test of brittle materials, e.g. [34].
It is worth noting that the presence of mortar with strength
greater than unit strength, has the effect of restraining lateral
deformation of the bricks and failure becomes similar of that
attainable in a compression test on a brittle material, e.g. [6].
Similarly Priestley [35] has found that, incorporation of
steel confining plates in the mortar beds dramatically changed
 L. Berto et al. /Materials and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256
Fig. 14 - Second case. 3D analysis - Contour of the damage
variables at failure: (a) tensile damage d+; (b) compressive
damage d-.
Fig. 15 - Second case. Enhanced plane stress analysis - Contours
of the damage variables at failure: (a) tensile damage d+;
(b) compressive damage d-.
Fig. 16 - Second case. 3D analysis - Deformed mesh at failure.
the physical appearance o f the failure mechanism: vertical
splitting of the blocks was virtually eliminated, with a shear-
compression failure occurring.
In this second case, due to its own peculiarity (i.e. mortar
stronger than units) and to the reduced difference existing
between the elastic properties o f the two component materials,
the occurrence of the out o f plane stresses ~z is not essential to
be considered, as it is proved by the good agreement between
the results o f the three numerical analyses given in Fig. 18 in
terms of ~-~ curves. Moreover this diagrams allow to note
255
Fig. 17 - Second case. Enhanced plane stress analysis -
Deformed mesh at failure.
Fig. 18 - Second case. Curve ~y-e: comparison between the
numerical results.
that, because of the triaxial compression state in the units, the
compressive strength o f the sample is nearly 16.3 N/ram 2,
which is higher than the tmiaxial compressive strength o f the
brick (14.9 N/ram2).
As in this case the results of the plane stress analysis are
substantially identical to the ones o f the "enhanced plane stress
analysis", for the sake o f brevity the damage contours related
to the first analysis have been omitted, and only the ones
obtained with "the enhanced model" and the "3D model" have
been shown.
The good agreement found between the numerical
results allow to conclude that in such a case the effect o f the
out-of- plane stresses is almost negligible, and for this
reason a simple 2D "plane stress analysis" is able to capture
the real behaviour o f masonry both in terms o f stress-strain
curves and o f failure mode.
6. CONCLUSION
In lmmerical applications it is commonly adopted a
description of masonry walls via a plane-stress model. In this
paper the capability o f such an approach to simulate the
masonry response in compression has been investigated. The
results emphasise the need to consider the presence o f the out o f
plane stresses in the usual case characterised by mortar weaker
than units. It has been shown that in such a case neglecting
these effects can lead to unacceptable prediction both in term of
256 L. Berto et al. / Materials and Structures 38 (2005) 249-256
peak strength and failure mode. In order to overcome this
problem, without giving up the effectiveness and the efficiency
of the bi-dimensional analysis, a modified 2-D model has been
introduced and validated with the results of a fully 3D analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support of M I U R PRIN 2003 is gratefully
acknowledged.
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