Air Combat Encylopedia

Air Combat Encylopedia
These articles are taken from SimHQ,

they are written by Andy Bush (unless
otherwise stated).
-1-
Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder, Flaps, and Trim...................................................3
Part One - The Rudder ...................................................................................................5
Secondary Flight Controls - Flaps ...............................................................................41
Secondary Flight Controls - Part Three: Trim .............................................................78
An Introduction to Simulation BFM..........................................................................120
An Introduction to Simulation BFM, Part Two .........................................................126
Combat Mission Planning Considerations, Part One - Initial Planning.....................134
Energy Management: Picking The Right Airplane For The Job ...............................140
Prop Pilots Always Get Their Man: Winning The Co-E Chase ................................159
It's All a Matter of Your Perspective - Part One........................................................168
It's All a Matter of Perspective - Part Two ................................................................175
It's All a Matter of Perspective - Part Three ..............................................................186
It's All a Matter of Perspective - Part Four ................................................................207
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part One............................................................................233
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Two ...........................................................................252
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Three .........................................................................278
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Four: 2v1 Techniques ...............................................325
Air To Air Gunnery - Theory and Application, Part One..........................................410
Air To Air Gunnery - Theory and Application, Part Two .........................................426
Air To Air Gunnery - Theory and Application, Part Three .......................................446
Air To Air Gunnery Revisited - Guns, Gunsights, and Convergence .......................499
Air To Ground Basics - Bombing..............................................................................522
Air To Ground Basics – Bombing 2 ..........................................................................543
Air To Ground Basics – Bombing 3 ..........................................................................566
Brevity Code ..............................................................................................................587
Tips for On-line Tactical Formation Flying...............................................................596
-2-
Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder,
Flaps, and Trim
by Andy Bush
Despite your best efforts, you have managed to trap a bandit at your six. He’s closing in
to guns range and you need to do something fast! With the bandit in hot pursuit, you pull
sharply up into the vertical. As your speed slows in the climb, you notice the stick getting
"heavy", so you add a little bit of nose up trim to help you hold your pitch attitude. A quick
check of your 6 o’clock snap view shows the bandit coming up after you. Not to worry!
You check your throttle at full power, punch the WEP (war emergency power) key and
unload your back pressure to keep your flight path straight up. You think you can
outzoom this guy!
Another look to your six and you see the bandit hose a futile burst your way as his nose
starts to fall away towards the horizon. That’s what you were waiting for! You are too
slow now to rely on backpressure and elevator to reverse your climb, so you neutralize
your elevator and ailerons and smoothly feed in full rudder. You hold the rudder in as
your nose slices sideways towards the horizon and correct with aileron for any tendency
to roll. Simultaneously, you follow with your snap views to keep the bandit in sight. Your
nose is now falling rapidly through the horizon and as it nears the vertical, you release
your rudder input and add opposite rudder as needed to stabilize your nose in the
ensuing dive. A quick roll aligns your lift vector with the bandit and now the chasee is the
chaser!
Quickly your speed builds. You don’t need WEP anymore, so you punch that key again.
Accelerating quickly, you raise your nose towards the bandit and start thinking gun kill.
As you try to stabilize the pipper near the bandit, you have to push harder and harder
forward on the stick. Of course, you remember! Pitch trim! Quickly you tap the nose down
key a few times to release the forward pressure you were holding.
Checking your range, you smoothly position the pipper on your aim point. Just before
pulling the trigger, a little voice makes its way into your consciousness..."rudder
trim...check the ball!". You take a quick glance at the turn and slip indicator and see the
ball slightly right. "Step on the ball!" the book said, so you add a little pressure to your
right rudder pedal. As you do, the ball moves left in the trace and you hold it there with
rudder. Your nose is steady and you’ve corrected for yaw. It’s time to spank that bandit
and head for home!
-3-
It used to be that flying such as this was only possible in real life, but, as the old song
said..."the times, they are a changin"!! It wasn’t too long ago that we only had the most
basic of controls in our flight sims...roll and pitch. But times and technology have
changed, and today we have a much more sophisticated control set up in our newer
sims. For purposes of this article, I’m going to classify aircraft flight controls into two
categories...primary and secondary. I’ll call the pitch and roll controls (elevator and
aileron) the primary controls. In the secondary category, I’m going to include the rudder,
flaps, and trim controls. Now, I realize that in real life, the rudder is considered a primary
flight control, but this isn’t real life! Rudder is a fairly recent addition to our sims and
requires extra equipment to effectively actuate it. For this reason, I’m going to classify it
along with two other additions to our simulation control set up...flaps and trim.
We’ll take a look at these three secondary controls in this article. I want to discuss three
areas for each. We’ll take a brief look at the real world theory and mechanization of each
control and then touch upon how each is actuated in the typical sim set up. The third part,
and the meat of the subject, will be a discussion of how you use the control in a typical
sim. With that in mind, let’s get going!
-4-
Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder, Flaps, and Trim
Back To Page 1
Part One - The Rudder

Background Concepts
Early aviation pioneers discovered that an airplane had three control axes...vertical,
lateral, and longitudinal. After a few bruising ground impacts, they also found that these
had to be balanced together in order to maintain any semblance of controlled flight.
-5-
For these early pilots, controlled flight meant maintaining a level altitude and successfully
turning to a planned heading. Maintaining an altitude was not a major problem but
heading control definitely was. "Controlled" flight meant coordinated flight, and the key to
coordinated aircraft control was the use of devices that "controlled" aircraft movement in
three different axes. They called the vertical axis "yaw", the longitudinal axis "roll", and
the lateral axis "pitch". The control devices for these axes were rudder (yaw), aileron
(roll), and elevator (pitch).
The focus of this section is on the aircraft rudder. How it is modeled in our sims is an
issue of directional control. We’re going to talk about directional control, and our attention
is going to be on four main problem areas that we have to contend with when flying our
missions. These areas are engine effects, crosswinds, directional stability, and adverse
yaw.
Let’s start with how every flight begins and ends...with the takeoff and landing. In our
newer sims, we find getting airborne and getting back on the ground to be every bit as
challenging as in real life. Our first two problem areas - engine effects and crosswinds -
present the greatest challenge to a successful start and finish of every flight.
Later, in the technique section, we’ll go into more detail on these effects and how we use
the rudder to deal with them.
Engine Effects
Engine effects are something that the newer prop sims have included to make our lives
miserable! I don’t want to make this discussion an aerodynamics lesson, and I’m no aero
engineer anyway! There are several engine/propeller effects that affect how we fly our
sims...I’ll just lump them all together for simplicity’s sake. Jet sims usually do not have
engine effects to deal with. However, in prop aircraft, especially small fighter sized
aircraft with powerful engines and large propellers, the rotational effect of the prop as
power is added and the flow of the propwash can introduce directional problems that
must be countered with rudder input to keep the aircraft "going straight". This directional
problem is seen as a strong tendency to veer sideways opposite the direction of the prop
rotation, and the rudder is used to correct this problem.
Crosswinds
How do crosswinds enter the equation? Simple...a crosswind wants to do the same thing
that engine effect does. It wants to land you in the weeds! The crosswind will make
runway alignment a real challenge in your takeoff as well as your final approach and
touchdown. The answer again is to use rudder to align your aircraft with the runway as
you takeoff or touch down.
Directional Stability
Another area in which rudder can play a role is that of flight path directional control. What
exactly is this? Simply speaking, directional stability is keeping your fuselage aligned with
your flight path. We don’t want any sideways flying! Sounds good, you say...but how do I
do that in the cockpit? What is my "directional stability" meter? And do I have such an
indicator in my sim?
-6-
We sure do! It’s commonly referred to as the "turn and slip" indicator, and is an
instrument that goes way back to the early days. For the purposes of this article, we’re
only interested in the "slip" part. This part of the instrument has a trace with a ball in it. It
looks somewhat like a carpenter’s level. Just as the ball in the carpenter’s level tells him
if the level is, in fact, level, the ball in the slip indicator tells the pilot if the aircraft fuselage
is aligned with the flight path. If the fuselage and flight path are aligned, the ball is in the
middle of the trace. If not, the ball will be to the right or left of the center position. We call
this out of center position "yaw". Why it got there and what we do about it is the heart of
directional stability. Fine, you say. Is this a big deal for me in my sim?
Maybe, maybe not! It all depends on how accurate your sim AI and flight model is. If the
sim is modeled to accurately portray the flight model, then you may well have to watch
your slip indicator to ensure that no yaw is present. This is particularly true of sims that
model WW2 aircraft.
-7-
As we saw earlier, flight is a balancing act that varies as an aircraft moves through the
air. For WW2 fighters, it was typical that their designers accounted for yaw stability at
what was expected to be "normal" (cruise) speeds. At speeds above and below this area,
then the aircraft would need a rudder input to maintain coordinated flight. For example, in
a Me-109 it was usual to apply a little right rudder in the climb and then, once the aircraft
reached cruise speed, the rudder was returned to the neutral position.
Aircraft rudders were designed in several ways to balance the aircraft in flight. Some,
such as the Hurricane, had their vertical stabilizer offset slightly to help in directional
control. Others had a small tab attached to the movable rudder that was bent in a given
direction until the aircraft flew "straight" at cruise speeds. This was done through trial and
error during the aircraft’s initial acceptance phase of testing. Still others used trim tabs to
keep the ball centered.
-8-
Today, things are much easier in most cases. The modern fighter has automatic devices
that help keep the "ball" centered. We call these "yaw stability augmenters". These tend
to make flying less complicated as the pilot does not have to constantly check his slip
indicator to check for directional instability. But the jet pilot is not totally off the hook.
Rudder is still important in some situations, and we’ll see these further on in this article.

Back To Page 2
Adverse yaw
In early aviation, pilots found that getting airborne was not a problem. Level flight was not
a problem. So what was the problem? Turning! Flying in a straight line was fairly simple,
but trying to turn these early planes was something totally different! Initial heading control
designs were fairly crude, and improper use of these claimed the lives of many a
fledgling aviator. One early method of turning was to change the aircraft heading by using
the rudder alone. The technique was similar to the way a boat is turned, and this method
became known as "boat turning" or "flat turning" since the airplane remained wings level
during the turn. Flat turning, however, was slow, created a lot of drag, and was a poor
solution to the problem of heading control. Another way was needed, and that way was to
use the wings to roll the aircraft into a bank. The result was a turn.
This raised the question of how to cause the aircraft to roll about the longitudinal axis.
One of the first ways of creating a bank was a concept known as "wing warping". The
Wright brothers, in fact, used wing warping on their first airplanes. The pilot’s controls
were used to pull cables that literally bent the outer portions of the wing up or down to
create a roll. By the advent of WW1, most aircraft had adopted the aileron as the means
of controlling a bank. Pilots found that a combination of bank angle and elevator
determined the quickness of their turns. They also found something else. If they rolled
into a bank quickly, the nose of their plane seemed to respond in a funny way. If they
rolled in one direction, the nose seemed to move the other way momentarily before
reversing its direction. They quickly learned that they could control this instability by using
a little rudder to accompany their aileron input. If the pilot added rudder in the same
direction as the aileron, the nose did not move at all, and the aircraft seemed to roll right
-9-
around its longitudinal axis. In fact, the rudder seemed to have a pronounced effect on
turn stability. The pilot was keenly aware that there was a fine line between using just the
right amount of rudder to begin a bank...and using too much or too little.
Clearly, the idea that if a little was good, a little more would be even better was not going
to be the case in performing a turn! Just the right amount was known as a "coordinated
turn". Too much rudder in the direction of bank was termed a "skid", and too little (or
rudder opposite the bank) was called a "slip". This is how it looked to them - Note that the
point of emphasis is on how the fuselage (longitudinal axis) is aligned with the flight path:
- 10 -
When asked what was happening to the nose when a bank was initiated, these pilots
determined that they needed to call this instability something...so they named the
sideways movement "yaw"...and since the movement was opposite the direction that they
intended, they named it "adverse yaw". Next question...what was causing this "adverse
yaw"? Those aileron things that the pilots were using to bank the aircraft! They were the
problem! Simply speaking, the aileron opposite the direction of bank was pulling the nose
"back" or opposite the roll. If the pilot added a little rudder during the roll, this "back"
motion or "yaw" was eliminated. And so it remains today. Our flight control systems are a
jillion times more sophisticated, but we still have to control adverse yaw in any airplane.
Sometimes the pilot does it, sometimes a computer does it, and other times the basic
aircraft design corrects the problem...but, regardless, adverse yaw has to be accounted
for.
- 11 -
Our simulations are no different. In some, the AI (artificial intelligence) handles the rudder
input when rolling and no action is needed from the pilot. In others, the pilot may have to
use traditional rudder skills to offset adverse yaw. And in other sims, neither case applies
since the sim programmers simply did not include adverse yaw in the flight model!
Rage’s Typhoon is a good example of the first, and Il-2 of the second. The third type
covers most of the older generation sims. Finally, you will probably find that adverse yaw
is not a big deal in your sim. No matter. Yaw control is what rudder use is all about, and a
good understanding of the subject will make your flying more immersive and,
consequently, more enjoyable. So there you have the background on the rudder. Use it
for directional control during takeoffs and landings, maintaining coordinated flight during
banking maneuvers, and keeping the fuselage aligned with the flight path in straight
flight.
Having said that, let’s move on to the actual rudder controls themselves.
Rudder Implementation In Flight Sims
- 12 -
There are four ways you may make rudder inputs in our sims...one good one, one so-so
one, and two not-so-good ones!
The best way to input rudder commands in a sim is to use a set of rudder pedals. Two of
the most common on the market are the Thrustmaster Elite pedals and the CH Products
Pro Pedals. SimPed also offers a high quality rudder pedal set.
The advantage of the pedal method is that the system is a "hands off" direct
simulation of the real world pilot action. The pedals are fairly easy to set up on your
computer. The range of motion of the pedals allows the pilot to easily vary the amount
of rudder input
Second on the list of rudder set ups is the stick-based rudder control. Various brands of
flight sticks have a grip that can be rotated or "twisted" either clockwise or counter-
clockwise. This twisting simulates the rudder pedal input. The typical stick grip does allow
the pilot to vary the amount of rudder input, but I have found the twist grip too easy to
inadvertently rotate in the "heat of battle" and thus make an input when none was needed
or wanted.
Next on the list is using the default keyboard keys to make rudder inputs. As a rule, I
have found this to be unsatisfactory in that the action requires the pilot to take his hand
off the stick or throttle at a time when that may be very impractical. In addition, the use of
the keys does not give the pilot much of a "feel" for what is a relatively delicate flight
control input. Rudder often requires a "fine touch", and it’s hard to achieve that
sometimes when using a keyboard.
Lastly, those of you with a programmable HOTAS may choose to map the rudder keys to
your throttle or stick. My feeling is that this is not any better than using the keyboard other
than it does save the pilot from having to move his hands off the controls. The replication
of using buttons for rudder input is a poor simulation of rudder feel.

Back To Page 3
Techniques For Using the Rudder
To begin with, we must stress that you do not need to use rudder if the sim does not
need it...or if the sim is not programmed to respond to rudder input in the manner that
you expect! This is critical. If your sim does not duplicate engine effects on takeoff, then
stay off the rudder and relax! If your sim does not recognize adverse yaw when banking,
then keep your feet "on the floor" when rolling into or out of turns. Since the rudder is
often used to correct problems, simply put..."if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it" is the word on
rudder use.
Next...and this is of utmost importance. For the purposes of this article, the rudder is a
secondary flight control for maintaining directional control and coordinated flight...it is not
a primary flight control. Too often, I have seen folks talk about using the rudder to fly the
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landing approach with as the primary directional control device. This is not good! Turn the
airplane with bank, then back pressure...not rudder!
Countering Engine Effects on Takeoff
With the advent of some recent prop sims, including Aces High and IL-2, we pilots have
found a whole new challenge to air combat flying. And what might that be? Why...just
getting off the ground successfully...to heck with the Red Baron! If I can just get this thing
into the air, I feel like half the battle is won!
The first time I tried to take off in Aces High was a humbling experience. In fact, so were
the second and third times as well! After that, I sat myself down and had a little heart to
heart...I mean, anyone should be able to takeoff! Right?!! Wrongo, moosebreath. Not in
these sims...unless the pilot is willing to apply a little forehead to his throttle and rudder
technique.
What was happening was that I was shooting the power to the plane and expecting that it
would accelerate nicely down the runway, leap into the air, and be gone. If only it were
that easy. Instead I got a wild ride off to the side that usually ended up in a wreck.
Well, I didn’t fall off the turnip truck yesterday, so I reloaded the sim and tried a less brute
force technique. This time I fed the power in slowly as I used rudder to keep the ball
centered in its trace. I also kept the bird on the ground a little longer and let the speed
build a bit before I tried to rotate. Then, when I did rotate to lift off, I did so smoothly and
gently with continued emphasis on the centered ball. Once in the air, I kept the climb
angle shallow and sucked up the gear. Some aircraft use flaps for takeoff, and I would
raise them once I had gained a good head of steam.
- 14 -
You may have had the same experience. If so, you may still be wondering what’s going
on here. Well, what’s going on is that the sim flight model is attempting to give us a feel
for real world engine effects, principally helical propwash and torque. These fancy terms
refer to bad things that happen when a prop aircraft accelerates down the runway and
tries to rotate. Without going into the gory details, let’s just say the engine propwash and
the torque effect of the rotating prop combine to produce a strong force that will take us
off into the boonies if we let it. Well...we’re not going to let it. Here’s how.
First, we’ll prep ourselves for what’s going to happen by noting the direction of prop
rotation...most fighters seem to have clockwise rotating props. The negative engine
effects will always be opposite the direction of prop rotation, and the required corrective
action will be in the direction of prop rotation. In the above figure, the clockwise rotating
prop produces a propwash that strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer/rudder and
pushes it to the right, causing the nose to yaw left. We will counter that yaw with opposite
rudder...rudder in the direction of prop rotation...in this case, right rudder.
- 15 -
Line up carefully on the runway. Make sure you have flaps out if needed. How do you
know this? Check your sim manual for the takeoff flap setting for your gross weight. If
your sim has a rudder trim feature, check to see if the manual recommends a rudder trim
setting for takeoff. Note your recommended takeoff power setting, either in RPM or
manifold pressure.
- 16 -
Now, begin the takeoff by smoothly advancing the throttle. No need to shove it
forward...most sims have plenty of runway to use. In a taildragger (conventional gear
aircraft), you should see a little of the runway to each side of the glare shield.
As you roll and increase your speed, try to keep the two canopy side views of the runway
equal. If one side starts to show more runway (may well be the right side due to engine
- 17 -
effect), then you are turning away from that direction. Correct this by smoothly adding
rudder pressure to return your nose to straight ahead. Crosscheck this visual reference
with your ball. Keep it centered. Crosscheck your heading indicator when you begin your
roll. Maintain this heading with rudder during the roll. Do not use aileron to control
heading while still on the ground!
As you gain speed in the takeoff roll, many aircraft will raise their tails by themselves...do
not be in a hurry to push the stick forward to raise the nose. If the sim is programmed
correctly, this will result in more nose swing. Once the tail is up, let the aircraft continue to
accelerate. Under no circumstances should you attempt to force the aircraft into the
air...the usual result is a quick roll into the dirt. Get some speed going (while each aircraft
is different, try to have at least 100mph/160kph minimum) and then gently increase your
backstick pressure.
Be prepared for a tendency to roll as you lift off. This is where engine torque will rear its
ugly head. A clockwise rotating prop will result in a left roll, so be ready to counter this
with right aileron to hold your wings level.
These adverse engine effects are most pronounced when you are slow, so maintain a
shallow climb and accelerate to a minimum of 150mph/240kph as you raise your gear
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and flaps. Avoid sharp turns or rapid roll rates while you are slow. Here again are the
main points:
• Add power slowly and smoothly, particularly if flying a prop plane.

• As you add power, concentrate on your visual and instrument references. Use
rudder to keep the "ball" centered to keep going straight.
• Do not be in a hurry to lift off. In a tail dragger, let the tail come up on its own.
Rudder effectiveness and yaw control are directly related to airspeed. Get
sufficient speed before you attempt to break ground.
• When lifting off, rotate slowly and smoothly. Be ready to add extra rudder as
needed to keep your nose going straight. If you need aileron to help hold the
wings level, use it carefully...add aileron smoothly to avoid adverse yaw.
• Maintain a shallow climb angle until you have gained speed. Raise your gear but
leave the flaps out a little longer before you retract them. If you have more than
one level of flaps down, raise them in stages..."milk" the flaps up to further help
offset any tendency to stall or "mush".
Back To Page 4
Countering Crosswinds On Takeoff and Landing
Crosswind is something that we control directly when we configure our gameplay. It’s an
option. If we don’t want it, we don’t have to include it. But for advanced gameplay, we can
spice things up a bit by tossing in crosswind. So, if we check the crosswinds selection
box, what do we get?
We get a force that is going to try and blow us sideways off the runway centerline. If the
wind is coming at an angle that is not directly at 3 or 9 o’clock, then we’ll also have to
contend with a headwind or tailwind component. This headwind or tailwind component
will be most evident in the landing.
The Takeoff
We correct for crosswinds on takeoff with a combination of rudder and aileron. The
rudder is used to keep the nose pointed down the runway. Aileron is used to keep the
crosswind from raising the upwind wing. These are real world concepts so be aware that
they may or may not apply to your sim. For example, aileron input may result in a turn as
if you were turning a steering wheel. If so, the "aileron into the wind" technique will be
inappropriate!
Here’s the crosswind takeoff technique. Smoothly add power as you bring your heading
control crosscheck items into your scan...keep the "ball’ centered with rudder and look for
any visual indication that you are not going straight. If appropriate, add aileron into the
direction that the wind is coming from. If uncorrected, you can expect the crosswind to
- 19 -
drift you to the downwind side of the runway, cause your plane to "weathervane" into the
wind (you will see this as yaw), and possibly cause the upwind wing to rise.
As you gain speed, you may anticipate having to lessen the amount of rudder and aileron
correction that you initially put in. This is because your flight controls will gain
effectiveness as speed increases. Do not take all of the control input out, however until
you are airborne. Once in the air, you can smoothly return the aileron to neutral. You may
have to maintain your rudder input after takeoff or trim it out. Check the ball for this.
The Landing
The crosswind landing is more difficult than the crosswind takeoff. This is because of the
differences in maintaining a desired ground track while in the air versus while rolling
down the runway. The role that the rudder plays in this is important.
The first thing to remember is that the plane does not "know" there is a crosswind. And
the pilot only does when he notices that he is not maintaining the track across the ground
that is desired...in this case a track that is centered on the runway. The wind is
attempting to blow the plane off to the side. This is called drift. The pilot has to make a
control correction to offset this drift.
- 20 -
There are two ways of doing this. One is called the "wing low" method, and the other is
called the "crab". Only the wing low method involves the rudder. A brief mention of the
crabbing technique is in order. In a crab, the pilot turns into the wind until he establishes
a wings level heading that produces the desired ground track...in this case, a ground
track that is aligned with the runway centerline. Of course, the nose will not be pointed
down the runway in a crab as the next figure shows:
- 21 -
The other method of maintaining a ground track in a crosswind is the "wing low" method.
The wing low technique is a slip...a maneuver where the rudder and aileron are applied
opposite each other. The concept of the wing low method is this: the pilot rolls into a
shallow bank into the wind. This will produce a turn into the wind and a corresponding
change of heading. The pilot does not want a change in heading, so he applies opposite
rudder to yaw the nose back away from the wind. This yawing when done correctly stops
the turning tendency and allows the aircraft to fly straight. Sounds simple enough in
concept, but the maneuver is more complicated in execution.
- 22 -
The wing low technique is an example of "cross-controlling", a situation where the
normal application of controls are reversed for a specific reason. Cross-controlling is
a juggling act where the pilot has to determine how much bank will be needed based
upon the crosswind velocity and offset that with the right amount of rudder that will
be needed to keep his nose straight
- 23 -
The usual application of these two techniques is to use them in a "step one – step two"
combination. The crab is used to line up with the runway and to "kill the drift" (offset the
crosswind). The pilot slows to approach speed and configures for landing. Plan to fly
slightly faster than normal...5-10 knots/mph is usually sufficient. Descend until on the
proper glide path and then bank into the wind to stop any sideways drift. Now hold this
heading and fly down the glide path. Maintain this crab until you are ready to enter the
"flare" or roundout for landing.
Now things get dicey! You should be aligned with the runway centerline with your nose
pointed upwind. While some aircraft can land in a crab, most do not, and usually this is
because of the extra impact sideloads on the landing gear at touchdown (many gear
designs are not meant to absorb such off-center loads). So how do you correct for this?
- 24 -
The answer is that you must transition to a wing low attitude prior to touching down. This
means aligning the aircraft heading with the runway centerline. But wait! If you do, won’t
the crosswind blow you sideways? Not if you quickly get into your wing low attitude...and
position your controls properly! The trick is to go from the first to the second without
losing your centerline orientation.
One way to get a leg up on this is to fly your crab to the upwind side of the runway, not
the centerline. This technique gives you a little cushion for your transition to the wing low
attitude. Now, fly your crab right down to the runway. Don’t be in a rush to get into the
wing low attitude too soon!
As you approach the touchdown, smoothly rudder the nose away from the wind to align
your nose with the runway centerline. Simultaneously roll into a shallow bank into the
wind. The bank will kill the sideways drift while the rudder will maintain your ground track
down the runway. If you are drifting downwind, increase the bank and add a little rudder
to offset the bank increase. Conversely, if the bank is taking you towards the wind,
shallow out the bank slightly and take out a little rudder at the same time.
Plan to touchdown in this attitude. At touchdown, let the aircraft settle onto its gear by
releasing backpressure on your flightstick, but do not takeout the rudder or aileron!!
Maintain your cross-control input and track down the runway. You may neutralize the
rudder and aileron only when slowed to a taxi speed.
Here are the steps to a crosswind landing using a combination of crab and wing low
techniques:
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• Configure early and slow to final approach airspeed plus 5-10 knots/mph.
• Climb or descend until you are on the correct glide slope angle. Do this early as
well.
• Continue on the glide slope and bank gently into the wind, then return to wings
level. Check your runway ground track. Continue banking and returning to wings
level until you have attained a crab angle that will hold the runway centerline.
• Fly in the crab down the glide slope until you reach the flare altitude.
• Then, smoothly add opposite rudder to align your nose with the runway centerline
and bank into the wind. Vary your bank and rudder input to hold your centerline
track.
• Touchdown in the wing low attitude. Allow the plane to settle onto the gear as you
maintain your cross controls. Hold this until reaching taxi speed.
The point of emphasis here is the use of rudder to hold your runway alignment in both the
takeoff and landing. Crosswind landings are a challenge but are also great fun! If your
sim allows, crank the winds up and let ‘er rip!
Maintaining Directional Stability.
Finally, we need to touch upon directional stability, or to put it a different way,

making sure the pointy end stays pointing forward! This is an issue that will apply to
the newer sims, particularly the prop sims. What we are interested in is making sure
we are flying in coordinated flight and not in a skid or slip. How do we know this?
Check the "skid or slip-meter"...better known as the "ball"! If the ball is not centered,
you have two options. Either use a little rudder pressure to move ball into the
middle...or trim the ball until it is centered. We’ll leave the trim until Part Three of
this series, so what do we do with the rudder? "Step on the ball" is the time-tested
technique. If the ball is right of center, "step on the ball" by using a little right rudder
to move it back left. If the sim is modeled realistically, you may find yourself
checking the ball frequently and making corrections as
needed
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- 27 -
- 28 -
Why is directional stability important? Two reasons....drag and weapons delivery. When
you fly in a skid (rudder not centered when in wings level flight or pro-rudder applied
during a turn) or in a slip (opposite rudder applied during a turn), you create extra
drag...drag that can bleed speed and burn extra gas. Not good technique! Also, when the
ball is not centered, your weapons aiming symbol on your gunsight is lying to you. You
think you are pointed in one direction, while your actual weapons impact point is
elsewhere. This is true both A2A and A2G. As a rule, your weapons will impact opposite
your rudder error, so if you are yawed right and don’t notice it, your bomb or bullets will
hit left of where you aimed. Always! Keep the ball centered!
One last point. Why did I underline the word "during" in the paragraph above? Because
the rudder is used to roll into and out of a turn. Not during a turn! Do not use rudder in a
turn. In general, rudder will not improve turn performance...it will not make you turn faster
or tighter! Rudder is used to coordinate a turn, not make a turn! Jeepers! Did I say that
strongly enough!
Countering Adverse Yaw
If your memory is as short as mine, adverse yaw is the effect caused by aileron drag
when rolling into or out of a turn. The pilot sees adverse yaw as a swing of the nose
opposite the direction of roll. Adverse yaw is often accentuated by slow speeds, and is
similarly less pronounced at high speed.
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Pilot correction for adverse yaw is simple in concept but difficult in execution. A rudder
input in the direction of the roll that is made simultaneously with the aileron input is
usually all that is needed to eliminate adverse yaw. The difficulty lies in determining the
magnitude of the input. As a rule, more rudder is needed at slow speed than at high
speed.
Is the rudder correction for adverse yaw necessary? Yes and no. Let’s take the "no" first.
In our sims, adverse yaw effect is rarely modeled, and when it is, the effect is minor. In
fact, you are just as likely to over control by adding too much rudder as you are likely to
get it right...and the result of over correction is a slight skid...something which you will
probably be blissfully unaware of! Why? Because we lack any "seat of the pants" feel
when flying our sims. In the real world, particularly in WW2 era aircraft, misuse of rudder
produced lateral G loads that the pilot could readily feel.
OK. When, then should we consider using rudder to coordinate turns? Two instances
come to mind...and again are only applicable if the sim’s flight model is programmed to
duplicate a correct flight envelope. One applies to turning at high angles of attack in
modern, high performance, swept wing fighters. Adverse yaw in the F-4 in real life, for
example, required the pilot to use the rudder as the primary roll control when at high
angles of attack. These times not only included the obvious A2A situations, but also
included normal landing pattern maneuvers as well. BFM maneuvers such as high G rolls
are either performed using rudder alone or are flown with a combination of aileron and
heavy rudder to achieve high rates of roll. The rudder aerodynamic effect actually
accelerates the roll and allows a faster roll rate. One exception applies to modern
fighters, and that is the instance where the aircraft has a "fly by wire" (FBW) flight control
system such as the F-16. In these aircraft, the rudder input is handled by the computer,
and the pilot does not have to make an input under typical situations.
In the next figure, you will see an accurate portrayal of a Barrel Roll maneuver being
flown under G. The F-4 had significant adverse yaw problems when using ailerons at
high AOA. As a result, the rudder was used to roll the aircraft when at these AOA . Note
the right rudder being used to roll opposite the bandit flight path as the F-4 pilot
maneuvers into a missile firing position. Few, if any, of our sims model this type of rudder
response...yet it is typical of modern fighters.
The second instance in which you may expect to need rudder in countering adverse yaw
is when rolling at slow speeds. This may occur in slow speed BFM, or it may occur in the
traffic pattern. In either case, be prepared to add rudder if it appears that your aircraft is
initially slow to respond to the turn. In any sim, when rolling into or out of a bank, check
the ball! If the ball remains centered, the sim is ignoring or correcting for adverse yaw.
Don’t worry about it! But, if the ball is not centered, then "step on the ball"...apply rudder
in the direction of bank until the ball is centered.
Remember...rudder is only used to coordinate the turn, not to turn! This means use
rudder when changing your bank angle. Once your bank angle is set for the turn, you
may return the rudder to neutral in most cases. Engine effect may be a player in some
sims. Check the ball and step on it to fly coordinated!
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- 31 -
Specific Examples of Rudder Use
Using Rudder To Improve Lookout
Let’s finish this rudder discussion by describing several ways in which the rudder can be
used to our advantage in sim flying. The first is the use of rudder to improve our lookout
ability, particularly to our six o’clock. Not every sim aircraft has a F-16 like unimpeded
view to the rear. Some can be pretty blind in that area and checking for bandits at our
rear can be a challenge. Rudder can be a big help here. Just select your rear looking
view and then push the rudder in on the side that you are looking. This will "boot" the tail
sideways and give you a good look into an area that was previously blocked.
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The Hammerhead Maneuver.
A second specific use of rudder is in performing a maneuver known as a "hammerhead

turn". A hammerhead is a 180 degree reversal of course flown in a vertical climb. The
objective is to climb vertically until your speed slows below stall speed. Then, the rudder
is aggressively applied, usually with a corresponding application of power, to yaw the
aircraft over and down into a diving attitude. This maneuver is tricky and requires
immaculate timing but can be a big surprise when used to gain a role reversal against a
pursuing and unsuspecting bandit. Each sim and each aircraft will have its own unique
hammerhead applicability depending on the programmed flight model. You won’t be able
to perform this maneuver in every sim, and as a rule, the maneuver is flown more easily
in a prop aircraft where engine propwash can help provide the force needed to allow the
rudder to yaw the aircraft sufficiently to get it to "swap ends".
Let's put aside the question of whether or not the hammerhead is tactically sound and
just deal with the mechanics of how it is flown.
First, the usual statement that what applies to real life may or may not apply to a sim...it
all depends on how "realistically" the sim flight model is programmed.
Putting that aside also, now let's consider what is going on when we try to fly this
maneuver. The hammerhead is not your "normal" aerobatic maneuver in the sense that
you can just point the aircraft where you want it and expect everything to work out more
or less as expected. This is especially true of prop driven aircraft.
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In a prop aircraft, two forces are acting on the aircraft and must be accounted for. One is
engine gyroscopic precession. The second is the effect of the prop driven airflow
("propwash") on the aircraft itself. These two forces produce distinctly different results
and depend on which way the prop rotates. When you choose which fighter you want to
fly, make sure you note which way the prop rotates. Most US, Brit, and German engines
rotate clockwise.
Let's take propwash first. A clockwise rotating engine will produce a propwash that will try
to push (yaw) the nose LEFT. This is a main reason why we need right rudder when
taking off. It will be much easier to yaw the plane left than to the right for a clockwise
rotating engine.
Now, gyro precession. This effect produces a pitch movement when yaw is applied to the
aircraft. For a clockwise rotating engine, left yaw cause the nose to pitch UP...right yaw
causes the aircraft to pitch down.
- 34 -
One more thing happens in a hammerhead that is not usually seen in other
maneuvers...the wings produce different amounts of lift. In a hammerhead, one wing is
going "down", and the other is going "up". The "up" going wing produces more lift than
the other wing. This creates a tendency to roll and must be corrected for in the
hammerhead to keep the plane from rolling over on to its "back".
All right! Back to the maneuver! Tactically, I suggest that you not pull the power off when
starting the climb. The idea here is to gain or maintain vertical separation on the bandit
chasing you. Pulling the power off is contrary to maintaining this separation.
Next, you want to fly a vertical flight path. To do this, once you have the nose pointed
straight up, you are going to have to unload your G to zero...otherwise you will pitch over
on your back. Holding G in our sims is hard since we can't "feel" the seat pressures.
Sometimes an external or side snap view that allows you to see the horizon helps you
maintain your vertical attitude. Either that, or set the time at 12:00 noon and fly at the
sun!
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Then fly that attitude until below 100mph...that's just technique and will keep you from
beginning the maneuver too soon.
Now you are ready to begin the maneuver. The hammerhead is flown as a three part
maneuver. Step one, then step two, then step three. NOT a simultaneous maneuver!
Step one is to use rudder to yaw the aircraft in the desired direction. Which direction?
The one that your engine rotation propwash makes easiest...for most planes, LEFT! How
much rudder? All of it. How do you put the rudder in? Smoothly and quickly...BUT DO
NOT "KICK" THE RUDDER PEDAL!!! This is a common expression and is pure
BS...there is no maneuver flown where the pilot "kicks" anything! Push the rudder
completely forward to the stop aggressively. This should start the aircraft into a yawing
motion.
Step two is to use aileron to counter the tendency of the "up" wing to try to roll you over
on your back. How much aileron to use? As much as necessary. How should you put it
in? Smoothly and aggressively, but do not slam the stick sideways!
- 36 -
Step three is to use pitch (stick pressure) to offset gyroscopic precession. Which way do
you move the stick? Depends on engine rotation direction! Let's stick with our clockwise
rotating engine! Forward (nose down) for a left hammerhead...backstick (nose up) for a
right hammerhead.
1. OK. Here it is for a clockwise rotating engine and a left hammerhead:

2. Push and hold full left rudder.
3. Push and hold right aileron as needed to keep from rolling.
4. Then a little bit of forward stick as needed to prevent any pitching movement.
Hold these controls in until you approach about 45 degrees from straight down. Then
smoothly reverse the rudder completely...in a left hammerhead, you now want to go full
right rudder to stop the yaw as you reach a vertical attitude. Once the rudder is reversed,
then neutralize your pitch input as you also neutralize your aileron.
One last word on flying the hammerhead. The technique above is real world oriented.
Your sim may or may not fly real world. In the hammerhead, you may find that the aileron
and pitch steps are not needed. No problem. The rudder may be the only control you
need to fly this maneuver!
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Using Rudder To Adjust Weapon Aiming
A third specific application of rudder is its use in adjusting weapons aiming, in particular,
the gun. Two main points on this...one, while the concept is technically valid, its
execution requires considerable skill. Two, because of this, I strongly suggest that you do
your gunnery with your feet on the floor! It is possible to correct an A2G firing pass using
rudder. If I had to fire with a rudder correction in, I suppose I would rather than not fire at
all. In an A2A situation, the same would apply, but only from a very low angle off firing
position and from short range. Could you rudder the nose over to get the pipper right on
the desired aiming point? Yes, you could...but I suggest a better approach is to make a
good pass rather than learn how to correct a bad one!
But, despite all my statements to the contrary, you decide to press on and mash a little
rudder to improve your aim! Here’s what happens. The gunsight is "lying" to you. Your
rounds are not going to hit where the pipper is. Why not? Because your flight vector is
not aligned with the relative wind...this results in your bullets taking a displaced vector in-
between your flight path and the gun line. It looks like this:
- 38 -
How should you account for the error that is inherent in this? Here’s a simple technique.
Take the distance that you want to move the pipper and move the pipper by 1/3 of that
amount further away from the target. In other words, if you want to yaw the nose right to
move the pipper back on to the target, then continue to yaw the pipper right until it is
about 1/3 of the original distance further right. Now this is only a WAG...and a pretty
gross one at that, but it will get you pointed in the right direction, no pun intended!
- 39 -
Rudder and weapon aiming has one other application that you can take advantage of in
your sim, but, instead of helping you aim, this time rudder is going to help you avoid the
other guy’s aim! We’ve mentioned how rudder is used to coordinate a turn and how
misuse of rudder results in an uncoordinated turn...a slip or skid. If an attacker is looking
to aim and place rounds into your future flight path, it might be helpful to fly in a path that
the attacker cannot predict...or one that he incorrectly analyzes. Do this by skidding your
aircraft to cause a lateral displacement that takes you out of the predicted flight path.
How do you do this? By using rudder...perhaps full rudder...to skid yourself sideways.
Remember, when in a turn, a skid occurs when you use too much rudder in the direction
of bank. Therefore, if you were turning right to spoil an attacker’s gun attack, you can
push and hold right rudder to skid the aircraft to the outside of the turn. If you were in
straight and level flight, rudder in either direction would achieve the same result.
Well, there you have it! Time to put on your size 12 clod-hoppers and head out to try all
of this out! If you don’t have a set of rudder pedals, try to find a way to get one. You’ll find
they make the immersion factor soar as well as make your aircraft control more precise.
Stay tuned for Parts Two and Three where we get into the finer details of flap and trim
use.
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Secondary Flight Controls - Flaps
by Andy Bush
In our ever-present search for realism in our sims, we continue to ask developers for
more and more realistic flight models. They have done a good job in responding to these
requests. One aspect of the flight model issue has been the introduction and refinement
of flap and trim use. Today, we routinely use these features to bring out the most in
realism in our sims.
That’s the good news. The bad news is that our sim documentation is pretty lacking in
any significant information on how to use these features properly. A second potential
problem lies with the programming of the sim itself. Flap or trim systems for our sims
should replicate real life since the sim pilot will most likely attempt to use real life
procedures and techniques to operate these systems.
To date, these two problems…lack of documentation and improperly coded flap or trim
programs…have detracted from "realism" in our game play. Too often, players try to use
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flaps and trim in ways that are incorrect. The result is that flap and trim systems are
coded so that the aircraft can be flown outside of its real world flight envelope.
My objective in this second of three articles on flight control systems is to give you some
background info and suggested techniques that will permit you to operate the flap system
correctly and effectively. To do that, I’ll start off with some academic info that explains
what flaps are designed to do. Then, I’ll suggest some tips on how to use flaps in a
typical sim.
Before we jump into the meat of the matter, let’s remember that these are articles on
secondary flight controls…flaps are intended to supplement our primary flight controls
(stick and rudder)…not replace them. To put it simply, we do not fly with flaps…we make
flying easier and more effective by using them. Let’s not lose sight of that very basic fact
as we get into the article!
But before we start, let me admit that I am no aero expert. The information in this article
is simplified to help you enjoy these features in your favorite simulation…not to make you
the next engineer hired by Boeing!
Section One - High Lift Devices: Flaps, Slats, and Slots
What is a flap?
A flap is part of a family known as "high lift devices". These consist of flaps, slats, slots,
and boundary layer control devices. All of these increase lift and decrease stall speed.
The airfoil is the general curved shape of the wing. Flaps operate up and down to change
the shape of the airfoil and, in some cases, the shape of the wing itself.
Most planes have flaps that may be lowered in several stages. As a rule the first one or
twostages are used for takeoff and possibly combat maneuvering, and the latter stages
of the flap range are normally used for landing.
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What does a flap do?
Let’s go back to that picture of an airfoil and talk briefly about what an airfoil does. The
purpose of an airfoil is to produce a difference in pressure between the air going over the
top surface of the wing and the air that flows under the wing. This difference in pressures
results in the formation of lift…which, of course, is what makes an airplane different from
other means of transportation! Our purpose in this article is not to teach aerodynamics,
so I’m going to simplify matters a bit!
We associate the difference in air pressure with the distance the airstream has to follow
as it goes over the and under the wing. Generally, the greater the distance, the greater
the difference in the two pressures. The resultant difference in pressures creates lift.
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A few words about lift are in order. Why? Because lift is what turns an airplane…and
turning is what we do to perform a combat maneuver. Better control of lift means better
turning, which in turn leads to better and more effective maneuvering which then results
in you being the winner and not the loser!
To better understand what a flap does, let’s look at the relationship of an airplane’s angle
of attack to the amount of lift being produced. We begin with the term "angle of attack".
Let’s draw a line between the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil. Call this line the
"chord line". When an airplane flys through the air, the airstream meets the wing’s
leading edge at some angle. The angle between the airstream (also known as the
relative wind) and the chord line is the "angle of attack" (AOA). Note this well! The AOA is
a function of the "chord line angle", not the "fuselage angle"!
- 44 -
Now, a graph to show the effect of increasing AOA on the production of lift. Note the
airplane’spitchattitude as its AOA increases.The vertical axis is calibrated in units of
"coefficient of lift" which is a fancy term that refers to the amount of lift being produced.
What we see here is that the coefficient of lift (Cl…pronounced "see sub ell") increases
as AOA increases…up to a point where it stops increasing. As AOA increases, the
airflow over the top of the wing becomes more and more curved. Eventually, the airflow
cannot continue to follow the curvature of the wing, and the airflow breaks loose and
separates from the wing.
This is the point at which the airplane stalls. An airplane stalls at a given AOA…not
airspeed! Remember that…an airplane stalls as a function of AOA, not airspeed! Stall
speed will change with weight but stall AOA remains the same for a given wing
configuration!
That implies that changing a wing’s shape may change its stall characteristics, to include
its stall AOA.
True fact! That’s what flaps are all about. Here is another graph that shows how flaps
change the lift picture.
- 45 -
In this diagram, you can see that putting the flaps down creates an increase in Cl for a
given AOA. Also note that the stall AOA is less than for the "clean" wing but has a greater
Cl value. It is also important to see that this new stall AOA occurs at a lower speed.
At this point, here is what we know: flaps decrease the stall speed and stall AOA and
increase lift. The next subject covers the types of flaps.
What are the typical types of flaps?
Flaps come in two basic forms...leading edge (LE) and trailing edge (TE) devices. Most
fighters with LE flaps are modern day jets. The F-104 is a good example.
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Don't confuse a LE flap with other types of LE devices that open up or extend. Think of
the LE flap as part of the wing that is hinged to bend up and down, not open up or
extend.
Trailing edge flaps come in a variety of types...plain, split, slotted, and Fowler. You may
see any of these in our sims.
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The plain flap is simply a section of the trailing edge that is hinged to bend down. The TE
flap of the F-100 is a plain flap.
The split flap is different from the plain flap in that the flap consists of a plate that is
lowered from the TE bottom section of the wing. The upper section of the wing remains
unchanged. Here is an example of a split flap on an A-4.
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Next is the slotted flap, so named because of the space that is formed when the flap is
lowered. The slotted flap, unlike the plain flap, has a gap between itself and the trailing
edge that allows the airstream to flow through. Note that the chords of the plain and
slotted flap are approximately the same. Here is the slotted flap on a Me-109. You can
see the gap (the slot) between the flap and the trailing edge. The slotted flap is generally
more efficient than a plain flap.
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The Fowler Flap takes the slotted flap principle further into the area of advanced
aerodynamics. Not only does the flap extend down into the airstream, but it also extends
backwards as well. In doing so, the Fowler flap extends the chord line and consequently
the wing area. This additional area along with the slot effects results in the Fowler-type
flap producing the greatest change in lift. The P-38 used TE Fowler flaps.
The next diagram shows the differences in Cl that result from the different types of
flap design.
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What is a slat?
A slat is part of the LE of a wing that is designed to move forward and back. In the back
position, the slat is often faired completely into the wing. In the forward position, the slat
"opens up" and moves forward creating a space between the slat and the LE. Now
comes the confusing part! This space between the LE and the slat is called a "slot".
Earlier in our slotted and Fowler flap discussion, we saw the same thing happening when
a space was created between the flap and the TE. The "slot" is the opening where the
airstream flows through as it makes its way rearward.
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What does a slat do?
The movement of this airstream is very important to both the LE slat and the TE slotted
and fowler flaps. What happens is that the force of the oncoming air forces the airstream
through the relatively narrow slot opening. In doing so, the airstream is accelerated to a
higher speed. It is this greater speed that accounts for the improvement in the amount of
lift. In the days before WW2, many thought the primary purpose of the slot opening was
to "smooth" the airflow over the wing (or flap). It wasn't until several years later that the
actual aerodynamic advantages of the increased speed of the airstream was fully
understood and appreciated. This next diagram shows the additional lift produced by the
slat in conjunction with TE flaps.
Slats may be extended in one of two ways. The earliest method was to hinge the slat so
that the normal force of the oncoming airstream would push the slat back and hold it in
place. If the angle of attack of the wing were to be increased past a certain value, then
the oncoming airstream came from a different angle...one that creates aerodynamic
forces that cause the slat to move forward. Modern slats are typically electrically or
hydraulically powered and controlled automatically by a flight computer or by pilot
commands.
Here are the slats in a Me-109. These opened as a function of angle of attack, NOT
airspeed
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The LE slat of a F-4E operated hydraulically and was normally controlled by a
computer.
What is a slot and what does it do?
Up until now, we have referred to a slot as the space between a flap or slat. That's still
true! But, we also have a form of high lift device known as a "slot" as well. In this case,
the slot is still an opening in the wing...but now, it's a permanent one...one deliberately
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built into the wing to create the increase in airstream speed that we have already
described. This type of device is called the "fixed slot". Here, in the wing of the WW2
rocket fighter, the Me-163, we can see the slot that extends along the outboard portion of
the forward section of the wing.
Here is a diagram that shows the typical effect on Cl of the fixed slot.
Boundary Layer Control Devices . Before

we go, one quick mention of another type of high lift device that we may see.
Remember how we talked about the advantages of a slot increasing the velocity of the
airstream in a slotted or fowler flap...and how this made the flap more effective. We
can achieve that increased lift another way...by forcing air over a TE flap to delay its
separation and resultant loss of lift. High-pressure air is taken directly from the jet
- 54 -
engine and routed to the TE flap area where it is expelled along the upper surface of
the flap. This system is designed to improve the layer of air along the flap and help it
"stick" to the flap (if the airflow separates from the flap, lift is decreased or lost
completely). This layer of air is called the "boundary layer", and the method of
improving the airflow over this layer is called "boundary layer control (BLC)". Both
the F-104 and F-4 both use the BLC technique. You may also see the term "blown
flaps" used in the place of "BLC".
Section Two - High Lift Devices in Simulations
Up until now, we have looked at real world aerodynamic academic info. Next, we turn to
what these devices actually do for us in our sims. Real world theory is fine…but what’s
really important to us is what we can expect to get out of these features when we fly.
Let’s take a pilot’s perspective look at these devices and then assess how they perform
in some of our sims.
Why Are Flaps Used?
We can use flaps to improve takeoff , landing , and turn performance . Flaps do this by
improving the lifting capability of the wing. Before we go any further, we need to
distinguish between something that increases lift and something that increases our ability
to pull more G. Both are important in flying our sims…we just need to know which applies
when.
One point has to be made regarding this article. Most of the info here will be aimed at
prop sims, not modern jet sims. The reason is simple. When you are turning and burning
in your F-15 or Su-27, the AI will be configuring the aircraft for maximum performance.
You won’t have to worry about flap selection. So…prop-heads…pay attention! This one’s
for you!!
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Flap use in the takeoff. In real life, some aircraft are designed to use flaps during takeoff,
and some are not. Some only use flaps for takeoff under certain conditions. Don’t expect
a lot of guidance in this respect from our sims. MS CFS2, for example, has a checklist
feature that allows you to use a takeoff checklist to prepare for takeoff. Unfortunately, all
the checklist does is tell you that you have the option of using flaps or not. Not much
help, I know!. So, what kind of general advice can we use? Here it is.
Using takeoff flaps will probably not ever hurt you…as long as you stick with the "takeoff"
flap setting. If your sim does not have this setting, then use the first stage, or "notch".
In the absence of specific guidance, when should you use takeoff flaps? Basically,
anytime you want to shorten the takeoff roll. Two cases come to mind. In the first, you
have obstructions off the end of the runway and you want to get airborne early to climb
over them. In the second case, you are carrying external ordnance that would require a
higher takeoff speed than normal if you made a no-flap takeoff. Accelerating to this
higher speed will result in a longer takeoff distance. Sometimes, this longer distance is
undesirable. You can correct this by using a takeoff flap setting to reduce takeoff speed.
The result is a shorter takeoff roll. The next figure is from the real world P-51 flight
manual showing the use of flaps to minimize the takeoff roll. The objective is to clear the
trees at the end!
Here is a summation of the takeoff flap guidance given to us in a few of today’s sims
(modern jet sims are omitted since the AI will control flap selection):
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IL-2 : The manual directs that all aircraft use the takeoff flap position.
CFS2 : The manual directs you to refer to the takeoff checklist for the type of aircraft that
you are flying. Unfortunately, the checklists leave flap selection up to your discretion.
MiG Alley : Not mentioned in the manual.
Aces High : Use the web site Help section for info on flap use. Some aircraft are
discussed and some guidance is provided on takeoff flap setting.
Jane’s Attack Squadron : The game CD includes a Training Section. Here you will find
that flaps are to be set to 20 degrees for takeoff.
Flap use in the landing. Every fighter that has flaps will usually be using them for landing.
Why? Two reasons. One, it allows a slower approach speed that results in a shorter roll
out. Two, with flaps down, the aircraft has more of a nose low pitch attitude and,
consequently, the pilot has a better view over the nose. As a result, landings are easier.
Here are two screenshots that show this…one with flaps up and one with flaps down,
same airspeed.
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In these pictures, the aircraft are both in level flight at the same speed. Note that the
aircraft with flaps down has the lower pitch attitude. I’ve included a forward view of each
to show where the horizon line is…the effect of lowering the flaps on pitch attitude is
clearly noticeable.
One disclaimer here. In simulation forward views, the pilot’s line of sight is still straight
ahead, typically through the middle of the gunsight/HUD area. The next figure shows the
typical forward view line of sight with the aircraft in level flight at cruise airspeed.
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However, when flying at slow speeds, for example, when on final for the landing, the
pilot will be looking down the nose of the aircraft as this figure shows.
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Why? Because the actual flight path of the aircraft is seen below the gunsight area. This
look angle is more obvious in our modern jet sims where the velocity vector "tadpole" is
included in the heads up display (HUD). In the next two shots of an A-10 on short final,
you can see the "tadpole" velocity vector superimposed on the approach end of the
runway. In the external, note the nose high attitude. I have flown the aircraft with no flaps
to accentuate the difference in pilot look angle (tadpole) and the "normal" picture of the
gunsight position often seen as the "level flight" flight attitude.
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Regardless of WW2 or modern sim, the fact remains that the forward view still is locked
into a line of sight that is more typical of cruise speeds than slow speeds. The typical
view of "half instrument panel-half windscreen" is a poor representation of what the real
world pilot actually sees when flying at the higher angles of attack seen in the landing
pattern. What we need is a forward view that is aligned with the flight path …that would
be far more representative of what the pilot needs and wants to see.
Note that in our newer sims that allow use of the mouse to change the forward view,
mere raising of the look angle only shifts the line of sight on a line parallel to the original
(as if you had raised your seat)…it does not move that line of sight down as we would
want. The first of the next two views shows the normal forward view. The second shows
the view using the mouse to shift the view line of sight up. The gunsight is still pointed at
the same area and no additional viewing area over the nose is achieved.
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- 63 -
One exception is how your seating position can be changed in Aces High. This sim
actually allows you to get a better view over the nose by changing the view as the
following shots show
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So for landing, what are the things to remember? Use flaps to lower your pitch attitude to
improve your view "over the nose". Keep in mind that the typical sim does not present a
forward view that looks along your flight path line of sight. If your sim permits, try to raise
your seating position to improve your ability to see over the nose.
Next, remember the aerodynamic results of lots of flaps. You get a lot more drag for not
much more lift. You may need more power to hold your speed. Be careful with your
speed…the extra drag will tend to slow you down quicker. Keep crosschecking your
speed. Yes…your stall speed is probably lower, but the stall angle of attack is less. Your
stall margins may be reduced as a result. If you stall at these speeds and with the power
up, you can lose control due to torque effects or stall characteristics…so don’t get slow!
Flap use in improving turning performance. Now we are getting to the meat of the matter.
In fact, I could have titled this section "What Is Possible vs What Is Practical" . What I
want for you to get from all of this is an idea of how to use flaps in a practical manner that
comes close to how we use them in real life. As you will see, our sims allow you to use
flaps in a wide range of ways. Not all of these are "realistic", and some of them provide
no actual benefit to the sim’s flight model. Having said that, let’s begin with some general
ideas.
The importance of flaps in turn performance is their effect on the ability to produce extra
G. All air combat maneuvering is a function of pointing the aircraft where you want it to
go. To do this, you roll to orient your lift vector in the desired direction, and then you pull
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backstick pressure to move your nose to that point. In the next screenshot, see the FAC
leaving some cons as he pulls on the pole!
However, the word "lift" in the phrase "lift vector" is a bit misleading. Lift is not what you
should be thinking of. G is what will produce the results you are looking for when you
want to maneuver your plane. The lift vector is, of course, defined by the magnitude of
the G being pulled, but what I want to do is to take the emphasis off the term "lift" and
replace it with the term "G".

Back to Page 3
But you say, "Lift and G are the same, right"?
Well…not quite! They seem to be the same, but, in an air combat maneuvering sense,
they are not. Here’s why.
The difference lies in what you are doing. If your maneuvering requires one G flight, then
think of flaps as providing lift. But, if your maneuvering requires more than one G, then
think in terms of G.
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For example, in takeoffs and landings, you are operating at one G or there abouts. All
you want is "X" amount of lift (the weight of your aircraft) to offset gravity as you either
takeoff or land. This MiG-19 has weight and lift just about balanced as it comes down
final.
But in situations where you want more than one G…that becomes an entirely different
story.
How so?
Because the idea that if a little of something is good, then more should be better may not
be the case.
So it is with flaps…or at least it should be. By that I mean that what should happen (as in
real life) might not happen in a sim because of the manner in which it is programmed.
Let’s recall our earlier discussion about flaps, lift, and drag. A little bit of flap (takeoff
setting) produces a good increase in lift at little expense in drag. But a lot of flap (landing
flap setting) produces just the opposite…a lot of drag for not much more lift. At the same
time, the stall AOA has been decreased, so when pulling on the pole, your stall margins
in terms of pitch movement are reduced as well.
The point is that landing flaps are for just that…landing. Not dogfighting.
Which leads us to the good stuff! Dogfighting! Some may think of this as slowing down
and turning tighter than one’s opponent in order to "get on his tail". We call this "turning
and burning" or "stall fighting". Some aircraft are particularly good at this…some are not.
What makes the good ones "good" is their ability to achieve significant G at slow speeds.
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What makes the others "bad" is that to achieve the same G, they have to go
faster…sometimes much faster.
Why is this important? Because G is what determines how tight your turn radius is or how
fast your turn rate is. In dogfighting, you want a small radius and a high turn rate. More G
makes these numbers improve, while airspeed increases make those
numbers get worse…so G becomes all important when engaging in a
turning fight. The equation for turn rate and radius makes this clear.
This is where flaps enter the picture. The idea is to get the most G at
the slowest speed. The pilot, knowing that speed is his enemy, slows
down to improve his numbers. But he knows that if he gets too slow,
he’ll stall. So he puts out flaps to lower his stall speed.
That way, he expects that he can continue to pull G at this lower speed and get the
desired turn performance.
There is a potential problem to this way of thinking! Some folks might think that they can
get more G if they lower flaps. Maybe…and a very big "maybe" at that! Let’s remember
that the ability to pull G for a given wing configuration is simply a matter of speed. At
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some speed, the pilot will be able to pull max G with the flaps up. If he thinks that using
flaps above these speeds will give him an increase in performance, he is wrong.
Why? Because the plane can already pull max G. There is no room for more G unless
the pilot wants to break the plane (over-G it). Here is a diagram that shows the flight
envelope as a function of aircraft weight, G, and indicated airspeed (IAS). The left side of
the envelope is the stall boundary. It slopes up as airspeed increases until it runs into the
top boundary, the max G line. The right side of the envelope shows the max airspeed
boundary. Note that at about 270KIAS the stall line intersects the max G line. At speeds
above 270KIAS, the pilot is limited by his G limit. Below 270KIAS, he is limited by the
stall boundary.
This is a "flaps up" diagram. The airplane is G-limited at speeds above 270KIAS. Below
that speed, note that the G capability drops off as speed decreases. So, below 270KIAS,
is it possible to regain the ability to pull max G if we use flaps? The answer is a
conditional "yes".
You can use flaps to increase turn performance as long as you do not exceed the flap
limiting speed or max G limit of the airplane. In these cases, you can expect a reasonable
gain in turn rate, however, do not expect to see much of a change in turn radius. How
much gain in turn rate? Few energy management (EM) diagrams show the outcome of
flap use, but we can make a pretty good estimation of what the diagram would look like
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by using a simple math equation to compute stall speeds with flaps down at G loads from
2 to the max G value. Doing this, we can arrive at an EM diagram like the next figure.
The blue line outlines the "flaps up" flight envelope for the given altitude and gross
weight. The left side is the "stall line", the top portion is the max G line, and the right side
is the max airspeed part of the envelope. The green line on the left side is the new
computed flaps down stall boundary
Looks great, right!! Unfortunately, it may not be quite this easy. The problem here is the
design of the particular flap system and the maximum speed that the flaps may be used
at. Some fighters had a "maneuvering" or "combat" flap setting that had a pretty high max
speed limit. Here, for example, are the flap limiting speeds for the P-51. The P-51 pilot
could use the first notch (flaps 10) up to 400KIAS. But, as the previous chart showed, the
P-51 could reach the max G limit at 270KIAS. So what good will the flaps do above that
speed? Not much other than act as a speed brake.
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Other fighters have flap designs that are not so capable, particularly in jets where the
speed range is wider. In these aircraft, flaps may be used to improve turn performance,
but only up to the flap limiting speed. Anything over that speed is a no-no. What I mean is
that the pilot should not deliberately exceed the flight manual limitations regardless of the
effect on the flaps. Whether such action actually causes damage is irrelevant…don’t
exceed the flap limits!
Problem is…not all of our sims model realistic flap limits. Some don’t even tell you what
the limits are! You can throw those puppies out at warp 9 and nothing happens! And you
might even get a performance increase. If so, bad on the sim for programming the flight
model this way, and bad on you too for disregarding the rules on observing limiting
speeds!
All of this raises the obvious question…if you want to adhere to the proper speeds, where
do you get this info? The problem is, as many of you know, the answer is seldom to be
found in sim documentation. Too often, specific numbers such as flap limiting speeds are
absent in sim manuals and on-line help.
And yet, the info is very nice to know, particularly when it’s info that is based on how the
sim is programmed. If the sim gives a flap limiting speed of "X" mph, then that should be
the speed that the flight model is based upon. Here’s a look at some sims and their
documentation of flap speeds and their flight model adherence to these speeds.
IL-2 : No Documentation. Flaps will jam if lowered at high speed and will stay out at high
speed with no apparent damage.
CFS2 : Excellent documentation in the Help section on the CD. Flaps come off if the
limiting airspeed is exceeded.
MiG Alley : No specific documentation on flap use.
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Aces High : Refer to the Help section at the web site for general info on flap use inflight.
A few fighters are discussed, most are not. The general advice is to use the first notch of
flap for maneuvering. At high speed, the flaps will close to the "up" position.
Jane’s Attack Squadron : Minimal documentation in Training section. No discussion of

employment airspeeds. Flaps come off at high speed although this speed is
undocumented.
What does this tell us? Only that the developers are lagging behind in providing operating
instructions to accompany the inclusion of realistic flaps in most of these sims. It’s nice to
have this feature, but it would also be nice to have some guidance on how and when to
use it.
And that’s how we’ll finish up this section…with a little advice on how to use flaps in your
simulations. By necessity, we’ll primarily be talking about WW2 prop sims and sims that
feature aircraft that were in service prior to the introduction of the F-15/16 and Su-27
series of fighters. These earlier aircraft generally had manually operated flaps, and that
will be the focus of the following advice…manual operation of flaps to obtain an increase
in flight performance

Back to Page 4
Let’s remember what we’ve seen so far. Our flaps are tools. Tools to do certain things.
Things like improve takeoff and landing performance. Or improve turn performance.
Takeoff Flap Tips
1. Unless specifically directed not to use them in your sim, I suggest the use of the
takeoff flaps. Some sims designate a particular position as the "takeoff" setting.
Others have a range of flap positions from a three-position range to a five-
position range. Use the first "notch" for a three-position system and the first or
second notch for the five-position system.
2. Use takeoff flaps anytime you are carrying external stores such as bombs or fuel
tanks. Missiles may be excluded from this generalization.
3. Use takeoff flaps anytime your runway length is shorter than normal or you want
to get airborne as quick as possible. Consider using flaps for carrier takeoffs for
this reason.
4. As a rule, do not use WEP (War Emergency Power) for normal takeoffs when
flying WW2 prop aircraft,. Remember the adverse effect of engine effects (torque,
propwash, gyroscopic precession). These are more of a danger when you are
slow, so do not "jerk" your aircraft into the air. Instead, fly it off as you sense that
the tail is getting "light". Maintain a shallow climb angle and accelerate to about
150mph/240kph before raising the flaps. If you have to turn immediately after
takeoff, leave the flaps out during the turn. If possible, accelerate to climb speed
(160-190mph/220-300kph) before increasing your pitch or turning.
5. For Korean War-Vietnam War era jets, engine effects are not a factor, however,
slow initial acceleration is. Be prepared for a longer takeoff roll. If available, use
afterburner (AB). Non-afterburner fighters will accelerate slower and climb out at
a shallower angle. This will often require you to keep the flaps out longer than is
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the case for jets with ABs. Fly these non-AB aircraft much the same as you would
a WW2 prop plane.
6. AB equipped fighters generally accelerate quickly. You can expect to raise the
flaps very soon after gear retraction. Do not horse the nose up. Instead, keep a
shallow angle until you have built up some speed…300KIAS minimum is a
general rule of thumb. As you accelerate through 300KIAS, secure the AB and
establish your climb speed. 400KIAS is a good number.
7. Overall, the takeoff is not the time for aggressive maneuvers, particularly if you
are heavy. Use flaps and fly the plane smoothly and cautiously until you have the
flaps retracted and are at climb speed.
Landing Flap Tips
1. Remember the reason for landing flaps…slower speeds, steeper approaches,

power on throttle settings, reduced rollout distances, and improved visibility over
the nose.
2. Lower your landing gear and maneuver to the final approach glide path using the
takeoff flap or "maneuver" position (one or two notches). Fly at a speed that is
approximately 20% above your landing speed. For WW2 prop planes, do not
extend landing flaps until the landing is certain. That means no more than about
500 feet AGL…then slow to your final approach speed. For jets, you may
establish a longer final approach and put landing flaps down sooner.
3. Practice flying at landing pattern speeds to familiarize yourself with the "feel" of
the two flap settings (maneuver and landing flap). Practice flying a shallow
descent and memorizing the "glide path picture". Remember, your flight path will
be low in the gunsight area.
4. Do not "chop" power until you are in the flare. Smoothly retard the throttle to idle.
Be aware of torque effects in prop planes if you cut the throttle quickly. This
means for the typical prop plane that the aircraft will tend to roll to the right as the
engine slows down.
5. If you have to abort the landing for any reason, do not jam the throttle forward.
Your final approach speed should give you a comfortable stall margin. Instead
smoothly add power as you raise the nose. Once your descent is stopped, raise
the gear. Then begin raising your flaps. Go first to the takeoff position and keep
the flaps there until you reach normal flap retraction speed. This raising of the
flaps in stages is called "milking the flaps up".
Turn Performance Tips
1. Well, takeoffs and landings are important, but what we all want to know is how to
use flaps to knock the bandit’s socks off! Answers won’t be easy on this
question…the sim flight models are hard to figure out in specific detail, and few
model flaps the same anyway. How about some more generalizations to begin
with?
2. We’ll start with the practicality of using flaps. By now, you should understand that
flaps are used at fairly low speeds. Here is the main question. Should you be
planning on getting slow in the first place? There are no simple answers. If all you
want to do is "turn and burn" in a 1v1 knife fight, then that’s one thing. But if you
are engaged in a multi-bogey furball, then that may be entirely something
else…you may decide that slowing down is the last thing you want to do.
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3. Rather than outline a bunch of options, I’ll give you my take on what might be a
"best" one-size fits all plan. I like turning, but not to the point that I lose situational
awareness. I like to BnZ, but not exclusively. I tend to favor a BnZ strategy until I
can get a straggler cut out of the herd. Then I might consider turning a bit…but I
never want to get too slow.
4. OK. What does that mean? It means I stay "fast" until I see an opportunity to
"slow down". I fight a "slash and extend" fight unless the tactical situation favors a
1v1 TnB contest. Being "fast" means keeping my speed above corner velocity
(CV). Getting "slow" means below CV. So, I begin by establishing some speed
values. I want to know what my CV is. Now, corner velocity varies with weight
and altitude, so there is no such thing as an exact CV that applies in all
situations…so I’m going to make up a set of speeds that I’ll use as a basis for
planning my maneuvering. These speeds will be a rough average of typical CVs
for a variety of classes of fighters.
5. These "classes" are the following: WW2 Light Wing Loading, WW2 Medium Wing
Loading, and WW2 High Wing Loading. I’ll do the same for a range of jets. Then
I’ll assume some average CVs for each class at sea level, no external stores.
They look like this (and these are just "ball park" estimates):
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1.
6. Next, let’s look at a typical EM diagram so that you understand the significance of
where CV fits into the flight envelope. By definition, CV is the slowest speed
where the plane can reach maximum G with the flaps up. Usually, the highest
turn rate occurs at CV, however, the minimum turn radius may be reached below
CV, particularly in WW2 aircraft.
1.
7. Previously, we have explained that it does no good to lower flaps above CV since
the aircraft can already reach max G. Therefore, from a practical point of view,
CV is the max speed for flap deployment, even though many fighters have flap
limiting speeds (for the first one or two notches of flap) that are greater than CV.
8. So, once I’ve decided to engage in a TnB fight, I use my CV "guesstimate" as the
point where I drop flaps (assuming this speed is less than the documented flap
limiting speed). How much flaps? One notch in a 2 or 3 position flap system…one
(or two max) if I’m flying a four or five notch system.
9. Once the flaps are out, how slow do I want to get? Not very slow at all! I want to
stay as close as I can to CV or the max flap speed. Why? Because if you look at
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the EM diagram again, you see that turn rate increases fairly well between stall
speed and CV while turn radius improves only marginally. The turn rate doubles
from point #1 to #2 while the turn radius only changes slightly. Bottom line? You
gain little by getting too far below
1.
10. Now that I have the flaps out, how do I manage them? Here’s a short and sweet
answer. Put the flaps out to turn, raise them when you are not turning. If you are
not pulling G, then there is no reason to have the flaps out…all they do is add
drag. So in a "knife fight", think "pull G – put the flaps down"…"unload G – raise
the flaps".
11. Lastly, a word about vertical maneuvering. In a BnZ vertical move, you can use
flaps to help you get "over the top". Here are some points to keep in mind. Watch
your use of power in turning at high speed. In these situations, power tends to
widen your turn radius. As a rule, power is best used at the top of a vertical
maneuver…not the bottom. Here’s how I do it. As I pull up into the climb, I reduce
the throttle while I’m pulling G (assuming of course that I am at high speed to
begin with). Once I have my nose up to the desired climb angle, I put full throttle
back in and unload G if my goal is to gain altitude. I hold this until I approach my
pull down point. Then I make sure I have full power in and drop one or two
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notches of flap as I increase back stick pressure to reverse the climb. I keep full
power in and flaps out until I have my nose pointed back down again. Then, I’ll
raise the flaps and go for speed. What results is something like the well-known
"egg" and looks like this:
OK…so much for flap generalities. Here’s the bottom line. Use my advice as basic
guidance only. Then, go out and fly your specific plane. Get a feel for how the various
stages of flap affect your ability to turn and accelerate. Determine your own "flaps up and
down" parameters. I’ve given you the basic "how to’s"…now you finish up by getting your
own fine points.
Now, let’s move on to another one of those great unknowns…trim! Stand by for Part
Three of this series for that discussion!
I’d like to thank my good buddy, Leon Smith, for the excellent work he did on preparing
the EM diagrams for this article. More thanks to many of you for your comments and
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remarks in the several forum threads that preceeded this article. Your interest and
enthusiasm is why I write these things! Finally, a big attaboy to TK Kawahito and Matt
Wagner for making the upcoming sims that you have gotten a peek at here.
Secondary Flight Controls - Part

Three: Trim
by Andy Bush
So we find ourselves at the third part of this series on secondary flight controls…trim. The
subject that really started me down this road. Its place as the last of the topics is not by
accident. As you will see, trim is affected or has an effect on the two previous subjects,
rudder and flaps. Being the last in this series does not mean that trim is the least
significant of these subjects. To the contrary, I believe trim to be the least understood of
these three areas. We’ll try to improve upon that situation as this article goes along!
As with rudder and flaps, this article will begin with a simplified academic study of what
trim is and how it works in real life…and then we’ll switch to our simulation world and get
a broad look at what we can do with trim in a typical sim.
But first, let me introduce an old friend from bygone days…the famed Greek scholar and
scientist Archimedes. I’ll call him Archie for short!
By now, you are wondering where I’m going with this! Well, Archie did a lot of things in
his life. One of them was to work with the concept of levers. In fact, I’m sure you
remember Archie saying that if he had a lever large enough, he could move the world.
What Archie was really saying was that he had a tool to help him move heavy loads. As
long as the tool…in this case, the lever…was the right size, he could use his limited
human muscle power to move loads that he would ordinarily be unable to move. So
Archie had found himself a simple tool that he could use to make jobs a little easier on
himself
Let’s leave Archie trying to figure out how to change the Earth’s orbit and move on to sim
flying! We have a job to do as well. And we have a limited amount of muscle power to do
it with. Our job is to move the flight controls to put the airplane where we want it.
Sometimes that does not take much in the way of effort, and other times it does. For
those times when we have to exert a little more effort than normal to work our flight
controls, it sure would be nice if we had a tool to help us.
Well, friends, we do! It’s called trim.
There it is. The article in a nutshell…trim is a tool.
A tool that we use to help us move the flight controls to whatever position is needed.
Let’s repeat that again so that we get it down pat. Trim is a tool that we use to help move
the flight controls.
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By itself, trim is not a primary flight control surface. We do not use trim to fly the airplane.
If we want the nose to come up, we do not use the simulation trim control to raise the
nose. If we want to roll the airplane, we do not use aileron trim to bank with. Finally, if we
want to keep the airplane from yawing, we usually do not move the rudder with trim.
In any number of forum discussions, I have seen folks that mistakenly think that trim is
something that is used to change the airplane’s attitude. This is an honest mistake. Of
three subjects in this series of articles on simulation secondary flight controls, trim is the
one that is newest on the scene. Our sims were outfitted with rudder and flap controls
first. Now, we have realistic trim controls as well. It’s high time that we figure out what to
do with trim. Let’s start with some basic academics, but let’s never forget the bottom line:
Trim is a tool. It is only a tool. We do not fly with trim…we only use trim to make flying
easier.
Section One -Trim Aerodynamics
The issue of balance
We’ll start with Archie again…with his lever actually. Let’s take a stroll over to the local
playground and watch some kids on a teeter-totter. What we see is two kids trying to play
on the teeter-totter, but they aren’t doing very well. The problem is that the two kids
weigh different amounts. Try as they may, one kid sits up high and the other remains on
the ground.
Clearly what these kids need is some help. Thank goodness for Mom! She steps up and
pushes down on the smaller kid’s end. The push that Mom applies adds just enough
force to overcome the weight of the other child. Down comes the teeter-totter, and as
long as Mom is willing to provide her push, the two kids will have a great time. By adding
the extra force, Mom has "balanced" the teeter-totter and made it easier for the kids to
make the playground toy work.
As pilots, we have to deal with teeter-totter problems as well…every time we fly. In fact,
our aircraft is like a three way teeter-totter…one for each axis of motion. Here’s what I
mean.
An aircraft has three control axes…longitudinal, lateral, and vertical...and rotates about
each depending on what the pilot does with his flight controls. These flight control
surfaces are the aileron, elevator, and rudder.
To visualize these axes, imagine a rod being pushed through the airplane as is shown in
the figure. Just as the teeter-totter rotated about its fulcrum, the aircraft rotates about its
three axes. Take the longitudinal axis, for example. With the rod in place, we can rotate
the airplane around it. We call that "rolling the plane", so the longitudinal axis is the "roll
axis". In the same way, the lateral axis is the "pitch axis", and the vertical axis is the "yaw
axis".
We have primary control surfaces on our airplane to provide the pitching, rolling, or
yawing movement. The elevator controls the plane in the pitch axis, the aileron controls
the roll axis, and the rudder controls the yaw axis.
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We have primary control surfaces on our airplane to provide the pitching, rolling, or
yawing movement. The elevator controls the plane in the pitch axis, the aileron controls
the roll axis, and the rudder controls the yaw axis.
Note that the primary flight controls are only part of the overall wing, horizontal stabilizer,
and vertical stabilizer surface. These primary controls do two main things…they control
the aircraft direction (heading and altitude), and they keep the aircraft "in balance".
What does "in balance" mean? It means keeping the aircraft attitude where the pilot
wants it…a certain pitch angle (no change in pitch), a certain bank angle (no roll), or in
coordinated flight (no yaw). Saying it another way, the tail (elevator/horizontal stabilizer)
is our pitch balance device, the aileron is our roll balance device, and the rudder is our
yaw balance device. We use these controls to maintain the balance of our plane.
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What does "in balance" mean? It means keeping the aircraft attitude where the pilot
wants it…a certain pitch angle (no change in pitch), a certain bank angle (no roll), or in
coordinated flight (no yaw). Saying it another way, the tail (elevator/horizontal stabilizer)
is our pitch balance device, the aileron is our roll balance device, and the rudder is our
yaw balance device. We use these controls to maintain the balance of our plane.
There are forces that want to upset this balance…for example a "heavy" wing, or engine
effects of a prop, for example. To counter these forces, the pilot moves the primary flight
controls until the imbalance is eliminated. In the next screenshot, you see an A-4 with a
1000# bomb remaining on the left wing. This definitely would be a "heavy wing" situation!
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The aircraft will try to roll "into" that wing unless you correct it. You do that by moving the
stick sideways to roll opposite to the heavy wing. This stick input will require some effort
on your part, and you must hold that input to maintain a desired bank angle. It would be
nice if you had some help in holding that stick input.
Here’s another example. You are flying a WW2 prop fighter. During the takeoff, the
slipstream effects of the engine will yaw the plane to one side or the other depending on
the direction of engine rotation.
This yaw is significant and can easily cause your plane to depart the runway. You
counter this with rudder to oppose the yaw…but it’s a bunch of yaw and so you need a
bunch of rudder. It would be nice if you had some help in holding that rudder input.
And in both cases you do, of course! You have the aileron and rudder trim to help you
out. These two secondary flight control surfaces are going to do what Mom did for the
kids on the teeter-totter. Mom used a force to push down on the board…and the aileron
and rudder trim surfaces are going to produce a force that is going to relieve some or all
of the force that you are holding.
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Let’s consider one more example…this time we’ll consider an imbalance in pitch. We
remember that an aircraft will change its pitch attitude if we change its airspeed. Let’s say
we are flying in level flight at 300KIAS and then jam in the afterburner. Boom! Our plane
will accelerate! Since the plane was balanced at 300KIAS, as the speed increases, the
nose will rise as the plane attempts to maintain a constant angle of attack.
But, for the sake of this discussion, we want to maintain our original altitude…so we push
forward on the stick to hold the nose down. We have to push forward to maintain level
flight, and the faster the plane goes, the harder we have to push forward. It sure would be
nice if we had some help in holding that stick forward.
Fortunately, we have a third secondary flight control surface to help us out…pitch trim.
We can use the pitch trim to help rebalance the plane at its new airspeed.
So far, we have seen that there are three axes of movement that we must keep in
balance as we fly our aircraft. And we have seen that at times these axes become
unbalanced due to a variety of factors (speed changes, asymmetrical loading, engine
effects, etc). Let’s now move on to how we use trim to help us hold our plane in the
desired "balanced" position.
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But, for the sake of this discussion, we want to maintain our original altitude…so we push
forward on the stick to hold the nose down. We have to push forward to maintain level
flight, and the faster the plane goes, the harder we have to push forward. It sure would be
nice if we had some help in holding that stick forward.
Fortunately, we have a third secondary flight control surface to help us out…pitch trim.
We can use the pitch trim to help rebalance the plane at its new airspeed.
So far, we have seen that there are three axes of movement that we must keep in
balance as we fly our aircraft. And we have seen that at times these axes become
unbalanced due to a variety of factors (speed changes, asymmetrical loading, engine
effects, etc). Let’s now move on to how we use trim to help us hold our plane in the
desired "balanced" position.
Balance and trim
OK…so how do we use the trim to help put the plane back into balance? We begin by
understanding how we correct for the initial imbalance. Let’s use a pitch trim situation to
illustrate the points that are important.
First, let’s look at the basic "balance" idea as it relates to pitch. Here is a picture of a
plane that is in balance.
The lift vector produces a nose down rotational force. This force is offset by the lifting
force produced by the tail.
Now, let’s bring back our earlier example of the jet that plugged in its afterburners. As
speed increases, so does lift. To maintain its "balance" (angle of attack), the jet’s pitch
attitude will increase and it will begin a climb.
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To counter that pitch increase, we said the pilot has to push forward on the stick to offset
the tendency of the nose to rise. That stick input causes the tail to increase its nose down
angle and this produces a change in the direction of the tail force. The result is a counter-
rotational force that brings the nose back down.
At this point, the pilot has his plane back in balance…but at the cost of having to push
and hold forward pressure on the stick to maintain this balance. This is tiring and not
much fun, so the pilot looks about for some assistance. That’s when Archie and Mom,
who have been watching from the sidelines, step in to help.
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They lean forward, and each whispers into an ear, "Trim off the stick pressure, laddie"!
And so our pilot, who knows a good idea when he hears one, begins to manipulate the
pitch trim control of his plane. He does this in a series of incremental inputs, and with
each input, he can feel the stick force slowly diminishing. Wow! He likes that, and so he
keeps adding a nose down trim input until he reaches the point where he no longer has
to push on the stick to hold the nose of the plane where he wants it. Somehow, the trim
function has relieved him of having to do all the work himself. Now, the trim is doing the
work.
Here is what has happened. Trim has added additional down force to the tail. As the trim
input increased, the amount of pilot force decreased until none was required to hold the
nose in place. Trim had replaced muscle power to do the required work.
Archie steps back and smiles, as does Mom. "See", they say to the pilot…"it only took a
little outside help"! Trim substituted for Mom’s push in the earlier example, and the overall
effect was similar to Archie’s idea of a lever moving a heavy load.
And that, folks, is the short and sweet of what trim does. It applies some outside
help…an additional force…that will reduce or replace the existing pilot force on the stick
or rudder.
So much for theory. Let’s go now to the real world of trim devices and learn a little about
what these things look like and how they work.
Section Two - Trim Systems
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Lateral Axis (Pitch) Trim
We’ll begin with the pitch trim feature since it’s the one pilots are most often involved
with. Let’s keep in mind that we are looking at design features that affect the tail’s ability
to generate a force that holds the pitch attitude where the pilot wants it. As we go through
these various types, here’s one thing to remember…trim is directly related to speed
changes. The greater the speed change, the greater the need for trim. Prior to WW2, the
typical flight envelope in terms of speed range was relatively small. In some cases, trim
was not even designed into aircraft because of the narrow speed range. But as aircraft
speed capability increased, so did the need for trim. By the time we got to the supersonic
era, trim designs had evolved to the point that entire flight control surfaces were being
trimmed.
I’ll categorize pitch trim as being of four types. These types differ in their mechanical
complexity and generally are associated with various eras of fighter development…WW2,
early jet, modern jet, for example.
For simplicity’s sake, I’ll put these four types into these categories: fixed trim, elevator
trim, stabilizer trim, and stabilator trim.
Fixed trim. By "fixed", I mean a trim device that is adjusted once and then left alone. We
typically see this in the form of small tabs on the elevator trailing edge. After it’s built, the
aircraft is test flown, and the test pilot notes any out-of-trim tendencies. After landing, the
ground crew physically bends the fixed trim tab in the required direction (up or down).
Then the aircraft is test flown again and repeated changes are made to the fixed tab until
the desired flight attitude is met. Usually, this is a level flight attitude at a predetermined
cruise speed.
Keep in mind that above or below this predetermined speed, the aircraft will be out of trim
in pitch and the pilot will have to hold a little forward or aft stick to maintain his desired
attitude.
Elevator trim. This is probably the most common form of pitch trim design. In this set up,
the tail is made in two parts…the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator. The pilot moves
the elevator to control pitch, and the trim function is designed to assist him in positioning
the elevator. This is most often accomplished by the addition of small, moveable tabs
situated on the trailing edge of the elevator. These tabs may be actuated mechanically or
electrically and are controlled by switches on the control stick or by control wheels in the
cockpit. The "hat" switch that we all are familiar with on our sim flight sticks is the trim
switch in a typical real life jet fighter.
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Here is a typical elevator trim tab on a LaGG-3.
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The fixed tab and the movable tab both work in the same way. They essentially act as a
mini-elevator that is attached to the actual elevator. Moving the elevator changes the
shape of the tailplane airfoil, and that results in a change in the lift produced by the
tailplane. If the elevator is moved up, the new curvature of the tailplane creates a lifting
force that pulls the tail down, as in this figure:
The trim tab works in a similar manner on the elevator itself. The purpose of the tab is to
create a lifting force that will take up some or all of the force that the pilot is exerting to
displace the elevator. In our example of "up" elevator, the trim tab is situated on the
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trailing edge of the elevator and is deflected opposite the direction of the elevator. In this
case, the tab would be deflected "down" as in the next figure:
The trim tab changes the shape of the elevator trailing edge and forms a small additional
airfoil. This small airfoil produces its own lifting force, and this force is directed opposite
the main elevator force vector. When the pilot trims the elevator to a "hands off" position,
he has moved the trim tab until it creates a lifting force that exactly matches the force that
the pilot was making in the first place. The pilot can literally take his hands off the stick,
and the elevator will remain in the "up" position because the trim tab lifting force is
holding it there.
Inherent in this explanation is the most important thing to remember about trim. The pilot
moved the stick to achieve the desired attitude. He then moved the trim system to match
the force that he was exerting. He did not trim the nose up…he used his primary flight
controls to do that. He used the secondary trim controls to reduce or remove the stick
loads that he was feeling.
OK! Having now made that point several times, let’s move on to the stabilizer type of trim.
Stabilizer trim. The idea of stabilizer trim was invented before WW2. Some sources say
that the Piper Cub was the first plane to use this form of trim. In WW2, the Me-109 used
this system as well. The concept is simple. Rather than trim the elevator to remain in a
deflected position, the idea was to move the horizontal stabilizer to create the change in
tailplane airfoil. This airfoil change resulted in a lifting force that moved the tail up or
down just like the elevator trim function did. In the next picture, you can see the Me-109
stabilizer arrangement.
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Note where the leading edge of the stabilizer meets the fuselage…see the little opening?
That opening allows the leading edge to move up and down. When the pilot moves the
trim control in the cockpit, a jackscrew attached to the stabilizer rotates to move the front
of the stabilizer up or down. Note also the indices marks…you can see the stabilizer
range of movement was much greater in "nose up" (leading edge down), than in "nose
down". The next picture shows the actual linkage that was used to move the stabilizer.
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OK! Here is how the trimmable stabilizer worked. Let’s imagine ourselves flying at low
speed in level flight. The aircraft is flying at a relatively high AOA. If the stabilizer trim was
in the neutral position at this speed, the stabilizer-elevator relationship would look
something like this…the stick is held in an aft position and the elevator is "elevated"!
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Now we trim the stabilizer to fly "hands off". This is what it now would look like with
the stabilizer trimmed "nose up".
Note that the leading edge of the stabilizer has moved down and the elevator is now
"faired" with the stabilizer ("faired" means "lined up"). In this situation, the tail is
generating the same lifting force that the previous tail did. In this configuration, the tail
using the trimmable stabilizer is said to generate less drag than the other, thus this
second design may be considered to be more aerodynamically efficient than the first.
Stabilator trim. When Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier, he did so after being part of
a major discovery…and that was the use of the entire horizontal stabilizer as an
"elevator". Prior to his record flight, horizontal stabilizers had traditionally been one part
stabilizer and one part elevator. After Yeager’s history-making flight, aircraft design
began to discard the idea of a movable elevator attached to a fixed stabilizer and moved
to the concept of a movable one piece tailplane, sometimes known as a "stabilator"
(stabilizer + elevator = stabilator). Here is the one-piece F-104 stabilator.
Hand in hand with this development was the introduction of hydraulically powered flight
controls. The typical hydraulic flight control system in a fighter operates at a pressure of
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3000 pounds per square inch (psi). The same is true of the airliner I fly today. We all
know that as speed increases, so do the airloads that try to prevent the flight control
surfaces from moving. In WW2 aircraft that had cable controls (in other words, unboosted
by any means), these airloads at high speed could prevent the pilot from moving the
control stick.
Not so in a hydraulically powered flight control system! 3000psi is enough power to move
the flight control surface no matter how fast the airplane is going! So, if the pilot could
now move the controls without regard to airspeed loads, did this mean that trim was no
longer a consideration?
As it turned out, no. Along with the introduction of the hydraulic control system came the
realization that this new system was very difficult to fly. Why? Because the pilot had no
"feel" for his controls…and as it so happens, "feel’ is very important. The fix was to build
an artificial feel system into the hydraulic flight controls. Now the pilot could once again
"feel" the effect of airspeed and G changes. Central to this feature was the trim design
that augmented the "feel" system.
But there was one difference. As a rule, this trim system was designed to change the
stick "feel"…and since this "feel" was artificial to begin with, the thing to remember about
this type of trim is that the system is changing only the artificial forces the pilot feels on
his controls…the trim system is not directly moving the flight controls.
Here’s how it worked. When I flew my real life F-4 at slow speed with the trim set for
cruise speeds, the stick would feel "heavy". I would be holding the stick somewhat aft to
deflect the stabilator trailing edge "up". If I then trimmed the nose "up" to relieve this stick
"heaviness", nothing would change with the stabilator. What would change would be the
mechanism in the hydraulic flight control system that varied the amount of resistance I
felt in the stick. As I trimmed the nose up, the stick would get progressively "lighter" until
at some point, I could fly "hands off". Here, the only thing that actually got trimmed was
the stick…the flight control surface remained the same.
OK! Those are the types of tailplane trim set-ups…now, how about aileron trim?
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Longitudinal Axis (Roll) Trim
We have seen that elevator trim deals primarily with changes in speed (actually angle of
attack, but speed will do for our purposes!). Sometimes, however, we find ourselves
having to push the stick right or left to hold the wings level. When we do this, we deflect
the ailerons to create lift differences in the two wings.
If we want to relieve the side stick forces that we are having to hold, we would want to
trim the ailerons. What might cause us to need to trim the aileron?
The main reason for trimming the aileron is to balance the lifting qualities of each wing.
Why would the two wings need to be balanced? Usually because the wings are
supporting different weights…for example, different external stores loads…or different
fuel quantities in the wing tanks.
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An aileron trim tab is essentially a mini-airfoil attached to the trailing edge of the aileron.
This tab airfoil creates a lifting force that will offset the stick force that the pilot is using to
hold the aileron out of the faired position. Most aileron trim systems consist of a simple
fixed tab or a movable (mechanical or electric powered) tab.
Fixed Tab. In WW2 era fighters, the fixed aileron tab was common and resembled the
fixed elevator tab. In these aircraft, the tab deflection was set as the result of factory test
flights.
Movable Tab. As aircraft design became more sophisticated, aircraft more complex, and
their flight envelopes much wider, the need for something beyond a fixed tab became
obvious. This tab functioned exactly like the elevator tab that we have already described.
Also note that this LaGG-3 has only one aileron trim tab (left wing), while it has two
elevator trim tabs.
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The tab control is a twist knob typically situated on the left side of the cockpit near the
throttle and flap controls. Turning this knob raises or lowers the tab relative to the trailing
edge of the aileron. This is the aileron trim knob in a P-39.
Aileron trim is probably the least often used trim in a fighter. The third type of trim, rudder
trim, is more commonly used, particularly in WW2 era aircraft.
Vertical Axis (Yaw) Trim
To some extent, I have discussed rudder trim in the first of these articles on secondary
flight controls. I’ll try to hit the major points again in this section.
The main question that comes to mind is "Why do we need rudder trim"? Unlike in the
case of aileron trim, there are no asymmetric external stores to worry about. To answer
this question, let’s review why rudder trim would be needed in the first place.
And the answer to that is simple…the aircraft is flying "sideways", meaning in

uncoordinated flight! Well, maybe not sideways…but certainly not straight. How would we
know this? It’s not exactly like the first two types of trim where we could see the nose not
maintaining the desired pitch angle or see the wings rolling away from a level attitude.
How would we see the need for trim?
First of all, what’s the problem? The problem is yaw. The nose is cocked off one way or
the other. The fuselage is not aligned with the airstream. The aircraft is flying in a bit of a
skid. OK…how does the pilot recognize this?
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Two ways. In real life, the pilot can "feel" yaw in the "seat of his pants". Skids produce
sideways G forces that pilots can actually feel. The second way is through the
observation of certain cockpit instruments. These instruments are the "ball" in the turn
and slip indicator, and the heading indicator.
The "ball" in the turn and slip indicator should be centered in the trace. If it is off to
one side, then rudder is needed in that direction. So, if the ball is displaced to the
right, then right rudder is needed to center the ball. The pilot pushes the right rudder
pedal in until the ball centers. This action is referred to as "stepping on the ball".
The other common way of detecting the need for rudder is to notice that the heading is
changing on the heading indicator when the wings are held level. If the heading tends to
drift off in one direction, then it’s time to step on a little rudder in the opposite direction to
stop this drift.
In either case, the pilot is left holding the rudder. This can get tiring, and so we use
rudder trim to take up the force needed to displace the rudder. There are several types of
rudder trim. They include vertical fin offset, fixed tab, movable tab, and the control tab.
Vertical Fin Offset. It’s not always visible to the casual onlooker, but in some aircraft, the
wings and tail surfaces are not always in perfect alignment. Take the vertical stabilizer,
for example. It can also be designed with a built-in offset…in this case, to help correct for
helical propwash. That’s a fancy term for the airflow that comes off the prop as it makes
its way back along the aircraft fuselage.
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For the typical prop aircraft, this airflow ends up hitting the left side of the vertical
stabilizer, causing the aircraft to yaw to the left. The pilot would correct for this with
right rudder. The design offset moves the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer
slightly to the left…the result is a vertical stabilizer that produces a small amount of
right yaw. This right yaw assists the pilot in keeping the plane going straight. The
WW2 RAF Hurricane has this feature as you can see in this picture
Fixed Tab. Another trim design intended to reduce the pilot’s rudder workload is the
fixed tab. As with the aileron and elevator fixed tab, the rudder fixed tab is a small
appendage to the trailing edge of the rudder that is preset on the ground based on
flight tests. The tab is usually adjusted for cruise airspeed conditions. The Fw-190
used a fixed rudder trim tab as is shown in this next picture
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Movable Tab. The rudder movable tab is functionally identical to the elevator and aileron
movable tab. It provides a small lifting force that helps reduce pilot rudder input
requirements. The rudder trim tab was often controlled by a knob on the left console in
the cockpit next to the aileron trim control knob. Here are pictures of the P-39 rudder trim
knob and the movable rudder tab on a Spitfire. Note the trim indices located at the base
of the rudder knob. These indices told the pilot how much rudder trim was being used.
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Control Tab. The rudder control tab is a bit different in that the pilot does not directly
control it. Instead, the control tab is mechanically connected to the rudder. When the
rudder moves in one direction, the control tab moves in the opposite direction. It is, in
effect, an "automatic" form of trim control. The control tab provides the same lifting force
to reduce pilot rudder loads and is sometimes known as a Flettner Tab.
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Miscellaneous Trim Devices
Additional control features have been designed to reduce pilot workload in keeping his
aircraft in balance. Among these are control horns, Frieze ailerons, and differences in
incidence angles.
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Control Horn. Aircraft designers have come up with many effective techniques to help the
pilot fly more efficiently and with less effort. One design feature worth mentioning briefly
is the control horn.
The control horn concept can apply to any of the three flight control surfaces but is more
commonly seen on the elevator and rudder. As the elevator or rudder surface is deflected
away from its faired position, the horn area moves out into the airstream opposite to the
main surface. The airstream pushes back on it and, in doing so, produces a force that
helps move the entire control surface. The introduction of boosted and hydraulically
powered flight controls removed the need for control horns. Here is a picture of an
elevator control horn on a Spitfire elevator. The rudder control horn on the Me-109 works
in the same manner.
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A Frieze aileron is one that when the aileron is moved to the "up" position, a small "lip"
moves out into the airstream below the aileron hinge line. This lip creates a small drag
force that "pulls" that wing back slightly. The result is a force that helps counter the
adverse yaw associated with the opposite wing’s "down" aileron.
The wings, tail, and vertical stabilizer are aligned with the fuselage at certain angles,
called incidence angles. We have already described the offset vertical fin. The same
concept has been used in prop planes to offset engine torque. Let’s take a typical
clockwise rotating engine. In this instance, the engine produces a torque that results in a
left rolling tendency. To counter this, the designers give the left wing a slightly greater
angle of incidence relative to the fuselage longitudinal axis. This increased angle of
attack creates a small increase in lift that helps reduce the torque effect.
Well…enough of this theory and real life stuff! Let’s get into how the simulation attempts
to replicate trim devices and pilot techniques.
Section Three - Trim In the Simulation
Now we’re getting down to the nitty-gritty! What we’ll find in this last section is that trim
comes in two types in our sims. I’ll call them, for lack of better words, auto-trim and
manual trim. In the former, depending on the sim, you will basically turn the trimming
problem over to the AI. In the latter, you’ll have to use the sim’s trim controls to keep your
aircraft in balance. Let’s start then with a look at the types of trim that you’ll encounter in
a selection of current sims.
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Types of Simulation Trim
Auto-Trim. When I say "auto-trim", I mean any of four things. One, the sim has no trim
controls at all, and therefore the aircraft in the sim is always "in trim". Two, the aircraft in
the sim have computer controlled trim in real life and as a result the sim lacks any trim
controls (this is the case with many modern jet fighters). Three, the sim has a feature that
allows the AI to trim the aircraft for certain conditions without requiring you to operate the
trim controls. The fourth situation occurs when the sim has an autopilot feature.
Most older sims fit into the first category. Some of these are still popular. European Air
War and Jane’s WW2 Fighters are two examples. In these sims, the AI keeps the aircraft
in trim under all conditions regardless of airspeed, attitude, or configuration
considerations.
The second category includes sims such as Falcon 4 and Jane’s F-15/18. Most modern
fighters have computer controlled flight control systems that keep the jet in trim in all
conditions and configurations.
The third category is unique. This category is for sims that feature both manual and
automatic trim. The best example is Aces High. AH has a "Combat Trim" feature that
frees the pilot from having to trim for airspeed changes in general. For example, during
the acceleration after takeoff, the AI retrims the elevator "nose down". This Combat Trim
feature has limitations and does not relieve the pilot from all trimming needs. Changes in
aircraft pitch attitude or configuration will produce stick forces that the pilot will have to
manually account for.
The fourth category deals with trimming while the AI is flying the plane on autopilot. Even
though you may normally be using manual trim in the sim, once you engage the autopilot,
the AI retrims the plane for whatever speed and attitude the autopilot is programmed for.
Aces High has an autopilot that trims the plane in level flight, in a climb, or in a dive for
the speed you select,
Manual Trim. Most sims today use a manual trim feature that tries to replicate real life,
and most do a pretty good job at providing a "feel" that comes close to what a RL pilot
would experience. However, with today’s flight stick technology, no sim is going to "work"
like a RL aircraft trim system works. Here’s why.
In the typical RL flight control set-up, the stick is physically connected to the flight
controls (the exception being "fly by wire" systems). If the elevator is "up", then the stick
is aft of the neutral position. If the pilot is flying at slow speed, he is holding the stick back
to hold the nose up. If he trims this back stick pressure off, the stick will remain in the aft
of neutral position. The trim is now providing the force to hold the stick in its aft position.
In these next pictures, you can see how the stick is behind the neutral position in order to
hold the elevator "up".
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When we encounter this situation in our sim, we can feel the same "heavy" stick as we
hold the nose up. But if we trim the nose so that these stick forces disappear, then
something very different happens. The flight stick returns to the neutral position. It has to
because it is spring-loaded to this position. The point is that in our sims, we are not
trimming the stick. Instead, we are, in effect, trimming the picture we see on the monitor
screen. If we add nose up trim as we hold the flight stick back, we will have to reduce the
pressure we are holding against the stick spring. If we do not, the nose will pitch up on
the screen. So, as we trim the "up" trim key or HOTAS control, we slowly relax back stick
pressure until we reach a point where the pitch attitude remains steady and the stick is in
the neutral position. You have now trimmed the nose for this slow speed. Check the
external view and you can see the elevator is raised. Check the cockpit internal view and
you will see the stick is still aft as it should be. But your flight stick is centered.
The point to keep in mind is that, unlike real life, when you trim in the sim, you return the
stick to the centered position. Be sure when you change your speeds later on that you
retrim to regain your original stick authority.
These screenshots came from IL-2 because that sim (along with AH ) may well have one
of the more sophisticated trim functions seen today. Other sims offer manual trim
however. Two, MiG Alley and Jane’s USAF, offer only pitch trim. Others, including, MS
CFS2, Battle of Britain, Flanker 2, and Jane’s Attack Squadron, have trim functions for
pitch, roll, and yaw.
Well…that pretty well covers the types of trim that we will see in our sims. Let’s move on
now to the ways we have of making the trim input in the sim.
Making the Trim Input In the Simulation
Picture yourself motoring along. You have the power pushed up, your speed is
increasing, and your nose wants to rise as a result. But you want to maintain level flight,
so you turn to trim the nose "down". Sounds good to me…but just how do you do this in a
sim? And are there any limitations or shortcomings to this?
Keyboard Trim. The most common way to make a trim input is to use the keyboard.
Every sim that has a trim function has a key (or keys) that are set aside for that purpose.
Quite often, the "arrow keys" are used for trim…the vertical arrows for pitch trim, and the
horizontal arrows for aileron trim. Rudder trim is the " red-haired step-child" and could be
assigned anywhere on the keyboard. For most sims, the keyboard trim input is a single
key press per increment of trim step. Each press of the key gets a small increase in trim.
The key cannot be pressed and held to make a large trim input. For example, when IL-2
first came out, it took 20 presses of the keyboard key to move the trim through its range
of travel. Although time consuming, this key pressing process mimics the real life trim
process fairly well. Because of this, I prefer to keep the trim function on the keyboard.
Stick/HOTAS Trim. Your other option is to use the sim’s key mapping function to "map"
the trim to a flight stick button or throttle switch. While such a technique can make
gameplay a little easier, it does not resemble what we experience in RL. If someone
wants to remap trim to his stick, I suggest the reassignment be made to the hat switch. In
RL, the hat switch is the trim button. I have replaced one of the multi-function "castle"
switches on my TM F-22 Pro with a spare "coolie" hat switch and use it for pitch and
aileron trim…just like I did in RL.
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What I do not do is map trim to any type of slider or rotary switch on my HOTAS. In most
cases, trim was not meant to be a quick or easy-to-use control. Modifying a HOTAS to
permit rapid trim inputs is a poor replication of the real world as far as I’m concerned.
In any case, the idea is to use trim in our sims to make our flying easier and more
enjoyable. Let’s finish off this article with some tips on how to use trim in our flying.
How and When To Trim
First, the "how". Regardless of the situation you find yourself in, this is how to use your
trim controls. In this next figure, please note that we fly with the stick and rudder and trim
with the trim controls.
The question of "when" to trim takes us full circle in this article. We end up back with
Archie and Mom on the teeter-totter. Trim is going to be a tool that we use to make our
work easier. Archie used the lever to move the world…we are going to use trim to help fly
the plane. Mom used her additional force to balance the teeter-totter…we are going to
use the additional force of trim to balance our plane. I’ll discuss trim with regards to the
following phases of flight: the takeoff, the climb and cruise, combat, and the landing.
The Takeoff. Most aircraft in RL have a takeoff trim setting. Sometimes it’s a number on a
dial or gauge. Sometimes it’s just a light bulb on a panel. In any case, the pilot has
something to tell him that the plane is "in trim" for takeoff. This will require that he check
the trim in all three axes (elevator, aileron, and rudder). Often, he has a checklist that
gives the trim setting for whatever weight and configuration he has for takeoff.
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In Aces High, the Combat Trim function is the default for takeoff. The pilot can check his
trim gauge for proper settings.
Some sims include a takeoff checklist that replicates the RL trim procedure:
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However, the fact of the matter is that takeoff trim settings are the exception and not the
rule in our sims. Not a problem. Perhaps there will come a day when setting trim will be a
routine matter. Until then, as long as you understand the how’s and when’s, we’ll
consider it "nice to know" only.
Prop sims are far more likely a candidate for takeoff trim. The reason, of course, is that
big prop spinning around and the airflow that it produces. The first of these articles…the
rudder discussion…explained engine effects in some detail. Rudder is used to correct for
some of these effects, and rudder trim is used to help the pilot put in and maintain the
required amount of rudder. Re-read that article, if needed to refresh your memory of
engine effects.
You may also find that pitch trim is needed for the takeoff. The amount of trim will vary
with aircraft weight and is intended to help the pilot rotate the nose up at liftoff speed. At
present, pitch trim is not an issue in our sims.
So trim in the takeoff is all a matter of modeling and documentation. As sims become
more complex, you may find that you have to refer to the sim’s documentation to find the
preset trim values to use. Until then, file this away for future use.
The Climb and Cruise. Earlier in this article, I mentioned that we really trimmed for an
angle of attack. This was in reference to pitch trim only. In the climb and in cruise,
generally speaking, we plan to fly at an optimum speed…best climb or best endurance,
etc. At this speed, you will hold a pitch attitude that requires a certain elevator deflection.
This elevator deflection will probably not be the neutral position of the fight stick…you will
have to hold the stick out of the neutral position to maintain the desired attitude. Unless
you want to develop big muscles, I suggest you use pitch trim to relieve those stick
forces. Here’s how you do that.
Once your pitch attitude is set, then set your climb or cruise power…remember that
throttle settings affect the balance of the plane, often in all three axes…so smoothly add
power until you reach the desired RPM or manifold setting. As a rule, do not use
afterburner or WEP for climbs unless you have an urgent need to get to altitude. You’ll
use too much fuel and subject your engine to overheating if you do. Every plane has an
optimum climb speed. For WW2 planes, this was about 150-190mph. A typical jet fighter
will climb at 350-400KIAS.
Your weight will affect your climb attitude and climb rate. Start off at around 10 degrees
of pitch (use the attitude indicator to determine this). Hold this attitude using outside
references…note the position of the horizon line and try to keep it steady on your forward
view.
Then note your stick position…it’s probably slightly aft of neutral. Relax a little back
pressure. Does the nose want to drop? Probably so. If this is the case, tap in two or
three clicks of nose up trim. Then repeat the process...relax back pressure and check
the nose position. If it still drops slightly, add a couple more clicks of nose up trim
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Eventually, you will reach a point where the nose stays on the horizon where you want it.
You are now trimmed in pitch. Now, keep this in mind. As you climb higher and higher,
you will have to lower your pitch attitude to maintain the same speed. If you find your
speed beginning to bleed off, lower your nose a few degrees and retrim.
Aileron trim in the climb or in cruising flight is usually not a big deal. If you notice one
wing seems heavier than the other, then hold the wings level and trim the aileron into the
direction of the light wing…in other words, if the left wing wants to drop, press the right
aileron trim key. You may have to add a number of trim clicks until the trim setting holds
the wings level and you have returned the flight stick to the neutral aileron position.
Rudder trim can be a little more difficult to see the need for. There are two ways of
seeing this. One is that your heading is changing even though you are in wings level
flight. The other is to check the ball in the turn and slip indicator. If the ball is out of the
center position, then you need rudder trim. The proper technique is to "step on the ball"
and then trim… but with rudder in our sims, you need not center the ball with your rudder
control (pedals or stick twist grip). It is OK just to tap in the proper trim inputs…if the ball
is off to the right, use the right rudder trim key. Tap in your rudder clicks until the ball is
centered (or the plane stops turning). One note. You may have to retrim the aileron after
trimming the rudder. This is because of the aerodynamic connection between yaw and
roll (dihedral effect). This is in fact how I trim the rudder in the airliner that I fly today.
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Remember also that balance around the vertical axis (yaw) is affected by power setting
for prop aircraft. You may see more of a need for rudder trim when operating at high
power settings, depending on your sim’s flight model.
Trimming in Combat. I suggest three types of situations where we might want or need to
trim in "combat". One is when you find your speed changing relatively rapidly…vertical
maneuvering (Boom and Zoom - BnZ) is a typical example of this. The second is when
you find yourself holding something other than one G for more than just few seconds.
High G stall fighting is an example of this. The third occurs during weapons delivery. We
want a stable platform for gunnery and bombing…one way to help get this is by trimming.
Trimming For Rapid Speed Changes. When we fly yo-yos or BnZ, we can go through
some significant speed changes. Since the general rule is to trim for changes in speed,
some might want to attempt this in our sims. My advice is to not do this! I feel that this is
ultimately counter-productive in that your full attention is needed on solving the on-going
BFM problem. In RL, I did not do much trimming when engaged…there was simply too
much else going on. The stick feel changes were something I just accepted and lived
with. So it is with the sims I fly. I make whatever flight stick displacement is necessary for
the relatively short time that I’m going to be in that out of trim condition. In any case, I find
that keyboard functions such as view changes, weapons and target cycling, etc take my
full attention.
There is one exception, and that is flight into the high-speed end of the flight envelope. If
I am extending out of a fight and going for max knots, then I’ll retrim. In doing so, I know I
can take my attention off maintaining my pitch attitude and check six, or my map, or
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whatever…confident that my retrimming will let me look somewhere else except forward.
Another example is the high-speed dive where I may need trim to help pull out of the
dive.
So…my advice is to not trim during the actual turn and burn engagement unless you
have a very specific need to do so.
Trimming While Pulling G. There are situations where you might find yourself in a
prolonged turning fight where the G loads (back stick pressure) are greater than usual.
The Lufbery Circle is one example. In this situation, I don’t have a problem with you using
trim to help pull on the pole. I would add the caution that in the end, the trim that you put
in will most likely have to be removed as you unload and reposition. Personally, I would
not trim in this case…but, I see no reason other that personal preference not to.
As long as we are here, let me say again that trim in most cases should have no effect on
turn performance. In the turn and burn engagement, trimming the nose "up" will not
increase the aerodynamic advantage of the tail in the typical engagement speed range.
Also remember that turn performance is a function of lift…lift comes from the wing, not
the tail. All pitch trim will do for us in this situation is help "balance" the effort you are
making in pulling on the pole.
There is an exception. This occurs when you are flying at a speed where air loads
become a factor. For example, in IL-2, air loads seem to generally begin around 300kph.
Above that speed, the sim’s flight model begins to restrict the amount of elevator
displacement you can get. You may be able to regain full displacement by using a little
"nose up" pitch trim. Remember what I said about HOTAS trimming being a no-no!
In the paragraph before the last, I said "should have no effect" and not "will have no
effect" because we know that some sims seem to reward trimming in pitch with an
increase in turn performance. There’s not much we can do about that until the developers
fix the sim. Until then, I suppose we all need to be on the "honor system" and fly by the
rules! As far as I’m concerned, these things are not "cheats". Instead, I see them as
"unintended consequences"…and they should be avoided.
Trimming During Weapons Delivery. Accurate weapons delivery depends on a stable

weapons platform…that’s a fancy way of saying a "balanced" and reliable gunsight! The
plane and weapons are designed so that the weapons are delivered along the plane’s
flight path. If that flight path is skewed off for some reason, then weapon aiming will be
affected and you’ll likely miss your target.
From a RL perspective, there are many aspects of how trim relates to weapons delivery.
But that’s real life. We’re talking sims, so let’s keep to the things that we have to deal with
when we roll in on the target. We’ll begin by leaving aileron trim out of the discussion.
Unless you have an asymmetric wing load on your fighter, I don’t think we’ll have to worry
about aileron trim.
Now…elevator and rudder trim are a different story. Here is the quick and dirty on these
two.
Pitch trim can help diminish the "bobbing" tendency that we see in some sims. This
bobbing can be an irritant when we are trying to fine-tune our aiming. This applies to A2A
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and A2G, gun and bombing attacks. One technique that some use (I do!) is to trim
slightly "nose down" so that you have to hold just a little back pressure on the stick. Now,
this is technique only…I feel like I have a better "feel" for the stick and better resultant
control over the gunsight if I have a stick that feels a tad bit "heavy". How much nose
down? It varies with the specific sim…but 3-5 clicks of trim should be sufficient…just
enough so that your flight stick is out of the neutral detent. Remember, this is personal
preference only!
In an A2G attack, we often find ourselves diving and picking up speed. Often, unless we
trim nose down as the speed builds, we end up fighting a nose pitch up tendency as we
try to get the pipper on the target. What is happening is that the plane is trimmed for a
slower speed…but you are going fast. So the plane wants to get back to that slower
speed and it tries to raise the nose to do that. You end up having to push the stick
forward more and more as the speed increases. This is awkward and is even more so if
you have to make bank corrections at the same time.
In RL, we would trim the jet for the weapons release airspeed and then leave it there
during the attack. You can do something like this in your sim. Trim your plane for the
speed that you want to release at. If you forget, remember to add trim in the dive to
reduce the tendency of the nose to rise.
Rudder trim is especially important in A2A and A2G deliveries. If the plane is not in
coordinated flight at weapons release (no yaw), the gunsight is lying to you. What you
see is not what you get. If the rudder is out of trim, the pipper is not your flight path. Your
weapon, gun or bomb, will not hit the target.
The only way to ensure that you are trimmed properly in yaw is to check the turn and slip
indicator. Remember, rudder trim changes with airspeed, so a good idea is to trim the
rudder for release speed. Our sims accurately model yaw and its effects on flight path.
You must make sure your rudder is trimmed neutral prior to the attack. The only
alternative is to use your rudder pedals or twist stick to correct the yaw…and that is a
tricky thing to do when you are concentrating on getting the pipper on the target!
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Modern jets have their turn and slip indicators incorporated into the attitude indicator.
Keep in mind…just because you have a HUD…this doesn’t relieve you of keeping the
plane in trim!
The Landing. Of the three types of trim, only pitch trim is of significant importance in the
landing. Landing is much like weapons delivery in that you are trying to hit a certain spot.
In the case of the landing, you are aiming at the approach end of the runway. A balanced
aircraft will make aim control a little easier.
One secret to a well-flown approach and landing is an early configuration. When

possible, give yourself a comfortable final in terms of distance…one mile is more than
enough. When maneuvering to the final lineup, add some extra speed for your
maneuvering (10 to 15 mph in WW2 planes, 20-30KIAS in jets). Use pitch trim to reach a
"hand off" stick feel. Do this exactly as before. Hold a constant pitch attitude visually and
then make single nose up pitch trim inputs until the stick forces are gone.
Prior to final, get your gear down and extend partial flaps. "Partial" means "takeoff" flaps,
1 notch in a 3-notch system, or 3 notches in a 5-notch system. More flaps than this is too
much drag. Be prepared for pitch changes when the flaps are lowered…hold your pitch
steady and retrim as needed.
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Once on final, extend full flaps and slow down to final approach speed. Hold your visual
aim point steady and trim off any nose heaviness. If you have a velocity vector "tadpole",
use it and use trim to help you hold the tadpole on the end of the runway.
In the vent of a go-around, be ready to add nose down trim quickly to prevent too much
nose pitch up as you add power.
Do not use rudder trim to counter crosswinds. Instead, use the rudder to fly your final
approach.
Well, that should be a start to effective trim use in your sim flying. Good luck…and
always remember that trim is a tool to make flying easier…it is not a control to fly with!
Good shooting!
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An Introduction to Simulation BFM
by Andy Bush
The following articles were written several years ago in support of a web site devoted to
Janes ATF, and later, Fighters Anthology (FA). Much of the material is of a general
nature and may be applicable to all sims. Newcomers to air combat simulation may find
this material helpful in understanding some of the terminology of air combat.
For those of you interested in the technique of learning and flying BFM while using the
player-to-target external view can find some tips here. The FA sim has several features
that make it a good choice for practicing BFM with the external view. In particular, you
may find the explanations of how to fly a variety of specific maneuvers to be helpful.
There are no illustrations to these articles, however, many of the techniques are covered
in the "It’s All A Matter Of Perspective" series of articles.
BFM - An Introduction
Is this flight sim stuff a good thing or what? Well, that's what I think, at least. And the
more I have thought about it, the more I wanted to bring some things up for discussion.
So, here we go.....what I'm going to do is to throw some ideas and observations out for
you all to chew on, and, then, maybe you'll get back to me with your thoughts on the
subject...as a result, we'll both end up a bunch smarter.
Number One Question: What are we trying to do here? There used to be a cigarette
commercial in years past that asked the question "Do you want good flavor or good
taste?" Well, that sorta sums up the big question in my mind regarding flight sims...do
you want arcade fun or real world realism? The answer is most likely...both!! Some want
plain old shoot 'em up flying, and others want the complexity of planning and executing a
multi-plane attack on poor old Saddam. OK, we can have our cake and eat it too. Today's
sims allow a wide spectrum of user activity, and no one should poop in the mess kit of
one side or the other. There's plenty of fun to be had by all!!
For me, the action is in one versus one aerial combat...you know, the TOPGUN rat-a-tat-
tat "I gunned you before you gunned me" kinda stuff. And the reason is real simple...it's
just more fun than the law allows. I wish all of you folks could experience the thrill of an
air combat training mission...to say that it is an exhilarating experience is not doing it
justice! Win or lose, it's a supercharged, heart thumping, palm sweating, breath taking
event that will forever more alter your view of the world around you. After everything is
said and done, you will know that you are well and truly alive and that you have seen and
felt things which mere mortals never will.
Having said that, I want to put in a pitch for good old BFM. That's Basic Fighter
Maneuvers that I'm talking about. Forget about AMRAAM face shots for a moment...let's
look at how the military starts their pilots out. F16 students, once qualified in basic
transition, formation, and instrument skills, go straight into air-to-air training. You might
think that strange...why not start off in air-to-ground...that's gotta be easier and less
complicated...why not leave the three-dimensional air-to-air stuff until the end, you might
say. The answer is simple. It's a matter of staying alive. Screw up a BFM maneuver, and
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you get to try it again. Most BFM training flights are flown in the medium altitude
region...10,000' to 20,000 ' above ground...big margins for error.
Air-to-ground...now that's a whole different ball game. Mother Earth is very

unforgiving...start your pull out too low and you've just become the lead off item in
Channel Three's six o'clock news report, and the news ain't good.!! The military treats air-
to-ground maneuvers as BFM flown against a fixed objective with a very hard "floor"
located right at target altitude. So, BFM is learned at a safe altitude and in an air-to-air
context to start with...then training moves into the real serious stuff, ie pointing your warm
body at the ground. No matter, we're still talking BFM.
So, you ask, what is this BFM stuff? What is it all about? Real simple...here's the answer.
It's about controlling your position and energy state relative to the bandit. It's about
controlling fuselage alignment and closure. It's about keeping him in front and you
behind. It's about winning or losing!! BFM is the heart and soul of fighter aviation. No
matter what your mission objective is, you must be able to put you and your jet into a
specific part of the sky at a specific time. Be in position and don't be late...or early for that
matter!!
Want to know more about this? That takes me back to my original point. Tell me what
you think...or throw some questions my way. I'm game...how about you? Follow-on
discussions will relate real world BFM to the limitations and restrictions of the view of
BFM provided by the computer monitor.
BFM Lesson 1- What Are Your Objectives?
With all the super work that Greg has done in providing us all with a wide selection of
aircraft to fly, there naturally have followed a number of questions regarding how a
particular aircraft should be flown against specific opponents. I'd like to take a moment to
talk about that.
My experience with flight sims, the flight sim media, and the folks that fly them has left
me with one singular insight...simmers who want to maximize their enjoyment of their
flight sim are hungry for any and all info on what "it's really like." While I think such
enthusiasm is outstanding, I think a little reality check is necessary.
First and foremost, a flight sim is only going to "fly" in the manner that it was
programmed. If it wasn't modelled correctly, then the sim aircraft cannot be compared to
the real thing...and with that in consideration, it then follows that prescribing real world
tactics for that aircraft may well be wasted effort. Fortunately for us all, Greg continues to
go to any length to make his lib aircraft fly as realistically as possible. But neither Greg
nor anyone else can provide other intangibles such as actual G loads, 360 degree vision,
and a intuitive sense of "the big picture" which are such a major part of actual BFM.
These are limitations which the flight sim environment has tremendous difficulties in
replicating. Once we recognize this, then we can go about the business of making what
we have work as well as possible. Having said that, let's move on to some specific
suggestions.
I'll start off by raising the question of what you want to get out of the sim...do you want a
missile "kill" at BVR ranges, or do you want to get in and mix it up? The answer to this
question leads directly to how you expect to fly your jet...a "face shot" at 15 miles doesn't
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require a lot of BFM on anyone's part. On the other hand, a guns only environment
almost always will. For the purpose of this discussion, I'll limit myself to a guns only
situation, and then discuss aircraft performance with that in mind.
When we talk about relative performance these days, it's common to hear the terms
"angles fighter" and "energy fighter." In years past, this was expressed as "turns better /
accelerates worse" and "accelerates better / turns worse." Please understand that this is
all relative. A MiG-17 was an "angles fighter" when opposing an F-4, but against a P-51,
the MiG is in the other category. So when you choose a jet to fly, you have to take your
opponent in mind. You certainly want to play to your aircraft's strong points while
minimizing your opponent's advantages. Taking a heavy F-16 into a knife fight with a
MiG-29 may not be the thing to do.
So what's the answer? I suggest less interest in how a specific aircraft matches up
against another...instead let's take note of those performance advantages of our
jet...good acceleration, let's say...and then plan our moves accordingly. Perhaps an
example is in order...I'll choose the F-104, a long time favorite of mine. I'll make the
assumption that the sim aircraft is modeled fairly accurately. I'm then going to play to my
strong points...better than average acceleration, high top end speed, and a decent but
not spectacular turn ability at corner velocity. Remember, we're talking gun only here. My
objective will be to take away my opponent's turning room...I don't want him to lead turn
me. I'll keep my speed up...over 500KIAS...to retain as much energy as possible to be
able to extend out of gun range as conditions require. I'll expect most of my attacks to be
slashing, high angle gun passes...probably not a good idea to try and slow down to
attempt a more conventional low angle tracking shot. Vertical extensions...trading
airspeed for turning room in the vertical...will be a major item in my bag of tricks. Lastly,
I'll think of my maneuvers as extensions and hooks...meaning straight line acceleration to
gain separation and then a rapid deceleration to corner for any required turns.
But what if you prefer an angles fighter? Well, I just so happen to have some experience
in that too. Flying the A-10 was total fun, but no one ever accused it of being an air-to-air
machine!! But it could hold its own in a fight when flown to take maximum advantage of
its strong points. These were an amazing turn rate and radius and a real big gun that
shot a whole bunch further than anyone else could. My tactics in the Hog were to lead
turn my opponent to keep forcing him out in front. I took the fight down low to deny him
turning room below me. I only went into the vertical to take a shot. I kept my smash up as
much as possible to minimize his ability to extend away easily. And I waited for him to
screw up. Most gun engagements are not won...they are lost. There are F-15 and F-16
drivers out there who have found themselves looking at the wrong end of a Hog and were
left wondering how in the world such a thing could have happened.
OK, let's wrap this up. I've tried to make several points:
1. Know what you are flying. It will only fly as well as it has been modeled. Fly it
according to how it is modeled, not how the real aircraft flies.
2. Know what your goal is...a quick kill or a knife fight.
3. Know how your opponent stacks up against your jet. Are you going to be an angles or
an energy type of jet versus your opponent?
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4. Fly to your strengths and take advantage of his weaknesses.
BFM Lesson 2 - The Basics
Let’s talk a bit more about BFM, but first how about a little book learning’ on
terminology<g>.
BFM, Basic Fighter Maneuvers, is just that...basic offensive and defensive maneuvers
flown by one aircraft against a single opponent. BFM is intended to teach the basics of
3D maneuvering with emphasis on spatial relationships and control of airspeed...which is
a fancy way of saying that the maneuvers are intended to keep your opponent out in front
of you or, if he is behind you, the maneuvers are meant to deny him a firing opportunity,
or even better, make him overshoot and become defensive. BFM is 1v1 set piece
maneuvering to a desired end result.
ACM, Air Combat Maneuvers, is the next step in the building block concept of air-to-air
training. ACM involves a pair of fighters solving a defensive or offensive problem being
presented by a single opponent. ACM is 2v1 and involves the practice of initial defensive
or offensive moves. As in BFM, the maneuvers are set piece, are begun from a visual set
up, and are flown to a pre-briefed conclusion. ACM is not free play...the fighters follow a
script to a desired learning objective using BFM maneuvers to defeat the single
opponent.
ACT, Air Combat Tactics, is what most folks think of as dogfighting. The numbers of
participants is not limited...everything from 1v1 to many v many. There is no script in that
no specific objective is mandated. ACT involves the blending of BFM and ACM
techniques into free play. DACT is Dissimilar ACT, meaning the opponents fly different
types of aircraft. ACT can be flown from a visual set up or BVR. ACT is the final building
block in air-to-air training.
Now, this doesn’t have much to do with flight sims other than to make clear that
terminology in the air-to-air business is very important. If you wanna do the walk, ya gotta
know the talk<vbg>. In the real world, all of this is written down in a document called "The
Engaged Fighter / Supporting Fighter Contract," which lays out in very specific language
who does what to whom and who is responsible for what in an engagement. Guys have
died not following these rules. You may not need this level of learning to enjoy your flight
sim, but if you are going to use air-to-air terminology, I’m sure you would want to do it
right.
Whew!! Enough of the classroom stuff, let’s have some fun!! For starters, let me remind
everyone that these discussions assume the sim aircraft fly according to sim flight
characteristics (not real life) and are based on a gun only environment.
We’ll concentrate on BFM maneuvers and try to describe them as you would see them
on your monitor. First, let’s recognize up front the limitations of the monitor. As we all
know so well, visibility is restricted, particularly in the 12 o’clock high area. This is a
critical shortcoming in that the 12 o’clock high area is where your lift vector is, and your
lift vector is what determines your aircraft’s future flight path. If you can’t see where you
are going when you are pulling on the pole, then you are in deep doodoo <g>. In most
current sims, the hat switch on your flight stick can slew your view up and give you that
high 12 o’clock view, but you must be very careful with your aileron input if you try this.
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Any roll input while you are using the hat switch to look to high 12 will most likely be very
disorienting. The same is true of any slewed view using the hat switch...use the hat
switch as an aid to finding the bandit, but do not try to maneuver using it...switch back to
your forward view and then make your flight path change. Continue to use the hat switch
to monitor your progress.
Another restriction to visibility is the cockpit frame / HUD depictions. I strongly suggest
you choose a forward view that does not include the HUD frame if your sim choices
permit. The sim’s portrayal of the cockpit frame / HUD may be fairly realistic from a
technical point of view, but ends up being a restriction to forward visibility that far
exceeds the extent to which your vision is restricted in real life.
Along this same line of thought, if flying ATF/ FA, try to put any windows that you use at
the bottom of your screen...this frees up the top of the monitor for maneuvering use as
you roll your a/ c to position the lift vector.
Probably the most popular view for following a maneuvering target is the padlock view.
Many competition ladders require this view. The main problem in using a padlock view is
keeping oriented to where your nose is. For this purpose, most padlock views contain
cues that allow you to "see" your nose position. These cues include canopy markers (as
in EF2000 and F22 ADF) and mini-windows (as in Falcon3) and are intended to show the
location of the lift vector. These cues allow you to point your lift vector relative to the
target’s position in the padlock screen. This technique takes a great amount of practice to
become proficient with, particularly if the pilot is using the cues to maneuver out of the
plane of motion of the target. The padlock user should avoid using the lift vector to aim
right at the target...this is known as "lift vectoring"...doing this results in a "g for brains"
pure pursuit chase of the target and is not good BFM. In fact, it will only work if you have
a turn advantage over the target.
The external views can be used to help you visualize a BFM maneuver. The main
problem with using external views are remembering which way is left and right as you
view your aircraft! As with the padlock technique, these views require practice to become
proficient in, but they are the best viewing choice to learn the three dimensional BFM
maneuvering environment, i.e. seeing the "big 3D picture".
Lastly, let me put in a pitch for peripheral hardware. Both Thrustmaster, CH Products,
and Saitek make excellent flight sticks, throttles, and rudder controls. The advantage of a
programmed flight stick and throttle cannot be overstated. The less you have to go to the
keyboard, the better. Weapons selection, view control, speed brake, chaff / flare / ECM,
and radar operation need to be at your finger tips. You can leave the gear and flaps on
the keyboard, but try to program your controls so that you can fly "heads up" as much as
possible. Looking down to the keyboard should be minimized to reduce the possibility of
losing sight of the bandit.
Now we are ready to do some flying! Part 3 will begin a discussion of actual BFM
maneuvers.
BFM Lesson 3 - Configuring The Sim
Well, it's time to strap on the jets and do some flying, but first, we need to brief the
mission. Let's talk a bit about how we want to configure the sim to maximize our training.
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Today's mission will be a basic one v one set up with you on the offense. Here's some
suggestions that work well for me. I’ll use ATF/ FA as a frame of reference...the ideas
translate easily to other sims.
1. Preferences. Selection of aircraft. Using the Quick Mission Creator screen, pick a
maneuverable jet...and select a less maneuverable for your opponent...for example, you
might choose to fly the Super A-4 against the A-7. The idea here is to give you the
advantage while you are learning the basics.
2. For your mission parameters, select Situation=Advantage, Separation=1 nm, Standard

Weapons load, Altitude=5000 ft, Weather=Clear, and Guns Only. This puts you behind
your opponent in a good position to begin maneuvering.
3. Level of Difficulty. On the Enemy Situation screen, select only one opponent. Initially
choose Novice as his experience level...as your ability improves, you can up the ante.
4. Basic Screen Set Up. We are going to practice basic BFM maneuvers against a
maneuvering target. The major problem with BFM and flight sims is that the very nature
of BFM...maneuvering relative to our opponent while our aircraft is not pointing at him...
results in losing sight of his aircraft. So now we have two problems to fix...flying the BFM
maneuver properly, and keeping a tally ho on the other guy. Fortunately, ATF allows us
to do this by changing our selection of views. This is how I configure my screen:
a. Frame Rate. Reduce graphics level to minimum ground detail to improve frame rate. I
keep aircraft detail on high because I like looking at pretty airplanes<g>.
b. Turn Transitions off to speed up changing from one view to another.
c. Make an Other View window that shows your forward view. Do this by selecting F1 to
put you in the forward view. You want to have the Other View window at the bottom of
your screen...do this by selecting other windows first...do this until you have these at the
top of your screen. Then select V. This should put the forward view window at the bottom
of your screen. Then turn off the other windows by mouse clicking on their number
located in the upper left corner of their window. You want the top of your screen empty
because that is where the majority of the action is going to take place, and we don't want
it cluttered up.
d. When you initiate play, select Slow Motion by pressing Shift + C. This will slow down
both your aircraft’s maneuverability and your opponent’s by 50%. Doing this at first will
give you the time to recognize the need for a given BFM response and will allow you to
fly that response slowly so that you will see the effect of the maneuver. Regular roll rates
and opponent AI response is too aggressive for beginners.
e. Finally, plan on using the F7 external view anytime your nose is off your opponent to
the extent that you no longer see him. Use the + and - keys to zoom the F7 view in or out
to provide the clearest picture of the action. When in the F7 external view, use the F1
window to keep track of where your nose is relative to the horizon...in real life, a pilot’s
peripheral vision "sees" the horizon and constantly updates him on his attitude relative to
the horizon. The significance of this will be explained later when we talk about energy
and "God’s G".
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5. OK!! Let’s summarize our game play configuration. We’re going to fly in F1 until the
bandit flies out of view...then we switch to F7 and continue to maneuver relative to the
bandit. We use the F1 window to keep track of the horizon...and when we have
successfully maneuvered back behind the bandit, we can switch back to F1. We fly in
slow motion to begin with so we can see the maneuvers more easily. Improve your frame
rate by keeping your graphics demands low and turn Transitions off to speed up view
selection. Start from a 6 o’clock and one mile back position from your opponent...guns
only.
6. So if there aren’t any questions, let’s mount up and get to work. Follow-on discussions
will address basic offensive BFM maneuvers. See you then.
An Introduction to Simulation BFM,

Part Two
by Andy Bush
The following articles were written several years ago in support of a web site devoted to
Janes ATF, and later, Fighters Anthology (FA). Much of the material is of a general
nature and may be applicable to all sims. Newcomers to air combat simulation may find
this material helpful in understanding some of the terminology of air combat.
For those of you interested in the technique of learning and flying BFM while using the
player-to-target external view can find some tips here. The FA sim has several features
that make it a good choice for practicing BFM with the external view. In particular, you
may find the explanations of how to fly a variety of specific maneuvers to be helpful.
There are no illustrations to these articles, however, many of the techniques are covered
in the ‘It’s All A Matter Of Perspective’ series of articles.
BFM Lesson 4 - BFM Concepts
Well, we finally got airborne!! Here we are, ready to go...but before we jump right into a
double underhanded wifferdill or whatever, let's talk a bit about how to fly this sim. Now,
for you experienced guys (and gals!!), please hang with me here...just maybe there might
be something here for you as well as the beginner.
First of all, let's remember that we're flying a flight sim, not a real jet. As good as ATF as
modified by Greg is (and it's real good, much better than the game right out of the box), it
still ain't the real McCoy...and probably will never be, given the limitations of the program.
For example, here are some sim flight characteristics which differ from real life and which
tend to reduce BFM effectiveness:
1. ATF aircraft accelerate the same at one G as they do at less than one G. This
essentially eliminates the Low Yo-Yo as a effective BFM maneuver. In real life, reducing
the G load to less than one...normally to about one half G...results in a significant
reduction in drag and a corresponding improvement in acceleration. ATF, as presently
programmed, doesn't do this.
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2. ATF aircraft roll under high G...meaning high angle of attack (AOA)...the same as they
do at one G. This is also unlike the real world. Real fighters tend to roll considerably
slower when at high AOA, and in doing so, they tend to lose energy very quickly. In real
BFM, this can be used to your advantage if used to force an attacking opponent to
overshoot. ATF doesn't fly like this, and as a result, the BFM maneuver known as a
Vector Roll or a High G Rudder Roll is not possible. These maneuvers are used to
control closure or overtake and are do not produce the same effect in ATF as they do in
real life. The latest sims such as F-15 and Falcon 4 do a much better job at modeling
high AOA maneuvers.
3. In the real world, the effect of gravity on an aircraft's ability to turn is a very important
part of BFM. Gravity is often referred to as "God's G." Gravity always produces a force of
one G on your jet, and how you use that one G can be significant when it comes to turn
rate and radius. I don't want to get into the serious math at this point...if you just have to
know, please e-mail me<g>...but what it boils down to is this: if your lift vector is
anywhere above the horizon, then God's G is working against you and you have less G
working for you than you think...up to one G less. Orient your lift vector below the
horizon...as in being upside down...and God's G now improves your ability to turn by
adding up to one G to your total G load. This effect is responsible for maneuvers being
flown in the vertical as well as the horizontal planes, and is often the singular evidence of
BFM proficiency in a pilot. From what I have seen, most flight sims don't model this as
well as they should. Turn rates and radii appear to be the same regardless of lift vector
orientation. If this is the case...and it seems that way to me...then sim pilots have lost an
important tool in their BFM bag of tricks.
But, not to worry!! We can still do a pretty credible job of simulating BFM and have a
great time doing it. In talking about how to fly our BFM maneuvers, we need to stress
again our basic objective: we want to maneuver our aircraft behind our opponent to a
position where we are co-speed and at very little to zero angle off, and in gun range. This
is classic BFM...it hasn't changed from World War One to the present. There are many
other maneuver objectives in the total air-to-air combat environment, but we are only
going to concentrate on the most basic. You will learn how to reduce an angle off and
aspect problem in order to close in to a gun kill position.
A word of caution. In the world of air-to-air, there are few absolutes. Other than "what
goes up must come down," there is little that somebody somewhere can't take issue with
if they want. Fighter pilots come equipped with over-sized egos and tend to operate from
the point of view that whom ever yells the loudest, wins. What I'm going to say about
BFM is only my point of view, and it's meant to provide beginner level instruction in the
fine art of going about gunning somebody else's brains out. As always, there are other
ways to skin this cat. Take advantage of all the sources of BFM info to get as wide a
point of view as possible.
Let's now define some basic definitions and objectives that will apply to our discussions
of specific maneuvers. This terminology is critical. Please understand the following
completely.
1. Airspeed Control. You can have too much of a good thing!! For our maneuvers, try to
maintain airspeeds in the 350-450 knot area...this is the corner velocity (CV) speed range
for most of the ATF fighters. CV is the airspeed that will allow you to pull maximum G at
the lowest speed and thus gives you your quickest, tightest turn. The caret symbol on
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your ATF HUD airspeed scale shows you CV for your chosen jet. Your maneuvering may
take you above or below the CV range for periods of time, but as a rule, that speed range
is a good place to start.
2. Closure. Airspeed is what you see on your HUD...closure is the rate at which you are
accelerating or deccelerating from your opponent. Closure is what BFM is concerned
with...not airspeed. BFM maneuvers control closure, not airspeed. You don't care how
fast your opponent is going, you only care about whether or not you are catching him!!
3. Frame of Reference. THIS IS ABSOLUTELY CRITICAL. There are two frames of

reference in BFM...the horizon and your opponent's plane of motion. Depending upon the
maneuver, you will use one or the other or both. In general, your opponent is of more
importance than the horizon.
a. Finding Your Frames of Reference. The horizon line in your HUD and the Other View
window help keep you oriented to where the horizon is if it is out of view...normally, this is
not a problem. But what do we mean by your opponent's plane of motion? What are the
visual clues for this? Here's simple rule of thumb. His plane of motion is where his lift
vector is pointed. Under positive G, his lift vector comes out of the top of his aircraft...if he
has a single vertical stabilizer (rudder), then you can use it to represent his lift vector. If
he is bunting (negative G), then his lift vector is coming out of the bottom of his aircraft.
This lift vector defines his direction of turn. Imagine his wings as representing a flat plane.
His lift vector is perpendicular to this flat plane. If you match his angle of bank, your lift
vector is aligned with his...you are by definition in or parallel to his plane of motion. Now,
here's the goodie. If you can see the top of his wing and you are in his plane of motion,
you are INSIDE his turn...if you are looking at the bottom of his wing, most likely you are
OUTSIDE of his turn. In BFM, we usually want to be inside of our opponent's
turn...therefore, you must be looking at the TOP of his wing. Inside his turn means
closure...this is lead pursuit. Outside his turn generally means no closure...this is lag
pursuit. Most of the time, you will be in lead pursuit
b. Relative Energy States. You can use the horizon and your opponent to help control
your energy. If your opponent is in a turn, his low wing represents the direction of positive
energy for you relative to him. If you are trying to close on him, fly on his low wing side.
His high wing represents a minus energy area...if you have too much energy relative to
him, fly to his high wing side. In most of our maneuvering, we will be flying on the low
side as we try to gain or maintain relative closure. Low wing + Top of the wing = closure =
lead pursuit. High wing + Bottom of the wing = no closure = lag pursuit. Folks, it doesn't
get any simpler than this.
4. Flying to the Elbow...Pulling to High Six. You may have heard these terms before.
They are immortal. They are timeless. They are Omnipotent. They are the be all and end
all of basic BFM. Control of the elbow is control of your opponent. Control of high six is
victory. He who is at high six is behind. He who is not is, therefore, in front. He who is in
front, dies.
a. The Elbow. Look at your arm. Your hand represents your opponent. Your elbow is
where you want to be. It is where you want to point your lift vector at. It is where you want
to end up...behind your opponent.
b. High Six. That area behind and above your opponent...relative to THE HORIZON. The
"six" refers to the position relative to him, ie, the area behind him. "High" is in reference to
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where the horizon is. If you can fly to the "high" side of your opponent, you are pushing
him out in front. You must understand this concept. It is perhaps the most basic of all
BFM. Lift vector control is often the contest for who controls the high six of their
opponent. Know this cold.
Whew!! Enough of this rocket science!! This info is the foundation for understanding
BFM. These terms will be the language of all follow on discussions. Please read this
article until you have it down pat. If you don't understand something, please write me.
BFM Lesson 5 - More Concepts
Well, it's time to get our hands dirty...do a little flying...and look at some of this BFM stuff
we have been discussing. Let's start out with some general ideas that apply pretty much
across the board to all maneuvers. And once again, let's review the ground rules...this
discussion is aimed at a guns only, one v one, beginner level look at basic BFM
maneuvers designed to reduce angle off and aspect angle to produce a low angle off gun
kill.
General Concepts
1. Power Management. Earlier we talked about corner velocity (CV)... we said CV was
about 350-450 knots for most of the aircraft in ATF, and we said that we wanted to stay in
this speed range for most of our maneuvering. If your choice of aircraft has an
afterburner (AB), use it for two purposes only: for acceleration to a desired speed, and to
maintain your present speed while in a high G, energy bleeding turn. Do not fly around in
AB...you will burn too much fuel and you will not stay in the CV range. Remember, your
turn rate and turn radius are a direct function of your airspeed...too much speed and your
turn performance suffers.
Throttle use while flying in the vertical. Any time you are not flying level with the horizon,
you are to some extent flying with a component of your flight path in the vertical...in doing
so God's G may be helping or hurting your turn performance. As a general rule, when
your lift vector is pointed in the "up" direction relative to the horizon( the bottom half of a
loop), do not use AB. AB in this case tends to increase your turn radius, slow your turn
rate, and increase your altitude lost. But do use your AB when you are flying with your lift
vector pointed "down" (the top half of a loop)...here AB will help you maintain your energy
and God's G will add to your turning ability. So...when you are "right side up," i.e. pulling
out of a dive, don't use the AB. When you are "upside down", i.e. on your back, do use
AB. Remember, this is just general advice. If you don't need AB in a given situation, don't
use it!!
2. Lead Turns. The ability to lead turn your opponent is the Holy Grail of BFM. Without a
doubt, it is the number one key to success in you winning your BFM contest with your
opponent. If you lead turn him, he cannot, by definition, lead turn you. If Moses had been
a fighter pilot, he would have said "Do unto others before they do unto you," meaning
lead turn the other sucker before he can do the same to you. But what is this lead turn
thing, how do you do it, and what does it look like?
a. What it is. A lead turn is a maneuver which you initiate to reduce angle off before your
flight path crosses your opponent's flight path. It used to be called an "early turn"
because you start the turn before he starts his. The simplest example of a lead turn in to
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visualize two aircraft approaching each other head on. If they wait until they pass each
other before they begin a turn towards each other, they will roll out essentially facing
each other again, i.e. no advantage gained by either. But if one aircraft begins to turn
before they pass each other, he will complete his turn and be pointing at his opponent
before that aircraft has completed its turn...advantage goes to the pilot who turned first.
Another example...visualize two aircraft weaving back and forth criss-crossing their flight
paths...if each aircraft waits until he crosses the other's flight path before he reverses his
turn, no advantage will be gained for either. But if one pilot begins his reversal slightly
before the flight paths cross, he will "gain angles" on the other pilot, meaning his angle off
will be reduced. Try this with your hands...make a weaving motion with your
hands...before they cross each other, make one hand start to turn back the other way.
Notice how that hand seems to slide behind the other hand? The same thing will happen
in an airplane. In either case, one pilot began his turn before the other pilot with the end
result being an advantage.
b. How do you do it? The concept is pretty simple...it's the execution that is the hard part.
Like in most things, you can get too much of a good thing. In this case, this means it is
possible to begin your lead turn too soon by being too aggressive. This usually ends up
with you flying out in front of your opponent, and in general terms, this is considered poor
form<g>. For head on pass type situations, I would recommend, as a rule, that you wait
until your opponent passes your 10:30 or 1:30 position, or about 45 degrees off your
nose, before you begin your turn. If you are scissoring (in a weave...criss-crossing), I
would advise waiting until you have covered at least 1 / 2 to 2 / 3 the distance back
towards your opponent before you reverse the turn. These are just yardsticks, and pretty
conservative ones at that...with experience, you may choose to be more aggressive.
c. What does it look like? Use the F7 exterior view to help you visualize the lead
turn...particularly in a scissors maneuver, since your opponent is otherwise out of view. I
SAY AGAIN...use the F7 exterior view to "see" the need for and the execution of the lead
turn...particularly in those close in situations where your opponent is not in sight if you are
in F1 forward view. Once I'm in close quarters with my opponent,I tend to fly the entire
fight in F7 until I'm ready to shoot. I use the Other View window to tell me when my
opponent can be seen in F1...if you can see him in the little Other View window, he will
be visible in F1. F7 allows an intuitive sense to BFM that F1 cannot give you. It clearly
allows you to see you angular relationship to your opponent and it gives you a rate of
closure that is so necessary when timing a lead turn. F1 will not do this for you. But there
is a serious problem in using F7...you must keep yourself oriented with which way to turn.
It is very easy to turn the wrong way. Those of you who have flown radio controlled
aircraft will understand exactly what I'm talking about. My technique is to constantly talk
to myself about what I want to do while I'm maneuvering. I look at the F7 screen and say
to myself..."right turn" or "left turn," otherwise I get all screwed up<vbg>. But once you get
the hang of it, you'll find F7 allows you to feel a sense of "flying" BFM that no other view
will give you. It's as close to the actual thing as the sim environment is going to give you.
OK!! This has been a bunch to digest...please feel comfortable with these ideas. If you
aren't, then add your question to the SimHQ Air Combat board (I guarantee some one
else has the same question but is too shy to ask.). Remember, there are no dumb
questions, only dumb answers! I promise not to give too many dumb answers...you do
your part by speaking up if you don't understand. If you want a private answer, then e-
mail me.
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One other thing. I'm an airline pilot these days, and as a result, I'm gone for days at a
time. If I don't get right back with an answer, that's why. But I will answer, trust me.
Next up is the High Yo-Yo or Quarter Plane maneuver. We'll look at how to deal with a
bandit that is turning hard into us and is creating an angle off / aspect angle problem as a
result.
BFM Lesson 6 - Flying The Maneuver
This is the first discussion of how to actually fly a BFM maneuver using the ATF flight sim
as modified by Greg Pierson. Please refer to the earlier article on how to set up your
screen if there are any questions about basic keyboard / flight stick techniques.
This article will talk about how to handle a situation where your opponent is turning hard
enough to cause him to fly out of view...usually this happens due to two reasons...either
you had too much airspeed and you literally flew past him, or, more likely, he turned hard
enough to cause a flight path overshoot due to excessive crossing angles. We'll talk
about both situations...too much airspeed or too much crossing angle. In either case,
regardless of flight sim, the most typical response is to turn in the last known direction of
your opponent and attempt to chase him with him out of view. This is kinda hard to
do...even the Red Baron couldn't fly blind!! There is a better way...and that is the
technique of shifting between forward view (F1) and an exterior view (F7) to keep the
bandit in sight. Please note there are other exterior views...F9 and F10...which also show
you a big picture view of you and your opponent, but I do not recommend using either to
practice BFM with.
1. Getting Started. Once you have set yourself up behind your opponent as previously
described in the set up article, begin by adding power to close on your opponent. ATF will
begin maneuvering him around and your job is to stay behind. At some point you will find
that you cannot keep him in sight no matter how hard you try to turn...what do we do?
2. The BFM Textbook Answer. Various BFM texts will describe a number of maneuvers
for this type of situation...high yo-yo, quarter plane, barrel roll, vector roll, etc. Each of
these maneuvers is designed to address a specific BFM problem...either too much
closure, or too much fuselage misalignment (angle off / aspect angle).
a. High Yo-Yo. Traditional BFM academics use the high yo-yo as a maneuver designed
to control closure. The high yo-yo is used to slow your rate of closure on your opponent.
This does not necessarily mean that the maneuver slows you down, i.e. you lose
airspeed (although this often happens as a by product)...instead, the maneuver slows
you down relative to your opponent by lengthening your flight path relative to your
opponent. It is true that the high yo-yo also tends to reduce aspect and angle off when
flown properly, but this is a secondary result of a maneuver intended to solve a closure
problem. Yo-yo can be big or little, depending on the magnitude of your closure problem.
b. Quarter Plane. The quarter plane is a last ditch maneuver intended to keep you behind
your opponent. It is designed to keep you behind your opponent's 3 / 9 line and sacrifices
angle off and closure in the process. It is essentially a reposition maneuver and almost
always requires a follow up maneuver such as a low yo-yo to re-enter the fight. Consider
it an "emergency procedure"!!
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c. Barrel Roll. The barrel roll is designed to solve an aspect problem. Use this maneuver
when you can match the turn rate of you opponent but you find yourself too much inside
his turn. In this situation, you have aligned your fuselage with his but you have too much
lateral separation, i.e. you have too much sideways displacement. Your objective is to
reduce the lateral separation without losing your angle off advantage...meaning you want
to get behind him and still keep your fuselage aligned with his. In this situation, you do
not have a significant closure advantage.
d. Vector Roll. The vector roll is a specialized adaptation of the barrel roll. The vector roll
is designed to handle too much closure and is used when your fuselages are close in
alignment. The vector roll is an aggressively flown barrel roll where high G is used to roll
around your opponent's flight path. The resulting longer flight path which you fly slows
you down relative to your opponent.
3. Performing the Maneuvers. Let's talk about how to fly each of these maneuvers using
the F1 and F7 views. Please keep in mind my original "yeah, but"...this is only one way to
describe BFM relative to the flight sim...there are other, and maybe better ways, but, for
right now, this is going to be my way (g). We'll talk about each maneuver by describing
how to recognize when the maneuver is necessary (see the need) and how to perform
the subsequent corrective action (stick and throttle response).
a. High Yo-Yo.
1. See the Need. You are turning with your opponent. He is getting larger in your F1 view
(high closure) and he is moving toward the side of your screen. There is at least 45
degrees of difference between his heading and yours (high angle off). You are unable to
keep him in view by continuing to turn.
2. Response. While still in F1, roll toward your opponent (away from direction of turn)
until your nose points just behind him. Your angle of bank should be approximately 90
degrees less than his. Begin a moderately hard (4 G) pull away from his flight path. Go
full power. Switch to F7. You will see your aircraft climbing "above" your opponent and
there will be a significant mismatch in fuselage alignment. Hold this position (do not
continue to pull or roll) until you see your opponent start to increase his separation from
you. This will only take a second or two. Immediately roll back towards your opponent.
Aim your lift vector (visualize this as your rudder or as an arrow coming out of the top of
your canopy) in front of your opponent. Now pull hard back "down" towards your
opponent until your aircraft looks like it is pointing in his direction. Now look at your Other
View window. Is he in the window field of view? If so, switch back to F1 and press your
attack. If not, re-examine your nose position relative to the other aircraft. Where is it
pointing? Roll and pull to point your nose at your opponent. Can you see him now in the
Other View window? If you can, stay at full power for a moment or two as you "descend"
towards your opponent...then reduce your throttle, go back to F1 and blow him away!
3. Sidenotes. The yo-yo is best started early so that you don't have to fly a big one.
Several little ones are easier to handle than one big one. Expect to have to repeat the
process as the bandit maneuvers...the sim AI will attempt to oppose your
maneuvering...just like a real opponent would. When in F7, avoid turning in the wrong
direction by talking to yourself about which way you want to go, i.e., "turn left...relax
G"..."turn right...pull." Remember, you position yourself by aiming your lift vector with roll,
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and then you move your nose with back stick (G). Practice and repetition will make this
F1 / F7 / F1 process seem natural as you get familiar with the concept.
b. Quarter Plane.
1. See the Need. As before, you are turning trying to keep your opponent in view, but he
has really put a hard turn on you and there is no way you can match his turn. Not only
that but you are too close...he's huge and you're about out of ideas!! What should you
do? It's time to get out of Dodge!! You have to do two things...get out of his plane of turn,
and stay behind him. The quarter plane is like an extreme high yo-yo. The "quarter"
refers to your resultant flight path where you orient your lift vector 90 degrees away from
his plane of turn (90 degrees being one quarter of 360 degrees) prior to your pull.
2. Response. Immediately roll to aim your lift vector AT LEAST 90 degrees away from
your opponent. Pull hard into the vertical. Switch to F7. Go full AB. Now analyze your
position...are you separating away from him while at the same time staying behind him?
You must stay behind his 3 / 9 line. If this is not the case, then roll your lift vector to point
behind him and pull to move your nose further to his 6 o'clock. Put your flaps down if
required (I like to put mine down...the sim is more maneuverable with flaps down). Now
roll back to aim your lift vector at your opponent. Are you now behind him? If so, then pull
back towards him and re-enter the fight. Stay in AB to get your speed back...raise your
flaps to help accelerate.
3. Sidenotes. Think of this maneuver as a zoom emergency procedure, because that is

what it is. It ain't pretty...it's supposed to save your butt and preserve your offensive
position. The whole point is to keep behind his 3 / 9 line...you do that by using F7 to pull
towards his 6 o'clock. Watch out for a stall. Use full AB and flaps. Don't be gentle. Roll
fast...pull hard to stay behind him.
c. Barrel Roll / Vector Roll. I'll describe these two maneuvers together since they are
pretty similar in execution (G being the major variable). Don't expect to use these much in
ATF...they are well up the "food chain" in sophistication and complexity.
1. See the Need. In F1, your opponent is turning and you are turning with him. Your
angle off is low...fuselages nearly aligned. Your aspect, however, is too far inside his
turn...meaning that you are too far away from him...too much lateral displacement. What
you want to do is to somehow move your jet across the space between you and your
opponent without changing your low angle off.
2. Response. While in F1, add back pressure as required to match his fuselage. Then
switch to F7 and begin a moderate pull up. After raising your nose about 10-20 degrees,
start a slow roll into your opponent while maintaining a little back pressure. You will start
to fly across the space between the two aircraft. Relax your back pressure to stop your
nose from turning any further. As your aircraft nears the turn radius of your opponent, roll
your aircraft to point your lift vector into the plane of his turn...match his bank angle. Then
add back pressure to pull your nose back into alignment with his fuselage. You should
now be behind him and above the plane of his turn. Point at him, check your Other View
window, and when he is in sight, switch to F1 and continue the attack. For closer initial
ranges and higher closure rates, the maneuver should be flown much more aggressively.
You will end up rolling around your opponent's flight path...your resultant longer flight
path relative to him will reduce your excessive closure while reducing your aspect.
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Well, that's enough to digest for now!! Give this a try. Remember, it's the "big picture"
view of F7 that makes all of this possible. Using F7, you will, with practice, intuitively
"see" the need for a flight path correction much in the same manner as an actual pilot
would in a real BFM environment
Combat Mission Planning

Considerations, Part One - Initial
Planning
Feature by Andy Bush
Introduction
Imagine yourself getting ready to jump into the next mission in your sim campaign, or
maybe you are lining up some friends for the next net meet or on-line battle. It sure would
be nice to get a jump on the opposition by putting in a little "afore-thought" to the mission
at hand. Real life fighter pilots plan their missions down to the last detail...you can do the
same. As dynamic campaign engines and cooperative play complexity continue to
improve, you have the chance to add to the realism and enjoyment of your game play by
taking into account some typical planning considerations that lend themselves to present
day flight simulation. In this three-part series, I'll offer some tips on how to incorporate the
five P's (Prior Planning Prevents Poor Performance) into your mission preparation. Part
One outlines pre-mission planning considerations. Part Two covers the ingress route to
the target. Part Three examines the attack phase of your mission and concludes with
egress and recovery considerations. Regardless of whether you fly against your flight
sim's artificial intelligence (AI) or against real life adversaries, the time that you spend on
planning considerations will make a significant contribution to the success of your
mission.
Pre-Mission Planning
Target Identification / Photo Study

Before the start of a mission, real life fighter pilots go to the unit intelligence office where
they study the target. Many sims offer maps and target pictures that you can become
familiar with before you jump into the cockpit. The importance of this study goes far
beyond knowing what the particular target looks like. This study is a two-step process.
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First, you want to look at the overall target area. Use your sim's maps and target photos
to "see" the position of the target from a "big picture perspective." This is very important.
You will approach your target at high speed and often at low altitude, where your radius
of vision is limited. Your attention will be split between navigation concerns and
analyzing, interpreting, and possibly responding to enemy threats. You will not have the
luxury of circling the target at a comfortable altitude while you search for your target. You
want to get in, destroy your target, and then get out before the enemy can get his act
together.
Your "big picture" study has one purpose...you want to locate significant navigational
references that you will use to "walk" your eyes to the target. As an explanation, let's say
the target is a truck convoy located near a bridge. As you run in to the immediate target
area, you first locate the river. You follow the river until you get a tally on the bridge. You
know from your target study that the truck convoy is situated in a particular direction from
the bridge. Use your run in heading to the bridge as a twelve o'clock reference. Then
translate the target's location relative to the bridge into a clock position. For example, as
you approach the bridge, you look to the bridge's nine o'clock to find the target. Use this
step-by-step process to get your eyes on the target in a methodical manner. Do not leave
it to luck or chance to find your target. Your sim map and target photos make it possible
to build your mental picture of this "big picture." Using the "big picture to specific target"
technique helps you find your target quickly, leaving you additional time to devote to
achieving a successful one-pass attack.
Now, let's consider what the target actually looks like. Use your maps and target photos
to get a general picture of the target layout. Using the convoy again as an example,
determine if the convoy is strung out in a line or grouped together like a herd of cattle.
Note the general compass orientation of the target. Determine if your attack heading will
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take you down the length of the convoy or across it. This heading is called your "attack
axis." Your weapon effectiveness is affected by your choice of attack axis. For example,
when using CBU bomblets, you want to spread the bomblets along the length of the
convoy rather than across it. Your target study may give you the location of that threat in
the convoy. Finally, you want to use your sim's target photos to study the unique physical
characteristics of the target. Look for easily identifiable features. You want to be able to
recognize your target quickly. You do not want to confuse it with a less-valuable target.
The value of knowing what your target looks like ahead of time cannot be
overemphasized. If your sim threat display allows you view the target from different
angles, do so...you can never be too familiar with the target.
Anticipated Threat Level

You can also study the anticipated air and ground threats ahead of time. You can
determine their location and numbers. This will help you plan your route of flight. The
type and capability of the enemy threat level will determine your ingress altitude and
formation. Here are some items to remember:
Air threats. Study both the number and type of air threat. Determine what type of air-to-air
weapons you may have to defend against...IR, radar guided, or both. Note if the enemy
will have an AWACS capability.
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Ground threats. Real world pilots will take special precautions to study enemy SAM and
AAA threat positions and capability. They will draw "threat rings" on their maps to show
maximum engagement ranges for those threats. You can do the same type of planning.
Use your sim manual to note missile and gun maximum ranges and altitudes. Plot these
on your sim map and then compute waypoints to fly a route to avoid these areas. Make
best use of terrain masking as part of this planning.
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Weapon Selection / Pk Criteria
Once you know your target, you can plan your desired munitions load. Your sim usually
will allow you to configure your weapons loadout. Make sure you have selected the type
and numbers of weapons necessary to get the job done. Here are some tips to keep in
mind. Use your sim's weapons loadout page to select the proper weapon(s) for your
target. Avoid mismatching weapons to your target. For example, if your target is a bridge,
do not attack it with CBUs.
Take your planned release parameters into consideration when you select your weapon.
If dropping "iron bombs" from low altitude, consider using a retarded (high drag) weapon.
Don't drop "slicks" (low drag bombs) from low altitude...the fuse may not function and the
result will be a bomb that does not explode. Also, a slick, because of its low drag, will
impact the ground or target directly under your airplane...the resulting explosion may
damage or destroy you as well as the target.
Communication Procedures
Newer sims today have a good built in vocabulary of radio calls. In addition, new
technology is allowing real time voice communication in game play. Some of the on-line
gaming services have incorporated this voice capability into their simulations. You and
your flying partners should agree on standard terminology that is relevant to the mission.
Avionics Considerations
Your study of the threat will help you anticipate any threat indications that you may
encounter during the mission. Understand how to interpret your Radar Homing and
Warning (RHAW) or Tactical Electronic Warfare System (TEWS) gear. In particular, be
prepared to quickly identify enemy SAM threats. Know the difference between being
"painted" by enemy radar versus being actually fired at. While being "painted" is never a
comfortable feeling, it may not require a defensive reaction. On the other hand, a
"launch" warning is a serious matter and almost always will require a defensive reaction.
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Decide ahead of time what you will do for a given threat indication. Your defensive
reactions vary from doing nothing in response to a minor radar scan to the jettisoning of
your ordnance, followed by a break turn to avoid a missile in the air. The ramifications of
the magnitude of these reactions to your overall attack plan should be clear. An improper
defensive reaction brought about by an erroneous reading and reaction to a perceived
enemy threat can result in a blown mission just as surely as if you had been shot down.
Support Forces
Know the makeup of any support forces that will accompany you to your target. These
can include AWACS, Wild Weasel, Combat Air Patrol (CAP), and tankers. Study your
sim's communications section for pertinent radio calls to make to these assets. If these
forces include human players, include them in your planning to make optimum use of
their abilities.
Loss Of Flight Member / Abort Criteria

Know what you will do if a flight member is shot down or has to return to base. If you are
planning a four ship mission, then have a three ship back up plan. This may require
different formations and attack tactics. Realize the leader may be the one to get shot
down. Make sure you have another flight member ready to step in as the new flight lead.
At some point, you may not have enough flight members to complete the mission. Decide
upon an abort plan and be ready to use it. It is foolhardy to press on if you do not have
enough munitions on the remaining aircraft to destroy your target.
Summation
You now have enough basic info to strap your jet on and head out for the target. On the
way lay many challenges. In the next installment, I'll discuss ingress planning items. See
you then.
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Energy Management: Picking The
Right Airplane For The Job
by Leon "Badboy" Smith
Introduction
Pilots who fly Aces High face a formidable challenge...with many different fighters from
which to choose, how do they select an aircraft that will best meet their combat needs?
Some pilots may choose an aircraft because of its romantic history or combat record,
others may choose an aircraft based only on appearance. Regardless of what it is that
endears us to some aircraft, it is true that certain aircraft appear to be flown far more
frequently than others. Made popular by real world events and famous pilots, aircraft like
the Lightning, Spitfire, and Mustang, to name but a few, will always enjoy attention from
the continuous influx of new pilots to the simulation. However, it takes more than a great
aircraft to make a great Ace. Disposing of new pilots, even though they may be flying the
best aircraft, will always be as easy as culling baby seals… Even so, flying a great
aircraft is still a very good start! The problem is that many new pilots are unaware of what
made the aircraft great in the first place!
Over the years I have watched the ebb and flow of the popularity of certain aircraft. In
Aces High, great pilots have the ability to promote the aircraft they fly with their success
as an example. Just as in the real world, it is possible for good pilots to give the
impression that their aircraft are far more potent than the performance figures would
suggest. For example, I once impressed a new pilot by defeating his Spitfire with a P-
38L. He believed it should have been an inferior aircraft, and as modeled in Aces High
version 1.04, it certainly was. For his next sortie, he was flying the P-38L, and he
naturally assumed that it was the aircraft that made all the difference. However, it has
been true throughout the history of air combat that the pilot and not the machine is what
makes the difference between the Ace and the also-ran. When he began to complain that
the aircraft I was flying must be hacked (illegally modified program code) or that I must
have been cheating, because the Spitfire should have been able to win, I explained
something that impressed him even more than my modest flying skills… The P-38 (and
indeed many other aircraft) was successful, not because it was the best airplane, but
because it was often flown by the best pilots! pilots who knew how to get the best from it!
When new pilots are attracted to an aircraft by the prowess of those who fly it, they are
often disappointed when their results are less impressive. A good pilot can make an
average aircraft seem great. By flying an aircraft in a way that highlights its strengths,
while minimizing its weaknesses, almost any fighter can defeat any other. However, the
ability to judge where one aircraft has an advantage over another has normally only been
possible as the result of many hours of long hard experience. Even then, some aspects
of aircraft performance have remained contentious and clouded with an air of mystery.
Part of the reason for this is, of course, the variation in pilot ability. A person might be
able to out turn a particular aircraft when some pilots fly it and yet be unable to do so
when others are flying it. While that sort of experience only serves to confuse us as we
learn to handle new aircraft, it does highlight the need for a better method of performance
comparison in dissimilar air combat engagements.
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As the ability of our opponents improve, due to the better training and education available
in basic fighter maneuvers and air combat tactics, we must seek every possible
advantage. We must fly our aircraft to the limit of its performance capabilities. More
importantly, in dissimilar aircraft engagements, we must fly in a way that maximizes the
strengths of our aircraft while exploiting the weaknesses of our opponent’s aircraft. This
idea is familiar to Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) graduates…
"Know and use all the capabilities in your airplane. If you don’t, sooner or later, some guy
who does use them all will kick your ass."
Lieutenant Dave "Preacher" Pace, USN

U.S. Navy Fighter Weapons School Instructor
For Aces High pilots. this is even more important due to the large variety of accurately
modeled aircraft available to fly. However, there is one other factor that serves to confuse
matters. That is the sometimes-noticed disparity between real world data and that
observed during simulated flight. So, by way of disclaimer, a brief note regarding fidelity.
Flight sim pilots who read history have an impression of the performance of their favorite
aircraft. However, reliable and accurate data is hard to get. Data sources that vary
between the manufacture, scientific establishments and test agencies and air forces that
used the aircraft operationally often conflict. For that reason, experienced and
competitive flight sim’ pilots won’t assume that the aircraft being modeled will compare
exactly to their expectations. They do, however, expect the physics of the flight modeling
to be sophisticated enough that real world tactics can be successfully employed against
their opponents. What is most important in a competitive environment is not how close
the performance of the flight model matches that of the real aircraft, but how the in-sim
aircraft performance compares with each other. After all, that is what will count in our
next engagement! The simple fact is this...in terms of both the physical aerodynamics
model and the data used to drive it, Aces High is (along with a small number of
competitors) at the cutting edge of current technology. But even so, what we need, as
pilots of Aces High aircraft, is data that relates to those aircraft as they perform in the
simulation! Therefore the information that follows relates to the aircraft performance
within the simulation, after all that’s what matters most when flying on-line!
The Method
A method of performance comparison that was developed in the 1960s allows a pilot to
compare the performance of different fighters and determine which one is superior to the
other at each point in the envelope. So, for example, a pilot might compare the flying
characteristics of an F-16 to those of a MiG-29 and thus identify which regions of the
flight envelope are most advantageous or dangerous to him. The method revolutionized
the way the USAF looked at tactics and designed fighters. It was used to analyze the F-4
Phantom v MiG-17 match up in Vietnam and resulted in new tactics for the Phantom that
in turn lead to more MiG kills. It was used to design the F-15 and was largely responsible
for that aircraft being the successful, high performance, maneuvering fighter that we
know today. The method is based upon the theory of Energy Maneuverability (EM) and
can be translated into simple diagrams that are so easy to read that they allow aircraft
comparison at a glance.
Quit simply, the method involves producing EM diagrams for each fighter and then
overlaying them for comparison. Of course, such methods were unheard of in W.W.II and
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pilots of the day relied on less exact methods. However if you want to learn how to fly
your favorite aircraft to the full, and squeeze every drop of performance from the flight
model in order to win against less well-informed pilots, you will benefit greatly from the
application of these methods. In the next section I will explain how it works, and if you are
already familiar with EM theory, you can skip this section completely.
The Theory
EM diagrams contains a great deal of valuable information...so much information that at

first sight they can sometimes be confusing. So rather then hitting you with the whole
thing, let’s build one, piece by piece. Let’s build our first EM diagram and see how they
are used. Basically the E-M diagram is a graph with two axes. It has turn rate on one axis
in degrees per second (dps) and true airspeed on the other in mph, as shown in Fig1.
If you knew, for example, that the aircraft in question could achieve a maximum turn rate
of 27dps at 275mph you could mark that point on the graph as shown by the red dot.
However, knowing the maximum performance at a single point on the graph is not very
useful. Ideally we should know the maximum turn rate throughout the envelope. If we
were able to determine the maximum performance at every point in the envelope and
plotted it to form a continuous line of dots, it might look like the graph shown in Fig2.
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In this diagram, the thick red curve represents the maximum instantaneous turn
rate...that’s the upper limit of the envelope. The aircraft can fly at points below this line,
but not above it. You will notice that the shape of the curve rises to a peak, similar to the
shape of a doghouse, which is why real fighter pilots refer to these diagrams as
doghouse plots. At that peak, the highest point on the curve, the turn rate is a maximum.
That point occurs at a speed known as the corner velocity. At this point in the
development of our first EM diagram, all we can say from looking at this incomplete
version is that the corner velocity occurs at around 260mph for this aircraft, and that at
this speed you can achieve the maximum turn rate of 28.6 degrees per second. To the
left of the corner velocity the envelope is bound by the lift limit. The aircraft can’t fly above
this line, because it can’t produce enough lift...it stalls. Sometimes I will refer to this line
as the stall line because you can use it to determine where high-speed, or accelerated,
stalls will occur. To the right of the corner speed the envelope is bound by a line that can
represent a g limit, a structural limit, or a pilot physiological limit. Because we black out at
6g in Aces High, this line represents that load limit. And of course the diagram stops
bluntly at the top speed in level flight for the altitude represented in the diagram, in this
case sea level.
Even now, with a lot of important information missing, we have already obtained valuable
information. Many flight sim pilots will never learn the true value of the corner velocity for
the aircraft in their favorite flight sim. Flying competitively against other flight sim pilots
without knowing the corner velocity, or even worse...having a false value, inevitably
means flying your aircraft below its capacity. There are many pilots in Aces High who fly
their aircraft at something less than its best. They fly it below optimum conditions simply
through the lack of reliable data. The correct corner speed is valuable information and
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our EM Diagram has already provided us with this knowledge. The ability to fly at corner
speed and thus maximize the turn rate is important, but not the whole story. To complete
another missing piece of the jigsaw, our diagram can include information on the turn
radius capability of the aircraft and the G force producing it. This information can be
overlaid onto the existing graph as shown in Fig3.
Here lines of constant turn radius and constant g force have been overlaid onto the
graph. You can now see, for example, that if you pull 5g at 250mph you will have a turn
rate of just under 25dps and a turn radius of about 850ft. You will also notice that the turn
radius for this aircraft at the corner velocity is about 760ft. An important observation here
is to notice what happens if you pull 6g at even greater speeds, see how the turn rate
drops and the turn radius increases? The conclusion of course is that turning above
corner speed has a detrimental effect on your maneuverability! Already we have a lot of
important information, but we aren’t done yet.
The red curve shown above represents our instantaneous turning ability. That means that
the values indicated on the curve can only be achieved for an instant. For example, if you
are at your corner speed of 260mph and pull 6g, you will achieve a turn rate of 28.6dps
but only momentarily. No sooner than you achieve it, the huge increase in induced drag
caused by all that additional lift will reduce your speed so that you will no longer be able
to maintain 6g, and your turn rate will suffer accordingly. For example, by the time your
speed bleeds to 245mph, the diagram shows that your turn rate will have dropped to
27dps. Notice that once you are below corner speed, further loss of speed results in loss
of turn rate. This is a much more important phenomenon than you might at first think! It
suddenly reduces the importance of our corner speed. After all, what use is that
knowledge, if it can only be achieved fleetingly? The answer is that corner speed should
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act more as a signpost! The corner velocity signpost points to where you really want to
be, even though you know that when the turning starts you can’t stay there, you don’t
want to be too far above it, or too far below it. However, this raises an even more
important question! Aircraft lose speed in hard turns, but as they lose speed the drag
becomes less and less until it balances the thrust produced by the propeller, at which
point no more speed will be lost and the turn can be sustained. All aircraft lose speed in
hard turns but they all lose it at different rates and end up in different sustained turns.
Those that lose speed less quickly have an advantage, as do those that can sustain
higher turn rates. So, the important question is how quickly do they lose speed, and what
turns can they sustain. Those questions can be answered by introducing one more curve
onto our graph. Take a moment to consider Fig4.
This additional curve joins all the points in the envelope that the aircraft can sustain in a
level turn, without gaining or losing speed. If you fly above this curve you will lose speed
and decelerate; if you fly below this curve you will gain speed and accelerate. So,
because the 3g curve is entirely above the sustained turn curve, it means this aircraft can
not hold 3g without losing speed. Ok, let’s look at a couple of examples; notice that at
300mph this aircraft can sustain a turn at 10dps and that at 225mph it can sustain a turn
of 15dps. At the extremes of this curve, notice that at the aircraft’s top speed it can’t turn
at all without losing speed. At the other end it has its best-sustained turn, that is the turn
with the highest turn rate, and it occurs for this aircraft a little under 18dps and about an
800ft turn radius. Those are all values that you can sustain in a level turn, and that is
extremely valuable information, but we aren’t done with this curve yet, because it can tell
us something about how quickly we will lose speed once we begin turning. Quite simply,
the higher above this curve you fly, the faster you will lose energy. So, for example, if you
pull 3g at 250mph, you will lose speed slowly, and in order to sustain that turn you would
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only need to lose altitude at the rate of about 3ft every second. We know the speed loss
will be low because the 3g line is only just above the sustained turn line. However, if you
pull 6g at 260mph (corner speed) you would need to lose height at the rate of 123ft every
second. That would require that the pilot hold the nose of the aircraft about 19 degrees
below the horizon, which is quite impractical in a dogfight, because to do so would at
worst mean creating enough turning room below an opponent to concede a shot, or at
best simply spiraling out of the fight. For you to be able to quantify the rate of energy loss
as I have just done, this graph would need to contain more curves. The sustained turn
curve shown above represents zero energy loss, but we could include curves that
indicate the rate of energy gain or loss like the one shown in Fig5.
On this diagram, the dotted red lines are drawn at intervals that indicate rate of climb or
descent at 20ft per second apart. For example, if you wanted to sustain flight anywhere
on the line marked -20, you could only do it by losing altitude at the rate of 20ft every
second. Also, if you wanted to sustain flight on the line marked +20, you could do so
while gaining altitude at the rate of 20ft every second. If you look at the diagram now you
will notice that this aircraft can climb at 20ft every second (1200ft/min) while holding a 2g
turn at 250mph. Because we can see how much and how quickly altitude would need to
be gained or lost in order to maintain any given flight condition, we have a very good idea
of how this aircraft gains or loses energy while turning. While that level of information is
very impressive, we have a problem. It is my intention to overlay diagrams for one
aircraft, with those for another, so that we can compare one with the other. However, if
we include whole sets of curves for the rates of energy loss, those diagrams become so
cluttered they are impossible to read. Fortunately, when you overlay these diagrams, it is
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possible to make all the important comparisons providing we retain the sustained turn
curve, so in all future diagrams that is all we will need. That’s enough of the theory, let’s
put what we have learned so far to good use… It’s time to show you how to do some
aircraft comparisons!
One of my favorite aircraft in any simulation is the Spitfire. In my case, a preference for
the Spitfire has less to do with its flying qualities, than its national origin. It’s more a
matter of national pride than aircraft performance. Having decided to fly a Spitfire, the
question remains… Which one? Take a look at Fig6.
You will notice that the curves for both Spitfires have been overlaid to the make
comparison almost instant. You can see from this overlay that the Spitfire Mk V is the
more maneuverable of the two aircraft. You can see by inspecting the diagram, that the
Mk V has both an instantaneous and sustained turn rate advantage at all speeds below
about 220mph. For example, at 200mph the Mk V enjoys an instantaneous turn rate
advantage of about 4dps, and at their best sustained turns, the Mk V has a 2dps higher
turn rate, and a smaller turn radius than the Mk IX. This reveals the superior turning
ability of the Mk V, but the question isn’t resolved yet because the Mk IX is faster, and
that is a major factor in the arena. What we can say so far is that the Spitfire Mk V is
better at close range, hard maneuvering dogfights. But because of its lower speed, it
would be more vulnerable than the Mk IX in a hostile environment, which is why the Mk
IX is a far more frequent choice.
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Now we can make one more important distinction. Many flight sim pilots learn their BFM
from Shaw, who describes the combat between dissimilar aircraft by classifying them as
either energy or angles fighters. For most virtual fighter pilots that distinction is not easy
to make in practice, but our EM diagram can help. In the overlay of the two Spitfires
shown above, you will notice that one is faster and has better sustained turning ability at
high speed, so we call it the energy fighter. The other has better instantaneous and
sustained turning ability at low speed, so we call it the angles fighter. Look at the diagram
again, and notice that below about 220mph, both of the red curves are above those of
the blue curves. This means that in this engagement the Spitfire Mk V will have a clear
advantage in turn rate and turn radius and so all those tactics normally ascribed to the
angles fighter will be appropriate for it. Because the sustained turning curve of the Spitfire
Mk IX is above that of the Mk V at high speed, and it has a higher top speed, it will make
better use of energy tactics.
Let’s apply that logic to two new fighters, the Aces High F4U-1C and the F6F-5.
Examination of Fig7 shows that the Hellcat is the angles fighter, while the Corsair is the
energy fighter. It is also important to point out that those designations are relative, and
can change depending on the opponent. For example, let’s consider what would happen
if we compared the F6F with the Spitfire, or the F4U with the P-51.
In the case of the F4U versus the P-51, its role has changed. Examination of the overlay
shown in Fig8 reveals that the F4U is now the angles fighter, but the advantage is only
around 1dps, not enough to make this an easy fight by any means. However, the P-51
doesn’t have enough superiority at high speed to realize a significant energy advantage,
so while the P-51 is the energy fighter in this case, the distinction is less clear. In this
case, the P-51 can’t allow the fight to get slow, but will also have difficulty employing
energy tactics against the F4U. It is possible in situations like this, that other factors
relating to roll rate, climb rate, stall characteristics, initial energy advantage, weapons
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effectiveness, or perhaps some difference in pilot skill, are more likely to have a greater
influence on the outcome than pure maneuverability. Many pilots would approach a fight
like this as if it were a similar aircraft engagement. However, if I were flying the P-51
against the F4U, I would be nervous of the combination of higher turn rate, smaller
radius, and the mighty cannons of the 1C model, and make good use of that modest
extra speed.
In the case of the F6F versus the Spitfire shown in Fig9, it can be seen that the F6F is no
longer the angles fighter, and also has no significant energy advantage. In this fight the
Hellcat driver is going to have his work cut out, and would certainly need to hold a
significant initial advantage before committing to an engagement. In this situation, I would
describe both of these aircraft as angles fighters, the Spitfire being the superior of the
two.
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Putting It Into Practice
Part One: Angles versus Energy

Another favorite of mine is the P-51, so let’s compare the Aces High P-51D and Spitfire
Mk IX and see what predictions we can make about their relative performance. Study the
diagram in Fig10 below and see if you can pick out the important features.
You will notice that the P-51 in this case is clearly the energy fighter, and the Spitfire is
the angles fighter. Before talking about how this diagram predicts the engagement should
be fought, we will pause for one final exercise. Just to ensure we are all reading from the
same hymn sheet, let’s check the numbers. By examining this diagram we can extract
the following information about each individual aircraft. If you check each value in the
table against the diagram, you should be able to see where it comes from. If so, we can
move forward. Remember though, this was a one-off exercise. You would not normally
need to extract data from a diagram like this because everything you really need is visible
on the chart at a glance. Also, don’t be concerned if you can’t quote the figures as
accurately as I have, because I’ve been able to use the raw data. Pause for a moment to
consider Fig11 and Fig12.
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So, let’s get down to the real point of these diagrams… Suppose you are the P-51 driver
and want to know where you have an advantage over the Spitfire. Take a look at the
diagram in Fig10 again and notice that the sustained turn rate curves for both aircraft
cross at 255mph. Above that speed the P-51 has a sustained turn rate advantage. Above
that speed the P-51 also has equality in the instantaneous turns and better top speed
and acceleration. So, the P-51 can fight the Spitfire above 255mph without ever losing
the advantage...it is the energy fighter. However, if the P-51 driver pushes the fight too
hard and slows below 255mph, the advantage will go to the Spitfire! Unfortunately it is
not quite that clear cut. Having a sustained turn rate advantage above 255mph doesn’t
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mean that you can engage the Spitfire in a turning fight, even if you stay at or above that
speed. If you do, the Spitfire will trade his airspeed for angles and be in a position for a
shot fairly quickly. By attempting to maintain a sustained turn at high speed you will have
a large turn radius and that will concede turning room to the Spitfire. What the P-51
drivers should do, is to stay in that part of the envelope where they have the advantage,
and that basically means high-speed attacks followed by extensions beyond gun range.
Let’s look at that idea more closely.
Firstly, let’s review our objectives. We want to kill the more maneuverable Spitfire, but we
also want to survive. That is interesting because the relative importance of each of those
objectives will influence our tactics. The reason is simply that in reality the desire to live is
paramount, but in fact for the sim jock, nothing is farther from the truth. There is a
concept that transcends the difference between the real world and simulations, and once
grasped allows you to fly aircraft such as the P-51 intelligently. The important thing to
remember here is that in contrast with the real world, you have very different priorities as
a simulator pilot. For us, life is cheap, and so some of the performance attributes of the
various aircraft become weighted very differently. In W.W.II, for example, speed was far
more valuable to real pilots than it is to simulator pilots. A real pilot would no doubt have
found a turning engagement both physically and mentally draining, due to the mix of
extreme concentration, physical exertion, heart pounding amounts of adrenaline, all
tinged with varying degrees of fear! No doubt that was a large factor in explaining why
turning engagements were the exception rather than the rule. Around 80% of shoot
downs involved the element of surprise, high speed, 1g attacks. In contrast, simulator
pilots can enjoy the challenge of a high g dogfight with their flight stick in one hand and a
beer in the other. The price of defeat? Nothing more than a mildly bruised ego and a few
more practice sessions before the next match. If you really wanted to live, the P-51, Fw-
190 and other fast aircraft are exactly the aircraft to choose!
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Firstly, let’s review our objectives. We want to kill the more maneuverable Spitfire, but we
also want to survive. That is interesting because the relative importance of each of those
objectives will influence our tactics. The reason is simply that in reality the desire to live is
paramount, but in fact for the sim jock, nothing is farther from the truth. There is a
concept that transcends the difference between the real world and simulations, and once
grasped allows you to fly aircraft such as the P-51 intelligently. The important thing to
remember here is that in contrast with the real world, you have very different priorities as
a simulator pilot. For us, life is cheap, and so some of the performance attributes of the
various aircraft become weighted very differently. In W.W.II, for example, speed was far
more valuable to real pilots than it is to simulator pilots. A real pilot would no doubt have
found a turning engagement both physically and mentally draining, due to the mix of
extreme concentration, physical exertion, heart pounding amounts of adrenaline, all
tinged with varying degrees of fear! No doubt that was a large factor in explaining why
turning engagements were the exception rather than the rule. Around 80% of shoot
downs involved the element of surprise, high speed, 1g attacks. In contrast, simulator
pilots can enjoy the challenge of a high g dogfight with their flight stick in one hand and a
beer in the other. The price of defeat? Nothing more than a mildly bruised ego and a few
more practice sessions before the next match. If you really wanted to live, the P-51, Fw-
190 and other fast aircraft are exactly the aircraft to choose!
Generally speaking, fast, high-wing-loaded aircraft have inferior low speed

maneuverability when compared with the lower wing loaded fighters, but they made up
for it at high speed, which in W.W.II was what really mattered. In the real world, and in
the on-line arenas of Aces High, they can be flown as intended. That is, the high-speed
bounce and energy tactics can be employed to maximum advantage. With fast aircraft,
you can strike a lower or slower opponent and hold a tracking solution for a short time
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(often long enough for a kill) before extending safely for a repeat performance. Those are
the tactics that allowed the Axis pilots to rack up such huge scores. During the time when
you are tracking for a shot, don’t be tempted to turn above the sustained turn rate curve
and against a Spitfire, forced to maneuver hard to defeat the shot...you will never lose
energy. Things can become slightly complicated by what can only be called the
unrealistic suicidal tendencies of the average flight sim pilot.
What I am referring to is the unnatural desire for the average P-51 pilot to start a
dissimilar air combat with a neutral position and similar energy levels before engaging.
No P-51 pilot worth his salt and certainly none who lived very long, would engage under
those circumstances when they could simply refuse combat by virtue of their superior
speed and fight under far more favorable circumstances, namely an initial energy
advantage.
So how can you fight in the P-51 when forced into a Co-E situation against a better
angles fighter like the Spitfire? If you only want to live, the answer is simple, blow through
the merge fast (possibly taking a head on shot) and refuse combat. However, if as a
simulator pilot you just want to have fun and don't mind a few virtual deaths for a flying
lesson, there are more options. What I often do is to force the fight to high speed where
the instantaneous turning ability of the aircraft are equal, depending only upon the
physiology limit of the blackout model. You can do that by diving into the merge in order
to push the entry speed well above the corner velocity for both aircraft. If your opponent
does the same, you know that your initial turns will be equal because you will both be
riding the (tunnel vision) edge of the software imposed physical limits. By doing that you
will at least get one, maybe two turns before your speed bleeds down to below corner
speed, which is when you break off and disengage to set up for another pass. Sounds
dull, right? Well the problem is that If you have an aircraft that you know can be out
turned, it is just plain dumb to do anything else. Even then, there are complications
because it is not always possible to break off the fight just when you need to, because
the better turning opponent may also have the acceleration and speed to score hits
before you can get outside gun range, thus preventing you from disengaging. In that sort
of situation, the best course open to the faster aircraft is not to risk any maneuver that
would slow it down beyond the point where their sustained turn rate curves cross. As was
often the case in the real world, pilots fly fast in straight lines and make only high-speed
attacks that involve dives, zoom climbs, and only gentle turns. If you intend to fly that
way, it might be better to engage only those aircraft that appear to be unaware of your
presence. Attack fighters that are preoccupied, or already damaged. That might sound
unsporting, but it is highly realistic!
Even so, it is still possible to engage an enemy aircraft that can out turn you and still get
the kill. However success depends on the enemy pilot overestimating the importance of
his own aircraft’s maneuverability, and underestimating the importance of good high
speed BFM. Here is a tactic I use that often works....
OK, two things can happen at the merge when you start to dive for speed. Either the bad
guy will follow you down and you will merge at high speed, or he will stay high and refuse
to give up his altitude. If he dives with you, you at least equalize your turning ability for
the first several hundred degrees of the turn. That is true because any two aircraft both
turning at 300kts and 6g, for example, will have exactly the same turn rate and radius.
The catch is that you simply won't be able to hold it for as long as your opponent, which
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is why you will attempt to disengage long before their superior low speed performance
comes into play, which is exactly the situation I described previously.
However, suppose they don't dive with you? If they choose to hold onto their altitude, it
could be for two reasons. It might be that they are allowing you to create turning room,
with the intention of using to execute a lead turn of their own. Or, as is more often the
case, they aren’t that savvy, and simply want to hold onto their altitude, because they
have learned that altitude is a good thing. You will be surprised at how many pilots will
fail to spot that you are actually creating turning room in the vertical and setting them up
for a lead turn. Check the diagram above. If they allow you to fly into their blind area
under the nose without a belly check, many will fail to notice that you are converting all
that speed into a zoom climb and a belly shot. Even better, many pilots will even execute
a loop as you go out of sight, mistakenly believing that they can horde even more altitude
for later. You will of course see as they begin to pull up and time your own pull up to
catch them slow at the top of their Immelmann turn. I’m always amazed at the number of
pilots who have fallen to my virtual guns in exactly that way! The beauty of this is that
even if it fails to get an outright kill, you won’t have lost anything, and should be able to
extend.
If you miss the shot, or even if you get hits but no kill, you are right back to the need for
an extension. Once again, you need to know if your aircraft actually has the ability to
break off safely. If so, what is the minimum speed you can allow your aircraft to drop to
before the escape window closes? A good guide, once again, is the point where the
sustained turn curves cross, 255mph in this case. If your aircraft has a climb rate
advantage, you can then extend beyond guns range and climb out for a another attack.
In this case, the P-51 doesn’t have a climb rate advantage, and may need to extend until
the Spitfire gives up the chase. Either way, I will just say that from a virtual fighter pilots
perspective, there is no kill quite as satisfying as when you kill a more maneuverable
aircraft using sound energy tactics. The USAF learned this lesson in the Pacific during
the very early stages of W.W.II and have since turned the techniques of energy fighting
into a science. At the very least, I hope this explanation shows that the less
maneuverable aircraft still has some very interesting options.
Part Two: Angles versus Angles

In this section, I will explain some techniques that are valuable when the aircraft
performance is so evenly matched that the fight may be considered as a similar aircraft
engagement. The previous sections have explained the theory of turning performance for
various aircraft as modeled in Aces High. What has not yet been explained is exactly how
you get the aircraft to achieve the performance indicated in the diagrams in practice. How
can you achieve the greatest turn rate, for the longest time, without departing from
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controlled flight? In order to answer that question I need to explain three things. Firstly,
you need to know exactly where in the envelope you need to be to optimize your turn rate
and turn radius. Secondly, you need to know how to get there. Lastly, you need to know
how to stay there for long enough to get the kill without stalling or spinning out of the
fight.
To answer the first question, you should refer to the diagram shown in Fig15, the F4U
and a heavier F6F. The stall line is shown, and you can see that the higher up that line
you can fly, the higher your turn rate will be. You won't be able to fly above the 6g
blackout-limit so that is the highest point on the stall line, and we have already described
that as the corner speed. However, because that point is above the sustained turn rate
curve (the Ps=0 curve) you will bleed off your airspeed and move down the stall line until
you reach the best sustained turn speed. To do that, you will need to stay on the edge of
the stall line the whole time. You will see by inspecting Fig16 that the best-sustained turn
speed for the F6F is 152mph with a turn rate of 18.8dps. That's the place you want to be
during a hard turning engagement because it gives the highest turn rate, the smallest
radius, and you can stay there indefinitely! It is because the optimum conditions occur on
the stall line that this technique is known as stall fighting.
So to answer the second question, how do you get to that point? You will notice from the
diagram above that if your speed is above the corner speed of 235mph, you should pull
to the 6g limit. That means that you speed will reduce, but your turn rate will increase,
and your turn radius will get smaller, until your speed bleeds to corner. If you notice that
you are losing position rapidly, because you are watching the bandit’s nose pulling
around on you, you should assist the slowing down process by pulling your nose above
the horizon. That will help you slow to corner more quickly, and have the added benefit of
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storing energy (in the form of altitude) for later in the fight. If the Bandit is gaining angles
because he was already slower than you, he will find it difficult to follow you high without
losing too much speed. Now, because you are puling close to 6g and are above the
sustained turn rate curve you will begin to lose speed quite rapidly. Don’t be tempted to
use the throttle to slow down...you don’t want to throw energy away. During this phase of
the fight, you must be pulling hard enough to have your vision partially restricted by
blackout. Not so much that you can’t see the bandit, but enough to know that you are
max performing. The secret here is to maintain a slight backwards motion on the stick; as
you get slower, you need to command more AoA to maintain the same 6g load. As you
get close to corner speed, you will begin to hear the stall warning, and that’s the time to
hold the stick steady. Once you hear the stall warning, your aft stick movement must
cease, now you need to ride the edge of the stall, and a steady hand is called for. The
objective of course is to ride the stall, gradually bleeding speed down to the best
sustained turn rate. That's how you get there, but the closer you get to that speed, the
more risk there is that you might exceed the stalling AoA and depart the aircraft. You
can’t be impatient at this stage. Which brings us to the last question...once you get to the
best sustained turn speed, how can you stay there and avoid departures? Here is the
catch. You want to fly as close as possible to the stall line in order to optimize your turn,
but if you hit it you will stall, lose lift, lose angles, or even spin! So this last question really
comes down to finding a way of knowing when you are as close to the stall line as you
can be, and there are some good indicators in the game.
When the angle of attack gets close to the stall, the air over the wings begins to separate
from its surface and becomes turbulent resulting in buffeting. In some simulations this
has been modeled with screen shake, or increased wind noise. In Aces High the main
indication is the sound of the stall warning. As you get close to the stall and you can hear
it, the level of sound and the note changes as the stall becomes deeper. So, if you are at
the sustained turn speed and pulling hard enough that your speed is not increasing, and
you have a persistent stall warning, you will be flying on the edge of the envelope. The
way to avoid stalling is to ease small amounts of forward and aft stick in order to just
maintain the sustained turn speed.
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If your speed starts to drop, you must ease the stick forward or you will stall. As your
speed increases, you can ease it back once again. Most importantly, you must unload
slightly before applying later stick movements; if you want to roll, ease the stick forward
slightly first! The snag is that this requires a fair degree of skill. If, in your effort to avoid
departures, you use too much forward stick, your turn will open up and your opponent will
turn inside you. If you use too much aft stick, you will hit the stall and possibly spin. The
balance is delicate and it takes much practice to perfect. The real difficulty for pilots
during a tough engagement, is forcing themselves to reduce the back pressure on the
stick when all of their senses are crying out for them to pull harder! Having said that,
there are some valuable techniques that can be used to ensure that you always employ
intelligent stick control. The subject is considered in more depth in another article
"Combat Control Techniques: Or how to be a good stick" and the lessons are relevant in
all flight simulations.
Having considered the turning performance of these aircraft in some depth, it only
remains to add a word of caution. The close-in dogfight can be a lot of fun....when
multiple bandits are involved in what is known as a furball, it is so much fun that it can
become addictive! The better you get at it, the more fun it becomes! However, the simple
fact is that during your online flying where survival should have more importance than it
does while off-line, flying slow enough to dogfight can be extremely hazardous!
Remember the fighter pilots maxim, "Speed is Life!" and try to avoid taking unnecessary
risks. It is not wise to get slow at the first opportunity, but it is good to know that if you
have to get slow, you know how to handle yourself on the edge of the envelope!
Have fun trying these techniques; remember I’m always willing to answer questions!
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Prop Pilots Always Get Their Man:
Winning The Co-E Chase
by Leon "Badboy" Smith
Our newest writer, Leon "Badboy" Smith, takes a quick look at a common problem in sim
combat..... you're on the bandit's six, and he's running scared. But you're juuuuust out of
guns range, so what can you do? Badboy takes a common jet tactic and applies it to the
world of prop sims. This article was prompted by a thread on the Aces High message
board, when someone posted a similar situation.
So check six, and remember, that guy behind you who's diving may be getting ready to
eat you for lunch. Badboy explains more about winning the Co-E Chase.
The technique described below is one that I’ve been aware of for some considerable
time. I've been using it myself and I use a variation of it at higher altitude. The question
being asked is how can it be correct. However, before I offer the explanation, I would like
to say that when I first used the method and noticed that it worked, I wasn't at all
surprised. I am more familiar with modern aircraft performance and tactical doctrine
because most of my writing has been concerned with simulations of modern fighters. The
method is well known and used for jet fighters, and so when it worked in the prop sims, I
was curious about the differences in execution, and not with the right or wrong of it.
The diagram below is compressed due to lack of space and shows the method for
closing to within guns range from a Co-E start. It involves diving at Zero G for maximum
acceleration for closure, followed by a zoom climb to within guns range.
When I noticed that this worked in a prop sim for the first time, I was actually doing what I
would have done had I been flying a jet. I never gave a second thought to the question of
the technique surviving the difference in characteristics between jet and prop driven
aircraft. I used the technique and found it to be successful without a thought...I just
assumed it should be so because it worked for jet-engined aircraft. Interestingly, I
discovered that the technique is not very well known, and after consistently catching the
same pilots in the online arenas, and being repeatedly accused of cheating, or hacking
the code, I thought it would be a good idea to share.
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Before I explain how such a thing could be correct, I'd like to show you how a real fighter
pilot would approach the problem in a modern jet, because the solution is not just
surprising but useful as a datum. Picture yourself in the cockpit of an F-15 at 20,000ft and
M0.7 making radar contact with a distant target. At that point a real fighter pilot would
have a great deal of busy work, but high on his priority list will be the desire to enter the
fight with the highest possible energy state in the shortest possible time. You would
achieve that by selecting afterburner, unloading to zero G, and accelerating in a dive to
M0.92, losing several thousand feet in the process. You would then begin a climb to an
altitude above the enemy if there were time.
What surprises most folk about this story is the initial dive to a higher speed. That is the
correct procedure in a jet regardless of altitude, providing you are not at sea level.
To understand why this works, take a look at the diagram below. This diagram shows
lines of constant specific Energy (Es) in green and lines of constant specific excess
power (Ps) shown in blue. If you want to achieve the highest energy state at the greatest
rate of energy increase, you need to maximize your Es and Ps at the same time. That
can be seen to occur where the P's curves are tangent to the E's curves. The red line is
drawn through all such points and represents the best energy transfer line. For the F-15
that happens at M0.92 and for most jet fighters is somewhere close to M0.9. In the
diagram below, our pilot started at A, accelerated to B than climbed to C.
The amazing thing is that in order to get to the best possible energy advantage for the
fight, you start by diving! You increase speed to a point well above that for minimum
drag. The objective, after all, was not to minimize drag, it was to gain the most energy in
the least time. Drag is not the only factor that needs to be considered. Jet engines
generally produce more thrust at higher speeds, and so a higher speed can result in a
greater specific excess power...that's more Ps and that’s always good! The diagram
below is typical of real jet fighters.
So the modern fighter pilot will always begin an intercept (or a tail chase) by increasing
his speed to maximum energy transfer rate as quickly as possible, using a zero G
maneuver. How does that contrast with the aircraft of W.W.II? Propeller and
turbocharged engine combinations were generally designed to give maximum efficiency
close to top speed at the critical altitude. So both altitude and airspeed have an influence
on the best energy transfer, just as it does for the jets. That this technique survives the
differences between jet and prop driven aircraft is both surprising and advantageous to
those who know.
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So assuming a realistic drag polar, and properly modeled prop thrust, the energy transfer
diagram will appear similar to the one above. A wise pilot will therefore dive to get to his
maximum energy transfer speed as quickly as possible before starting the climb that
allowed him to maintain that speed. If that placed him at a faster speed than his
opponent, he would not only be closing but also building an overall energy advantage
prior to the zoom climb.
Just as for jets, drag is not the only concern in maximizing rate of energy transfer. If you
start a chase above the critical altitude for your supercharged engine, diving towards that
altitude would increase the available power, resulting in higher specific excess power.
That this works in simulations like Aces High and Warbirds can be confirmed by chasing
an aircraft at high altitude. If you deliberately stay below it, you will have more engine
power and a slightly higher air speed, resulting in closure and better energy transfer.
This is interesting enough to do properly so I will revisit the topic and plot some genuine
curves for Aces High that will show the best energy transfer speed for some of the
aircraft. I will do that quantitative analysis when time permits and it will be interesting to
see how the figures clock out. Meanwhile I feel very confident that the flight models of
most of the current W.W.II simulations are close enough to reality that what happens in
the sim will agree with what real world aerodynamics predicts.
Tactics 101 - Introduction and Lag

Pursuit
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by Ed "Skater" Lynch
Well, it’s been a long time coming, so let’s not waste any time and get started.
First lets get some of the acronyms that will be used here out of the closet, and into the
open, in a "don’t ask don’t tell" kind of way. More will be added to this list as the
discussion continues.
In this discussion we will discuss ways to use basic and familiar maneuvers in order to
achieve a positive outcome. In other words, bandit dead, not you. Most of you will have
used these maneuvers before, but they will opened up in more detail, and in a slightly
humorous manner.
ACM: Air Combat Maneuvering - The science of maneuvering your fighter in such a way
as to be efficient in using g, time, energy, maneuverability, and weapons to achieve a
favorable position and outcome on your bandit. Everything else is nonsense.
BFM: Basic Fighter Maneuvers - This is the basis for all maneuvering. Turning, climbing,
and diving are all BFM moves.
DLO: Desired Learning Objective - The basis of the discussion, a learning point. The goal
of the current lesson.
Lesson One - 29 JUN 98 - Using the Lag Turn to Fry Chicken
The Lag Turn is one of the most basic of all fighter maneuvers. Let’s now discuss how
you got here, and why. Basically, while turning your fighter in a combat situation, you are
trying to achieve one goal, destruction of the enemy aircraft. To do this, you need to put
your nose on the bandit, within weapon parameters, and turn the lights on. When trying
to accomplish this, you are usually turning in one plane or another, and so is the bandit,
unless he is a masochist, in which case Tactics 101 is of no use to you.
While turning to achieve a nose-on conversion you will be in one of three types of turns.
For this discussion, and since this is what you will be doing, we will call it pursuit. Sounds
more fighter-like. We like that. There is Lag Pursuit, Lead Pursuit, and Pure Pursuit.
Describing Lag Pursuit is a little difficult, but try to imagine that you are in a turn slightly
below and behind your bandit. This is the most common Lag Pursuit position. Let’s
examine the virtues of the Lag Pursuit…
1. You are behind the bandit

2. The bandit is not behind you
3. You are a hop, skip, and a jump from bandit bar-b-q
4. Bandit’s look better through the front of the canopy
5. You are in the universally recognized best position for bandit bird flipping
Ok, enough brevity, let’s talk business...
Lag is mainly used to maintain position on the bandit in order to convert to a nose-on
position to deploy weapons. While trying to convert to this nose-on position, there are a
few things to consider. One, you do not want to expend all remaining energy in order to
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put the nose on the bandit, fire your load, and have no energy left to maneuver
defensively or offensively after the kill. The goal is to stay in lag long enough to exploit a
mistake made in desperation by the bandit, killing him, while retaining enough energy to
fly defensively against any inbound bogey’s, and/or offensively against any other hapless
bandits. Patience is a virtue here, but don’t plan on moving in. Fighter combat is most
often brutally quick. You want to stay only long enough to efficiently maneuver for a kill,
without getting killed in the process. Look for an opening that will allow you to maneuver
the nose onto the bandit with little effort and expended energy from your current position.
Usually if you are stuck in lag pursuit, the bandit will attempt to reverse his plane of
motion, to draw you into a scissors, which should present you with a brief snap-shot
opportunity, or to change his plane of motion (i.e. horizontal to vertical), which will lower
his energy state and may allow you a brief sight picture. Should you get this opportunity
(usually only from green or inexperienced human or AI pilots), FLAME ON! Because you
won’t usually get this gift again. If you don’t, then it is time to hunker down, and try
something different, because you are in for a fight.
You also want to stay aware of the tactical picture unfolding around you. This is known as
Situational Awareness. Remember to always provide yourself with a planned route of
disengagement. This is more commonly known as your Escape Window. If everything is
not going well, and you are in danger of having a nose conversion on you, or you see
bandit buddies closing in, it is time to use this window to get out of the fight. Also, you
don’t want a bandit sneaking up and whacking you while you get target fixated on the
bandit in front of you, or swing around and dicking the strike package while you try to get
another star painted on your bird. More often than not, the bandit will acquiesce and
graciously allow you to kill him in a vigorous military manner. Sometimes you get a
particularly nasty bandit that has no manners and will just not play right and die. For
those unruly bastards, there is always the next installment of Tactics 101...
DLO: Know when to fight and when run. Lag as an offensive maneuver is effective only
against inexperienced or bad pilots, and should be used mainly as a way of preserving a
neutral position on the bandit while trying to find and opening to exploit in order to convert
to a weapons solution on the target aircraft. Stay aware of the tactical situation. Know
where the bandit’s buddies are. Know your bandit’s energy state. Know where other
threats, potential or otherwise, are in relation to you. Know where the friendlies are too,
fratricide will ruin your day. If you are doing all of these things and the fight is still not
going your way, and does not look like it will, it is time to hit the escape window and get
out of the fight.
Tactics 101 - Pure and Lead Pursuit

Ok, we left off last time with a description of the Lag Pursuit, and how to make it work for
you. Now let’s discuss the two other general types of pursuit flying.
Here are a few more fighter-speak words and acronyms to add to your sock drawer...
DICK: Verb. To get waxed (killed) in general. Ex: "Don’t let the strike flight get dicked."
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LCOS: Lead Computing Optical Sight. A type of gunsight that takes into effect many
variables such as wind, lead, aircraft speed, projectile velocity, etc. for accurate aerial
gunnery deployment.
PIPPER: The focal point of a gunsight or a HUD weapons mode. Also known as "The Kill
Dot" to Mud Hen drivers.
3/9 LINE: An imaginary line running through your aircraft from the 3 o’clock position
through the 9 o’clock position. This line denotes the forward and rear hemispheres.
Lesson Two - 06 JUL 98 - Pure and Lead Pursuit or "How I spent my

Summer Vacation"
Pure Pursuit is basically flying directly at or directly behind your bogey, and staying there.
For example, when you and your wingman are flying in an extended Lead-Trail formation,
the wingman is basically flying Pure Pursuit on you. And, as with all fighter maneuvers,
the most basic goal is to keep the baddies in front of you, exhaust baking the paint on the
glare shield. There is simply nothing more disheartening for a bad guy than a Western-
built aircraft sitting in deep six. Revel in that, and flip him the bird for good measure! :-)
The main use of Pure Pusuit is to close the range or to decrease the angle-off on your
bandit, in order to close to within weapons firing parameters (the ultimate goal IS to kill
the bandit after all), or to get to a position where the bandit is of less threat to you or
other allied aircraft. Generally, if you are already in the bandit’s six, you will have already
have shot him, if you need to be told to do this, then Tactics 101 will not help you, you
need to fly C-5’s and haul Dixie cups to La Paz and back, not fly fighters. You types may
leave the classroom now.
For the fighter-types still left in the room, we’ll continue...
Now let’s talk a little about Lead Pursuit. Lead Pursuit is basically an intercept course to
your bandit. Again, this type of pursuit course is mainly used to close range to the bandit
or angle-off from the bandit. It is also used when maneuvering for a guns kill. For
example, while maneuvering in lag behind your bandit, you manage to pull the nose
across the bandit’s plane of motion and put your nose out in front of him and begin firing.
The lead that you pull on the bandit allows your rounds to reach the same airspace as
the bandit at the same time. In many modern fighters, the gunsight is of the lead-
computing type or will have a LCOS mode. In those cases, maneuvering to put the
gunsight pipper on the bandit will actually have you flying a lead pursuit course in order to
accurately deploy the gun onto the offending bandito (almost all bandits are quite
offensive, disgusting, vile things).
Lead Pursuit is most probably the most common form of pursuit flying, and also the most
commonly unrecognized. You probably already fly this type of pursuit quite well and do
not even know it. If you ever fired in front of an aircraft in order to make bullet and
airframe meet in WarBirds or Air Warrior III, you have been flying Lead Pursuit. If you
have ever flown at an off angle in order to close the distance on a bandit and end up
sliding in behind him by simply pointing your nose out in front of his nose and flying
straight in Jane’s F-15, you have been flying Lead Pursuit. Congratulations Tiger, you are
well on your way to becoming a Sim Ace.
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In the next installment of Tactics 101 we are going to discuss some more complicated
maneuvers and tactics. Stay strapped in to your ACES II ...
DLO: The Desired Learning Objective for today is basically to keep the bandit in front of
you and to keep you in control of the bandit. Keep the bandit forward of your 3/9 line. Use
Lead Pursuit to chop the distance between you and the bandit, and use Pure Pursuit to
calculate a course to slide in behind him and to stay there. Use Lead Pursuit to put the
pipper on the target and start rocking and rolling. Pretty soon, you can show the bandit
what 4th of July in the good old USA is like from a first-person perspective!
Tactics 101 - Offensive & Defensive

Maneuvers
For those who've made it this far, welcome to Tactics 101 Part 3. Here's where we talk
about some more complicated maneuvers. This course will now concentrate on specific
offensive and defensive maneuvers against specific threats, both from the air and from
the ground. Get a frosty beverage now, this is gonna be a long one.
First, here are a few more F-driver words and acronyms to add to paste to your O-
mask…
ASL: Above Sea Level. Any altitude level that is above the mean sea level, which is a
constant.
AGL: Above Ground Level. Any altitude above the current elevation of the ground level
below you. This is not a constant.
Wizzo: WSO, Weapons System Officer. Also known as GIB (Guy In Back). In the Navy,
they are known as B/N's (Bombardier/Navigator) and RIO's (Radar Intercept Officer).
HARM: AGM-88 High Speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM). Missile used into
persecuting radar guided surface to air missile sites and radar installations.
SMOKER: Jet engine. Generally a reference to the smoky J-79 engines that power the
American versions of the F-4, but can be used in reference to any jet engine.
Lesson Three - 13 JUL 98 - Defensive Maneuvers versus Ground

Threats or "How to Move Mud Without Getting Dirty"
We are gonna break from the offensive for a bit and talk a little about how to survive
when a dirt-eating non-pilot is trying to kill you. Defending against the ground threat can
get quite hairy at times, particularily because ground-based weapons systems are big,
powerful, highly capable, and in many cases (like the SA-10 and SA-12), very, very,
deadly.
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Let's start with the most common of all ground threats… Guns. Trip-A comes in all
shapes and sizes, and every one of them, down to the 82-year old farmer with a flintlock,
can be the beginning of a very bad day.
The easiest way to defeat gun systems is to fly above their effective altitude. In most
cases this is an altitude between 8,000 and 13,000 feet AGL. Integrated Trip-A defensive
systems have rings of guns that are of varying calibre and guidance. The most elaborate
of these have multiple targeting systems (laser, optical, radar, etc.) and multiple altitude
levels can be blanketed with fire from varying calibre gun systems. These are the most
dangerous, as they are more effective, and tightly directed and concentrated. For these
systems, flying above their effective altitude is probably not an option except for the most
sophisticated and modern aircraft and weapons, because their effective altitude may
reach as high as 20,000 feet AGL or higher. Few targeting systems can accurately place
iron on target from that altitude. An F-117 can place the pickles in the barrel from Angels
20, so can an expert Mudhen Wizzo do it with an LGB from that alt, but an F-4 can't, and
an AV-8B, no way. For less sophisticated aircraft and weapons systems, we're gonna
havta get doity! (I'm a Noo Yawka and proud of it!)
Target approach to a heavily defended integrated air-defense system should be made at

a relatively high altitude. I like to ingress at about Angels 08. This allows me to get a
good view of the target and surrounding area, as well as staying above much of the
smaller calibre trip-a, and at the extreme altitude range of the man-portable SAM's. Take
this time to jink port and starboard for a few seconds each to get a good view of just what
is out there. Your best visuals are gonna come from the port and starboard Plexiglas.
Keep one eye on the threat display. Look out for any SAM radar's just lighting up for a
look-see. If you see any Gladiator's (SA-12/S-300) or Grumble's (SA-10), hit the deck
fast! Get as low as possible, and rush at them. They WILL kill you. Hope for good Weasel
support, or get your HARM off ASAP. If you don't have a HARM, then start praying.
Chances are better than good that these systems are either going to get you, or they are
gonna cause you to get light in a hurry, and either way, they win. If there are tracers
coming up around you, the trip-a has your altitude, and it's time to start jinking. Make your
flight path erratic, and unpredictable. If you fly at a constant altitude or on a continuous
heading, you will get got. Move the nose around the horizon, roll around a bit, change
altitude in the positive and negative, go faster. All of these things are effective
countermeasures against guided and unguided anti-aircraft weapons.
Once you've got the target in sight and everything is greened up, then choose a direct
route to the target, taking into effect any threats you've managed to eyeball from the IP.
Put the nose on that vector and go fast! The only thing that will get you out of a bad area
faster is more speed on the nose and more fire on the tail. Keep your eyes peeled for
bandits; don't get fixated on the ground threat. When you've got a good target picture, put
the nose in a shallow dive at the target, place the dot on the baddies, and pickle away!
Your very next motion should be to slam the throttle all the way forward pull the nose up
about 10 degrees (or head for the deck if you have heavy duty SAM's in the area) pick a
vector, and get outta Dodge at the speed-o-heat! Remember the less you have to think
about over the TA, the better. Get everything for getting bombs off and the target
destroyed done BEFORE the ingress. You don't wanna be looking for the Master Arm
switch 2 Mikes from the target with AAA and SAM's flying all around you.
Ok, now we know what to do while over a defended target, but you say you are running
into individual or groups of air-defenses en route to the TA. What do you do then? Well,
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in those cases, it is best to dissect the threat, and defeat the actual threat with a proven
effect defensive measure. So, let's talk about the behavior of certain threats...
SAM's: Surface to Air Missiles are usually large, and fairly easy to spot. If they hit you,
you will usually go down in flames. Few aircraft outside of the A-10 and Su-25 can
survive even a single hit by a SAM. They move very fast, and carry with them a
significant amount of kinetic energy. They also contain a highly explosive fuel, and
usually, a very large warhead. Suffice it to say, a direct hit by a SAM is usually a lose-
lose situation, and even a peripheral hit or concussion hit can kill your aircraft, and you. A
concussion hit will do the least damage, but it can still down you. To successfully defeat a
missile, you first have to SEE it. Next, employ countermeasures, and last MOVE. When
employing countermeasures remember two things. One, too much is better than not
enough, and Two, you have just enough time to react, no time to think. SAM's almost
always fly PURE PURSUIT to you, and at a very high rate of speed (most fly at speeds
beyond Mach 3). Only the most sophisticated SAM systems (Gladiator, Grumble and
Patriot PAC-II and PAC-III) can fly LEAD PURSUIT and course correct in flight to achieve
a high PK. You should place a SAM on your beam, drop chaff and flares, and make a
hard turn into the missile as it gets near to you. This is a judgement call, but don't wait too
long. At Mach 4 or 5, that golf ball sized missile will be telephone pole sized in a few
seconds flat! Turning hard into the missile causes the missile's guidance system to turn
hard to correct its flight path so that it achieves a direct hit. While you may only be pulling
8 or 9 g's, the missile may be pulling 40-60 g's. In most cases, you will out turn the
missile. In others, your parents will be burying a sponge in Arlington. I have put together
a little anti-SAM checklist. If you follow it, you should be alright.
1. Eyeball the missile.

2. Put the missile on your beam (90 degrees off the nose. i.e. off the port or
starboard wing).
3. Deploy countermeasures (chaff AND flares, don't worry about if the missile is IR
or RADAR guided, just dump both).
4. Turn on the music.
5. Turn hard INTO the missile.
6. Pray.
Trip-A: The best way to avoid AAA is to stay above it. If that is not possible, the best way
to survive it is to not get hit. :-) To do that, you need to jink wildly, and generally make
your flight path as unpredictable as possible. As I stated before, move the nose up,
down, left, and right. Roll all over. Climb and dive. Just be generally as ornery as you can
be. It just may save your life, and your airframe, and in most cases both, because if you
bring your bird home with holes in it, that Crew Chief with his name plastered on the
starboard side of your aircraft will kill you. Again, you need to eyeball the threat. This is
easy, cause when guns fire on you, they usually miss before they hit, and the tracers look
real purty too. Place the gun on your beam, turn on the music if you have a threat radar
indication on the TEWS, and pump up the volume on the smoker. No where does the
credo "Speed is Life" count more than it does here. Keep jinking until you are out of
range. Let's go to the Trip-A checklist...
1. Eyeball the threat gun.

2. Turn on the music if you have to.
3. Place the gun on your beam.
4. Put fire on the tail.
5. JINK JINK JINK!
6. Jink some more Kemosabe!
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DLO: The DLO for this lesson is basically that there is no substitute for practice and good
old fashioned hard maneuvering. If you have a missile on you, follow the checklist, and
move. If you have a gun firing on you, follow the checklist and move. There is no
substitute. Practice the checklist's against simulated threats in instant action or against
designer missions that you have set up. When flying in a campaign, a competition, on-
line against a friend, or with a group of buds over the LAN, you get only one chance. No
do-overs. It's do or die at that point. Practice, practice, practice, and maybe you won't die.
The checklists should soon become second nature, and you should live a bit longer. At
least until you fly against me. :-)
It's All a Matter of Your Perspective -

Part One
by Andy Bush
Introduction
Numerous articles on air combat simulation viewing systems have been written for sim
pilots. All have the objective of explaining how these systems permit you, the pilot, to
maneuver your aircraft with respect to another aircraft or ground object. My participation
in this discussion will be to offer a different view of the subject...a new perspective on
these systems. The term "perspective" will define the way I look at the subject. As a
former military pilot, my "mental" picture of basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) was formed by
the methods used both then and now by military instructors. I have found that the typical
air combat simulation, while doing a surprisingly good job at replicating certain aspects of
air combat flying, has tended to favor "in cockpit" presentation techniques in its attempt to
provide the simulation pilot with flight cues and guidance to solve the three-dimensional
BFM problem. As other authors have explained, these "in cockpit" presentations vary
from fixed views to virtual and padlock schemes. All of these techniques are cockpit-
based...they are seen from the perspective of being in the cockpit...which at first glance
seems only reasonable for the obvious reason that the cockpit is where the pilot is
sitting!! What I will try to explain in my discussion is that the military trained pilot takes an
entirely different perspective on the situation. I'll refer to this military perspective as an
"out-of-cockpit" point of view. I'll present several ways the typical air combat simulation
views a particular BFM problem, and then I'll present the pros and cons of these
presentations with regard to their effectiveness in providing the simulation pilot with the
necessary guidance to solve that problem.
But first, we need to define the scope of our discussion. Air combat maneuvering
procedures and techniques cover a very large amount of material, and, as technology
continues to advance into areas such as vectored thrust, stealth, and helmet-controlled
all-aspect weapons, this subject only grows more complicated and expansive. Therefore,
my discussion will limit the subject by placing the following boundaries on the discussion:
1. Number of aircraft limited to a one versus one situation.
2. Weapons capability limited to guns only.
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3. All maneuvering must result in a six o'clock gun range position.
With these restrictions in mind, let's now turn to a quick review of the objective of any
BFM maneuver. I like to think of this as the twin objectives of controlling closure and
fuselage alignment. By "controlling closure", I mean the task of controlling your velocity
relative to your opponent...controlling closure in the BFM sense does not necessarily
mean controlling airspeed. Instead it means controlling the rate at which your aircraft
close on or separates from the other aircraft. "Fuselage alignment" means getting your
aircraft pointed in the desired direction relative to the other aircraft. Another way to think
of this is to use the term "angle off". Our discussion will center on these two BFM
objectives: a closure rate of 50 knots or less and an angle off of 20 degrees or less.
There is one remaining variable in the BFM solution....that variable is time. The next
section will explain the critical impact time has in the effective solution to a given BFM
problem.
Discussion
The Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action Loop
We all understand the concept of time in the sense of beginning a BFM maneuver either
too early or too late, but that is not what I'm referring to when I talk about the importance
of time in BFM. Instead, I want to take a broader view of time in BFM in the sense of one
pilot making and implementing BFM decisions more rapidly than his opponent. In doing
so, the pilot always has his opponent on the defensive...his opponent is always reacting
to him rather than vice versa. This idea was conceived years ago by a highly regarded
USAF fighter pilot and tactician in his concept of the OODA Loop. OODA stands for
"observe, orient, decide, act" and the term loop in this sense means those four processes
are repeated over and over again. The OODA loop is the process in which a pilot
observes a BFM situation, orients himself with regard to his adversary and the horizon,
decides upon a plan of action, and finally implements that plan. Having done so, the pilot
then reconsiders the resulting BFM situation and starts the loop over again. But the
significance of the OODA loop concept does not stop there. Instead, the author went on
to explain how the victorious pilot would invariably be the one who processed his loop
faster than his opponent...he referred to this as "getting inside your opponent's loop". By
that, he meant keeping the opponent on the defensive. You, the simulation pilot, want to
do the same, but how does this OODA stuff relate to you? The answer to that question is
what this article is all about.
Decision Making in the Air Combat Simulation
In an actual air combat engagement, the pilot gets sight of his opponent and begins to
maneuver to reduce angle off (align fuselages) and at the same time adjusts his throttle
and/or nose position to control closure. He does this by looking outside the cockpit.
Inside cockpit instrumentation is secondary in his decision making or is ignored
completely. If the opponent begins to maneuver counter to his initial move, the pilot
reassesses the situation by reference to the opponent and the horizon, in that order.
Again, the new assessment is made by looking outside the cockpit. You may think of the
process as if the pilot were saying to himself, "There he is, here I am, and there is where
I want to go". The pilot builds a mental three-dimensional picture of the relationship
between himself and his opponent. He then projects in his mind where his opponent's
flight path is headed, and he plans a corresponding maneuver which will take him in the
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most efficient manner to a position of kill relative to that prediction of his opponent's flight
path.
I'll take a word or two to discuss the term "efficient" used in the last sentence. Efficient
BFM is maneuvering to take full advantage of the available turning room. Efficient BFM
takes full advantage of the effect of gravity as it affects turn radius and turn rate. Efficient
BFM almost always involves split-plane maneuvering. Split-plane maneuvers are those
flown out of the opponent's plane of motion...i.e. three-dimensional maneuvers. Efficient
BFM is almost always lead or lag pursuit, and seldom is pure pursuit. Pure pursuit is
usually the last stage of maneuver prior to the trigger squeeze. Many of you are familiar
with the term "lift-vectoring". Efficient BFM is orienting your lift vector (lift-vectoring) out of
the opponent's plane of motion to use the lead turn, lead pursuit, and the beneficial effect
of gravity to align fuselages and control closure. The obvious question is "How does the
pilot learn how to do this?".
Military air combat instruction is accomplished primarily using academic texts and verbal
briefings. The texts are typically illustrated with "ribbon diagrams" which attempt to show
a three-dimensional picture of a maneuver. Many air combat simulations contain similar
diagrams in their manuals. These diagrams are of limited value. Of more significance is
the verbal briefing where the instructor takes the student through each step of the
maneuver. The instructor tries to build in the student's mind a three-dimensional picture
of the maneuver. The primary training aid is the model on a stick, or in lieu of that, the
instructor's hands! Sounds primitive, I know... especially in this high tech age...but it gets
the job done. It is important to understand that the student sees the models(or hands)
representing both himself and his opponent together in one spatial three-dimensional
relationship. I think this is sufficiently important to say again...the stick models or
instructor's hands illustrate the process of aligning fuselages and controlling closure in a
three-dimensional manner and in a way which allows the student to see both aircraft
together. The instructor's objective is to create for the student an out-of-cockpit
perspective of the maneuver.
I think we are now ready to move on to look at the various simulation views. As an
introduction to that discussion, let's review the main points covered so far:
1. BFM maneuvers are best visualized using an out-of-cockpit perspective.
2. BFM maneuvers are most efficiently flown out-of-plane relative to the opponent.
3. Assuming these two dictates are adhered to, time as described in the OODA loop
section becomes the dominant factor in determining the victor in an aerial engagement.
An Assessment of Air Combat Simulation Views
One way to compare the effectiveness of a simulation view is to consider how the military
teaches the solution to a BFM problem. The military instructor's objective is to teach the
student two things...how to perform the maneuver itself, and how to recognize and
interpret the opponent's position and projected flight path. When viewed in isolation, the
BFM maneuver has the appearance of a set-piece maneuver... in other words, one flown
without regard to outside factors. An example would be two fighters meeting head on...as
they pass each other, one pilot decides to perform an Immelman. He pulls up into the
vertical and finishes the maneuver without regard to his opponent's position. Only when
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he completes the Immelman does he bring the opponent back into his scan. In BFM,
however, there is no such thing as a set-piece maneuver. Flying a maneuver in this
manner is not BFM, it is aerobatics. BFM must be flown with regard to the other aircraft.
Therefore the military instructor will teach the student how to modify and adjust his flight
path with regard to the opponent's position, aspect, and projected flight path. Particular
emphasis is placed on range estimation, closure, and fuselage alignment. From these
variables, the pilot will recognize the opportunities for lead turns, the need for additional
turning room, the effect of g upon his maneuvers relative to the opponent, and the
balance between throttle changes and extension/acceleration maneuvers to control
closure.
Let's boil this discussion down to some simple mandates. A BFM maneuver should be
flown with regard to the opponent. The maneuver should be modified as necessary to
adapt to the opponent's flight path. Visual contact must be maintained to determine
range, closure, fuselage alignment, and predicted flight path.
A simulation view is only as effective as its ability to meet these mandates. These are
difficult standards. It is likely that no single simulation will meet all of the mandates, but
some will come closer than others. Let's take a look at them.
Fixed Views
The forward fixed view is the foundation for all air combat simulation flying. It is the
primary reference for all weapons employment as well as takeoff, landing, and
navigation. The forward view is the easiest reference for the pilot to keep oriented with,
but it quickly loses its value when the target aircraft flys outside the field of view.
Supplemental fixed views include left, right, and up views relative to the aircraft's nose.
These are best used as a search tool while the pilot maintains level flight. Attempting to
maneuver using one of these supplemental fixed views can be very disorienting due to
the lack of clues as to the pilot's nose position. The fixed view can be used to provide
range, closure, fuselage alignment, and opponent flight path information, but is of little
use as a maneuvering view to take advantage of that information.
Fixed views are sometimes provided with additional symbology intended to give
information on the position of the opponent when he is not in view. Typically, these take
the form of "pointing x's" or "floating windows". The "pointing x" symbology is the most
basic, and in effect only tells the pilot that the opponent went out of the field if view in a
particular direction. As such, the "pointing x" provides relative bearing information
only...nothing regarding closure, aspect, fuselage alignment, or flight path. To use the
"pointing x", the pilot rolls to put the "x" at the top of the monitor screen(his lift vector) and
pulls for all he's worth until, hopefully, the opponent comes back into view. All too often
when the opponent does reappear, it is only for a second or so before he flys once again
out of view. If the pilot has a turn rate advantage and sufficient energy, he may eventually
chase his opponent down, but that is all he has done...chase the opponent down. This is
not effective BFM. This is pure pursuit, in-plane tail chasing which, even if it does
eventually lead to a firing solution, takes an excessive amount of time. It does, however,
allow the pilot to remain oriented to his own position and because of this I consider it the
starting point for new pilots. It's like a bicycle with training wheels...a satisfactory
beginning, but not something to stay with forever.
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A second type of supplemental fixed view is the "floating window". This concept is a
"picture within a picture"...a small window which moves around the perimeter of the
forward fixed view. The window usually includes a view of the opponent aircraft and may
include additional information such as airspeed, altitude, and range. The opponent
aircraft will appear in the window as it would if the pilot was looking directly at it. The
window's position on the perimeter of the monitor will correspond to the opponent's
relative bearing, and will be displayed as long as the opponent is out of the forward field
of view. The "floating window" is a much more useful technique than the "pointing x"
since it provides range, closure, and aspect as well as relative bearing. For the new pilot,
the window may be used like a "pointing x". As the pilot gains proficiency, he can use the
window to initiate out-of-plane maneuvers. The main disadvantage of the "floating
window" is its limited ability to show the "big picture" and the amount of time needed to
assess the information in the window. While the "floating window" is a big improvement
over the other types of fixed views, other views meet our mandates more effectively.
Using the bicycle analogy, the "floating window" view is like taking off the training wheels
while still needing someone's assistance. We'll need a better view before we can go
pedaling off on our own.
Virtual Views
Virtual views or "scrollable views" allow the simulation pilot to slew his screen from the
forward view to either side or up and down. The effect is as if the pilot has turned his
head to look in new direction. Because of the limited information on his own nose position
when his view has been slewed, the virtual view is best used as a search tool. It is
difficult, if not impossible, to use the scrollable view while maneuvering. The resulting
disorientation makes this view type ineffective as a maneuvering aid.
Padlock Views
As I have previously mentioned, this is the view of the purist. Starting with Falcon 3 and
continuing to the latest simulations, the padlock view has been improved upon to provide
the more experienced pilot a sophisticated maneuvering tool. Regardless of the specific
padlock type, the view has the common characteristic of a large primary picture with
additional supplementing windows as in Falcon 3 and Su-27 or pilot cues, such as the
translucent arrows in EF2000. This "collage" of information intends to provide the pilot
with the present aspect, range, fuselage alignment, and flight path of his opponent as
well as keeping him oriented to the horizon and the position of his own nose. The
singular advantage of padlock techniques over the previously described views is that
they allow the pilot to continually monitor the opponent's flight path and position while
maintaining control over his own. This allows the pilot to make changes to his BFM plan
as the maneuver evolves...this is a major step forward in BFM simulation. Using padlock,
our bicyclist is off to the races!!
Well...not so fast. As with most things in life, there is good news and bad news in using
padlock. As good as padlock views are, there still remain some shortcomings. Two are
significant...the tendency to use the view to fly in-plane with the opponent, and the
amount of time needed to interpret the view. When padlock is used to orient the lift vector
at the opponent, the end result is a pure pursuit course that is nothing more than a
sophisticated form of using the "pointed x". Although sufficient visual information is
available to allow a very proficient pilot to use padlock to maneuver out of plane with the
opponent, I suspect this is seldom the case. The padlock technique also requires the pilot
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to analyze specific parts of the whole view to gain the "big picture". This reminds me
instrument flying where the pilot has to cross-check a number of individual instruments to
get a complete idea of what the aircraft is doing. Certainly the cross-check provides the
necessary information, but it does so at the expense of time, and time is our critical
factor. The time factor can be reduced only by finding a way to provide opponent data in
a more "all at once" sense. Some might refer to this as an "intuitive" grasp of the BFM
situation. In fact, this is an excellent way to describe this goal, and is exactly what the
military instructor is trying to develop in his student...one look at the opponent that meets
all the mandates which we set out earlier in the discussion. Doing this in a simulation is
going to be tough, but we have one more trick in our bag...the external view.
External Views
The diversity of external views is common place in air combat simulations. Unfortunately,
the visual attractiveness of these views is not matched by their usefulness in flying good
BFM. Too often, the typical external view is little more than "eye candy"...pretty to look at
but that's about it. One type of external view can be used, however, to meet our BFM
mandates. This view is often referred to as the "player-to-target" view.
The frame of reference of this view is as if an outside observer was positioned to always
have both aircraft in his field of view with the opponent aircraft in the background.
Typically in this view, the player aircraft remained centered in the screen and at a fixed
range. The opponent aircraft is shown in the background at an approximate correct size
and fuselage orientation for the distance between the two aircraft. The overall impact of
this view is to replicate, in effect, how stick models would look if placed into a similar
perspective. This feature is this view's greatest asset...it provides a "snapshot" look at the
three-dimensional relationship between the two aircraft. Using this out-of-cockpit
perspective, the pilot can easily see his opponent's relative range, aspect, fuselage
alignment, and direction of flight. The relative movement between the two aircraft
provides a sense of closure even if no other cues are available. The pilot remains
oriented because the horizon, sky, and ground detail are always in view. Here is the
significance if this...
In any BFM situation, the pilot has these three considerations:
1. I'm here.
2. My opponent is there.
3. To get behind him, I need to do_______.
Of all the view types, the player-to-target view shows this most effectively. In one look the
pilot recognizes both the need for a maneuver as well as how the maneuver should be
flown. For the first time, out-of-plane maneuvering becomes easy to conceptualize.
Decision making time is reduced to a minimum. Follow on maneuvering requirements are
easily recognized, and minimum time is spent in making the necessary corrections to the
pilot's flight path. As must be obvious by now, the point of emphasis is time, and as
explained earlier in the OODA Loop concept, time is the ultimate determinant of victory or
defeat. Other view types may allow a pilot to fly good BFM, but none allow him to do this
as quickly as the player-to-target external view. Referring back to our bicycle analogy,
using this view is like competing in the Tour de France!
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Recommendation
I have decided to finish this article not with a summation or a conclusion, but, instead with
a recommendation. I recommend that you give serious thought to using the player-to-
target external view to learn the basics of BFM. Now before you tell me that you know
these basics, let me go out on a limb and respectfully suggest that, more likely than not,
the opposite is true. Unless you have benefited from a formal education in BFM
techniques and principles, there is little likelihood that you have a firm understanding of
these basics. The academics of BFM are rooted in aerodynamics and physics, and they
are not to be taken lightly. I have not attempted to cover these subjects in my discussion,
and you won't find much in your simulation manual. But let's not get discouraged...there
is a way to learn the essentials of BFM and as a result have a great time with your flight
simulation. This "way" is a two step process. Step one is for you to study your simulation
manual, or better still, get a copy of Robert Shaw's book, Fighter Combat, and study the
section on BFM fundamentals. In this step your objective is to know which BFM
maneuver meets the needs of a given BFM situation. These are maneuvers which solve
closure, angle off, and aspect problems. You must know which is which, when they are
required, and, most of all, how to fly them. Please do not kid yourself...if you are really
serious about BFM, put in the book time to learn the academics. If you do not, and you
press on ahead anyway, the results may well be disappointing.
Step two is then to practice these maneuvers using the player-to-target external view. If
your simulation does not offer this view, then get one that does. When you practice these
maneuvers, do not expect for it to be easy. Initially, you will be disoriented as you attempt
to "fly" from this "outside the cockpit" perspective. Stick with it - practice, practice, and
more practice will pay tremendous dividends. Fly this view against the simulation AI
(artificial intelligence - the program the computer uses to fly its maneuvers), or better yet,
go on line with a friend and practice against each other.
If there is anyone who would like further justification for this learning approach, let me
give you one. I am sure you all think of yourself as "flying" the simulation when you use
padlock or some form of fixed view in a BFM engagement. Wrong! The simulation AI is
doing the thinking...all you are doing is following the cues the simulation is providing. The
AI is "solving" the BFM problem and is displaying symbology for you to follow. On the
other hand, when you use the player-to-target view, there are no cues...no symbology to
follow...no easy answers. Just as in real life, you must assess the situation, determine
what type BFM you are faced with, and then fly the solution properly. Please trust me on
this - learn to fly this external view and you will enjoy a level of satisfaction unlike
anything you ever felt when flying padlock or anything else for that matter.
Finally, I have not overlooked or forgotten the fact that certain competitive aspects of
flight simulation BFM mandate use of only padlock views. I have no problem with that.
The point that I want to hammer home is that you should learn BFM fundamentals using
an "outside the cockpit" perspective, Once you intuitively recognize the three-dimensional
solution to a BFM problem and can properly fly that solution using the external view,
then, by all means, go back to padlock if that is necessary. You then will be able to use
that view to maneuver out of plane with your opponent because you already "see" the
solution in your mind. Instead of following symbology to what you hope is a successful
maneuver, you will instead use that symbology to "build" a mental 3D picture which you
will then fly. You are doing the problem solving, not the AI...you are determining you flight
path, not the AI. You are in control, not the AI.
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Well, friends and fellow fighter pilots, thanks for hanging in there. I appreciate having the
opportunity to talk with you on this, my favorite subject. BFM is not an easy subject, but if
you put in the effort to do your part, you will succeed. Work hard, don't get discouraged,
and ask for help if needed. Good luck and good hunting.
It's All a Matter of Perspective - Part

Two
by Andy Bush
Introduction
In the previous discussion of flight simulation views, I evaluated each type of viewing
system with regard to how effectively each system allowed you to see the need for and
then perform basic BFM maneuvers. This comparison placed its primary emphasis on the
amount of time that each type of view required to determine and implement the BFM
maneuver. My conclusion was that the external view, specifically the player-to-target
view, gave the pilot the best opportunity to reach his twin objectives of correct maneuver
choice and timely maneuver performance. I concluded that it was the "outside the
cockpit" perspective of the external view which allowed the pilot to see both aircraft at
one time in a 3D spatial relationship. I noted that this perspective gave us the best
intuitive sense of the particular BFM problem at hand. At this point let’s stop for a
moment and recognize that this intuitive grasp of BFM is not inherent in the
pilot...instead, this insight starts in the mastery of specific BFM concepts and is perfected
through practice. In this article I will continue this line of thought by discussing a number
of those concepts, all of which can be thought of as building blocks in the development of
that intuitive feel for BFM.
Discussion
The building blocks of intuitive BFM can be grouped into two areas:
1. General Aerodynamic Principles
2. General Offensive and Defensive Maneuvers
I’ll begin with a discussion of the first building block, general aerodynamic principles, and
in a subsequent article I will discuss various BFM maneuvers which you may use to gain
an advantage over your opponent. But first, I need to make a disclaimer! This article is
about flight simulation BFM. It is not necessarily a primer for real life BFM because there
are some very significant limitations in how well air combat simulations replicate the real
world...and, not only do these simulations share collective limitations, but individually they
vary widely in the accuracy of their flight models. Therefore, this discussion will center on
concepts and principles that you can use in your simulation. How well your simulation
takes advantage of these concepts is difficult to quantify, but one thing is certain. These
concepts are timeless...they are the "prima franca" of air combat maneuvering
techniques. They may or may not be as effective in a simulation as in real life, but they
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will, as a whole, give you the basic foundation so necessary for the "big picture", the
intuitive feel for the right maneuver at the right time.
General Aerodynamic Principles
1. The Effect of Gravity. Gravity, or "God’s g" as it is sometimes called, can be a big
player in overall BFM maneuver effectiveness. As we all understand, gravity is always
with us...pulling us "downwards" towards the earth. We counter that force with one of our
own which we call lift...but, when in level flight, we must remember that the lift force or
"vector", is always being opposed by gravity...thus, the magnitude of our lift vector is
always effected by gravity. In the cockpit, we read our lift vector g on the g meter, either
positive or negative. We sometimes forget, however, that the g force which affects the
actual performance of the aircraft is the end result of God’s g (gravity) and our cockpit g
being mathematically combined to produce a resultant g force known as "Radial G".
When we think of maximum performance in our maneuvers, we mean max turn rate and
min turn radius. These two turn parameters are affected by your Radial G and your true
airspeed. The effect of God’s g is easily seen. Keeping in mind that turn rate and radius
are improved as Radial G is increased, when your lift vector is pointed below the horizon,
God’s g adds to your cockpit g and therefore improves your turn performance. The g you
are seeing on your g meter is actually less than the total g which is affecting your aircraft.
Now, orient your lift vector above the horizon, and the opposite is true...you get less turn
performance since Radial G is less than what you see on the g meter. The difference is
most pronounced when your lift vector is perfectly vertical to the horizon. The following
two diagrams explain the Radial G concept.
Imagine you are pulling 4 cockpit g’s...when you are wings level and upright, God’s g
subtracts one g from your resultant lift vector...you end up with a resultant force (Radial
G) of 3 g’s.
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Now if you roll wings level inverted, God’s g adds one g to your cockpit g, bringing your
resultant Radial G up to 5.
The end result is that in our example the inverted aircraft is performing about 50% better
than the upright aircraft for a given airspeed. Now, these performance differences
decrease once the aircraft leaves wings level flight, but the important thing for you to
remember is that lift vector orientation can significantly affect your turn performance. One
final point on this subject needs to be made. In the above figures, we show both the lift
vector and the Radial G resultant vector. The significance of this diagram is that you
understand that the lift vector is not the direction your aircraft is going...instead, your
actual flight path is the Radial G resultant vector. In aerodynamics, this Radial G vector is
called the acceleration vector. In this sense, acceleration does not mean speed up or
slow down, instead it refers to the Radial G force direction. As an aircraft moves through
the sky, it is being affected by Radial G and the force of its own velocity. These two
forces can be thought of as flight path vectors linked together at the aircraft, and,
together, they form the plane of motion. I’m sure you are wondering what is the point of
all this "rocket science"...simply put, it is to introduce this concept of the plane of motion.
As you maneuver against your opponent, it is your ultimate objective to get yourself into
his plane of motion...in doing so, you will have solved the BFM problem of controlling
closure and aligning fuselages. So, let’s talk for a bit about what this plane of motion is,
how you recognize it, and how the external view gives you the best look at it.
2. The Plane of Motion. Whew, I can hear you say!! Finally, something you have
heard of...the plane of motion. Just so that everyone understands...the word
"plane" doesn’t mean "airplane"...no, we’re talking about "plane" in the sense of a
"flat plane of glass", for example. This "plane" represents the flight path of our
aircraft. Please note that the plane of motion is aligned with the rudder, not the
wings
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Now, if another aircraft comes along whose velocity vector and radial g vector are
oriented in a different direction from our aircraft, then its "plane of motion" will intersect
ours and form a three dimensional figure looking something like this:
Since these two planes are not in alignment, we refer to these two planes as being "split".
And so, the two aircraft who are maneuvering within their separate planes of motion are
engaging in split-plane maneuvering. They are maneuvering out of plane with regard to
each other. Pilots will maneuver out of plane to gain an advantage. They do this to gain
additional turning room and to use the beneficial effects of God’s g. This allows them to
control closure, aspect, and angle off. In the last issue’s article, I defined BFM as the
"control of closure, aspect, and angle off", and I said split-plane maneuvering was
"efficient BFM". Therefore, when we look at Figure 4, we see a diagram of two aircraft
maneuvering against each other, presumably to gain an advantage against the other.
Now look at Figure 4 again, remove the planes of motion, and imagine it as the player-to-
target view.
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Aha!! Now we are getting somewhere! In this screen shot, we see the attacker bringing
his nose up and out of the plane of turn of the defender. This is how the beginning of a
High Yo-Yo looks from an external view. Remember, this is an article about using the
external view in BFM. If we fly our simulation using an external view, then the obvious
question becomes one of how we orient our lift and velocity vectors to establish a plane
of motion for ourselves that gives us an advantage over our opponent. When we use the
external view, which way do we roll and/or pull to achieve that advantageous split plane?
That is what the remainder of this article is going to talk about...how we solve the
problems of controlling closure and achieving required turning room
3. Using the Flight Path Vector To Control Closure. In addition to using the throttle to
change your speed relative to another aircraft, you may vary your closure by changing
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your nose position. In doing so, you are changing the direction of your velocity
vector...you are giving your airspeed a new direction. Depending on the relative position
between you and your opponent, this new velocity vector direction will result in a increase
or decrease in closure, often without any corresponding change in your indicated
airspeed. This happens because your new flight path covers either a longer or shorter
distance resulting in a longer or shorter length of time. When you attempt to re-direct your
flight path vector with the external view, two things are immediately visible on your
monitor...the size of the change in your flight path - how you have changed your angle off
- and the effect of that change on your position relative to your opponent - how this
maneuver has changed your closure. At this point, let’s get a mental picture of what we
have just done...we have positioned our flight path away from the opponent, thus gaining
some separation, and we have made a correction in our rate of closure. We are now in
position to complete our pursuit of the opponent...all we need is enough turning room.
4. Required Turning Room versus Available Turning Room. When attempting to bring
your weapons to bear on your opponent or when attempting to align fuselages, one
parameter is always a major consideration...do you have the room necessary to complete
the turn? Too often we may find that the turning room which we have to work with is just
not sufficient for us to put our lift vector on the opponent and pull...what will result if we try
this is a flight path overshoot which may well offer our opponent the chance to reverse
roles and become the attacker. The issue here is being able to visualize the field of
maneuver as being more than two dimensional. Someone once said the shortest
distance between two points is a straight line...who ever that guy was never flew BFM!! In
the following figure, the F-15 cannot simply roll, put his lift vector on the target, and then
pull...he will overshoot since his turn radius is larger than the available turning room.
Therefore the question becomes "where does the pilot find additional turning room" in
situations like this? By now, I think you know where I am headed...the pilot must reorient
his flight path vector out of the plane of motion of the opponent. "Well, that’s fine", you
say, "but how do I do that?" Excellent question. You do that with your aileron...you point
your lift vector and thus your flight path vector by rolling your aircraft to a new bank
attitude relative to your opponent. You get out of plane with aileron...how far you get out
of plane is determined by how long and how hard you pull back on the stick. Of these two
control inputs, roll is more important than pull. Your first problem is to get out of
plane...having done that, then you can worry about how much of a change to make.
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One very important principle must be understood...the relationship of the opponent’s
plane of motion to the horizon is not of immediate significance. Regardless of the
opponent’s plane of motion, when additional turning room is needed, you should roll to
point your lift vector away from his plane of motion...as much as 90 degrees if necessary.
The external view makes this repositioning maneuver easy to visualize. The amount that
you get out of plane with your opponent and the amount of separation needed is a direct
function of how much additional turning room you need. For example, if you see a major
flight path overshoot coming up, you need to aggressively break out of the opponent’s
plane of motion and maintain your new flight path until you can safely pull back towards
the opponent. Please note that I did not use the words "pull back down" or "pull back up"
in reference to your re-entry to the fight. This is because there is no "up" or "down", i.e.,
no reference to the horizon...the primary consideration is to get out of plane.
5. "Hedging My Bets" or Required Turning Room versus Available Turning Room, Part 2.
Now, having said that, let me cover my tracks by saying that, as always, nothing is ever
quite "black or white", no case is ever "open and shut" in BFM. There are, once again,
additional considerations in making your bid for more turning room, but, for the level of
our discussion, I believe they are less significant...not to be ignored completely, but
definitely not front burner material. Of these, two merit some discussion...your energy
state at the initiation of the out of plane maneuver, and the effect of God’s g on your
maneuver. Both of these factors essentially bring the same thing into the equation...the
location of the horizon relative to the opponent’s plane of motion.
As we have mentioned earlier, your airspeed (in this case, true airspeed) is one of the
two determinants of turn radius and rate. We also discussed the difference between the
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terms of airspeed and closure. You read your airspeed off the HUD, but your closure, for
a given airspeed, is a function of angle off. The following figures makes this clear:
In Fig.7, with the opponent at a 90 degree crossing angle, the attacker’s closure is his
true airspeed since the opponent’s velocity vector neither adds to or subtracts from the
attacker’s velocity.
However, in Fig-8, the opponent is moving away from the attacker at an angle. If we were
to break the opponent’s velocity vector down into components relative to the attacker, we
would find that a portion of the opponent’s velocity vector is aligned with the attacker’s
velocity vector and. as a result, reduces the attacker’s closure. In both cases, the
attacker has the same indicated airspeed, but his closure differs significantly, and,
therefore, the magnitude of his BFM maneuver required to control this closure is also
different. What this means to you as the attacker is that in the first case,
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you may well have to make a throttle reduction and a major flight path change to
control your overtake, whereas, in the second case, you may well be able to manage
your closure with either a throttle reduction or a small yo-yo. My point to you is that
your indicated airspeed is not a very good measure of the BFM closure problem. Your
total energy state is actually a combination of your indicated velocity (airspeed) as
well as your relative velocity which arises from the geometry of the set up.
A second factor which you need to also consider is the positive or negative factor that
God’s G may bring to your attempt to gain turning room. We have already explained how
radial g (along with true airspeed) is the determining factor in your turning performance.
You, as the pilot seeking the greatest advantage in your choice of maneuvers, want to
take full use of the positive aspects of God’s g while minimizing the negative. How you do
this will be covered in the second part of this article...for now, it is important that you
understand that radial g is a variable which you control, just as in the first example, both
throttle management and flight path direction (velocity vector control) are variables which
you directly affect. The bottom line is that recognizing and achieving required turning
room is the dominant problem in offensive BFM.
6. How To Recognize Relative Energy States. Now we are getting down to the nitty-
gritty...I see the opponent...I need some smash...where do I get it from? Well, you could
always take the brute force approach and throw it into burner. But what if you don’t have
that option...such as you are already in afterburner, or you are close to bingo and cannot
afford the extra fuel consumption...is there another way? There well may be if you can
take advantage of any energy potential which exists because of your relative position to
the opponent. If you are above his flight path relative to the horizon, you have some
potential energy due to your altitude advantage which you could use...just lower your
nose slightly and let God’s G help you out. An easy remedy to a closure problem...but I
want to offer something a little more subtle. I want to introduce what I think of as "the high
wing/low wing" view of energy management. In a way I’m just restating the ideas already
put forward about God’s G, but, while theory is fine for textbooks...how about a technique
you can use in the cockpit? Here it is...hope you have luck with it.
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In the diagram, the aircraft is viewed relative to the horizon. What we want to do is to
identify the target’s plane of motion. You do this by using the target’s rudder as an
approximation along with the extension of the target’s fuselage axis. These two lines
define the plane of motion. Now we compare this plane of motion to the horizon. In
Figure 10, the aircraft is oriented in a right bank and is upright to the horizon with its
plane of motion canted approximately 45 degrees from the vertical. If you climb above
the target’s plane of motion, you are exchanging kinetic energy for potential...in other
words you are slowing down. If you fly to the area below the target’s plane of motion, you
are doing the opposite...exchanging potential for kinetic...you are gaining speed. As you
view the target’s plane of motion, it is easy to relate that plane to the horizon. Do this and
you then may see the target’s wings as being oriented above or below the horizon. As
you view that aircraft, I want you to think of his low wing as pointing to the positive or
energy gain area, and his high wing as pointing to the area of negative or reduction of
energy area.
The concept is simple...want to pick up some smash or at least not lose any...then fly to
his low wing. Need to bleed some smash...control your closure...then "raise" your nose a
little and point yourself towards his high wing. Think low wing equals acceleration, high
wing equals deceleration...piece of cake!!
7. The High Six and Flying To the Elbow. This last area in this discussion ties it all
together. We’ve talked about using God’s g, planes of motion, control of our velocity
vector, turning room, and relative energy states...now let’s finish by presenting a view of
where we want to be to blow our opponent away. We want to be behind him with our
closure under control...we want to be in a position of command. You may have heard of
this concept before...it is not original with me, but I endorse it highly...it’s called the High
Six O’clock. Of course, this is your opponent’s six which we are talking about! We get
there by orienting our flight path vector and managing our closure to arrive at that point in
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the sky known as the "high six". The word "high" in this context means relative to the
horizon, not to your opponent. His attitude..upright, inverted, whatever..is not a
consideration. You want to maneuver to a position which is behind your opponent and
"above" him relative to the horizon. Why and how far behind? This is strictly a function of
your choice of weapon...for a gun attack, I like to stay in close...definitely inside 3000
feet. Why "above"? The answer is one I’m sure you now know...because by flying to that
position, we control our closure to make sure our opponent stays out in front. One way to
visualize this concept is to use our forearm as a reference.
Our hand will represent the opponent, and our elbow will represent the "high six". Like all
fighter pilots, we use our hands to illustrate a maneuver. You are your free hand...no
matter what position you place your other forearm in, you want to maneuver your free
hand back around to your other elbow. This is a "must" for you to understand...you
maneuver to the elbow, not to the opponent! No matter which way your opponent is
heading, no matter which way the horizon is...you fly to the elbow. Your turning room
requirements, your energy needs are predicated on getting to the elbow. Wow, I can’t say
it stronger than that!!
Summary
I want to conclude by reminding everyone that we are talking about using external views
to learn air combat simulation BFM. My opinion is that the external view allows you to
"see" from an "out of cockpit" perspective the three dimensional BFM problem. The "high
six" and the "elbow" are more easily perceived using the external view than in any other
view. Try it, and with practice, I think you will appreciate it’s effectiveness...see you next
time.
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Three
by Andy Bush
General Offensive and Defensive Considerations
Introduction
Well, folks, it's time to get down to where the rubber meets the road. Many, if not most of
you, want a good understanding of the academics of fighter flying. Usually, this takes the
form of procedures and techniques taken right out of real world manuals. This, as far as it
goes, is good. Many have Shaw's book, Fighter Combat, in their home library. I do too...it
is probably the best single source reference for traditional fighter concepts that you will
find. In addition, each new sim we buy has whole sections devoted to nothing but
historical info and explanations of standard maneuvers. All of this has its place. I fully
support a good understanding of historical background...it adds to the "immersiveness" of
the sim. I also endorse a well written coverage of the basic fighter maneuvers and tactics.
You folks need to know this material to get the most out of your sim. But, here the good
news stops. This info will not help you fly a better sim...it will only make you
conversationally proficient, meaning, you can "talk the talk", but it remains to be seen
whether you can, in the final analysis, "walk the walk".
Something is missing at this point, and that something is a firm understanding of just how
far your sim's viewing system will permit you to employ the maneuvers and tactics that
you studied so hard. Unfortunately and altogether too often, a sim's viewing system is its
Achilles Heel. It's as simple as this...if you can't see it, you can't do it. It is very difficult to
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ask a two dimensional monitor to portray the three dimensional world of air combat, but
we do so every time we fire up a sim.
In this third in a series of BFM versus viewing systems articles, let's talk for a bit on how
you can learn how to "walk the walk". We'll take the approach of nailing down what we
want to achieve, and then we'll explore ways of getting that objective out of our sim. First,
let's realize that all sims are not equal in their respective abilities to let us "see"the
magnitude of the problem at hand, no matter what that problem may be. Not all sims offer
padlock and exterior views. Of those that do, not all have views that are adequate to
solve the problem. This article will take a middle of the road approach and discuss
viewing systems in general terms. My hope is that there will be enough here for you to
increase your proficiency with your particular sim. Ultimately, this is all about having
fun...if this article increases your "fun quotient", then its purpose has been achieved. That
being said, let's get to it.
Basic Concepts
Here it is in a nutshell. We're talking Basic Fighter Maneuvers...BFM. So, what is BFM?
Put aside any previous definitions, and listen to mine. Mine applies in the real world, but,
more importantly, it will also apply to you as you fly your sim. Here it is:
BFM is controlling closure and fuselage alignment!!
That's it. End of story. That's what you need to be able to do. Control your closure
relative to your opponent. Control the alignment of your fuselage relative to your
opponent. Simple!!
"Say what", I hear you say!! "What does that mean?" No problem...let's take them one at
a time. You control closure when you vary your throttle position and/or flight path to
change or maintain the rate at which you move towards or away from your opponent.
Closure is not your indicated airspeed...it is your rate of movement, either plus or minus,
relative to your opponent. Please again note that we control closure both with throttle
changes and flight path modification.
Your fuselage alignment is your aircraft's longitudinal axis. More simply, it is the direction
your nose is pointed. It is not your flight path! Your aircraft could be in a tail slide with
your nose pointed up with your flight path straight down!! As the pilot, you change your
nose position to obtain a change in your flight path. Substituting words, you control your
fuselage alignment to gain a desired flight path objective. One final note on positioning
your fuselage alignment. Use aileron to set a bank angle that will orient your lift vector in
the desired direction. Then use back stick to move the nose at the desired rate of pitch
change until you have the nose pointed where you want it. Roll to orient...pull to point.
None of this should be new info for most of you. The issue is not that you don't
understand BFM basics...no, the real issue is that you want to know how to achieve
those basics given the constraints of the typical sim viewing system. I can hear you say,
"Absolutely...so what do I do?". That's what this article is all about. Let's pause for a
moment and recognize those constraints.
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As a rule, most sim pilots can maneuver effectively as long as the opponent remains
within the confines of the typical forward view (F1 in most sims). It is when the opponent
flys out of the forward view that the trouble starts. The number one constraint of any
viewing system is that the pilot loses an awareness of his nose position and resulting
energy level whenever the pilot selects some other viewing option to keep sight of the
opponent. It does not matter which view is selected...snap views, padlocks, or hat switch
slewable views. Too often the result is a loss of orientation that ends up with the pilot
lawndarting himself as he pursues his opponent!
Part and parcel with this loss of orientation is a contributing inability to interpret the
selected view. Padlock views are particularly deficient in this respect. As soon as the
padlock view no longer contains some portion of the aircraft , the pilot must rely on
padlock symbology to maintain his sense of orientation. As we all know, this can be a
real challenge.
Lastly, many pilots find that their ability to determine target aspect, range, and closure is
marginal at best. In most sims, despite the improvement of picture quality due to 3D
video accelerators, poor depth perception degrades your sense of closure, one of our two
key components to effective BFM. If you cannot sense the rate of closure, then your
ability to implement a BFM maneuver in response to your opponent's flight path is
severely affected. But the bottom line is that the nature and quality of simulation graphics
is beyond our control. The best advise I can give on this contributory factor is to err on
the safe side...execute your throttle and pitch changes early and keep their magnitude
small. Solve your BFM problem by taking small bites out of it rather than counting on the
world's greatest whifferdill to carry the day!
Let's end this introduction by restating our initial premise. BFM is the control of fuselage
alignment (nose position) and closure. Your manipulation of these two factors often
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results in maneuvers resulting in your target flying out of the field of view of the typical
forward view. You must then rely on some other type of view to keep the target in sight.
Regardless of which view you choose, you need to keep your sense of nose position and
relative closure. In the next section, we will look at several offensive and defensive
situations and analyze how our use of various views meet that need.
Assumptions
I know, I know...here I go again...hedging my bets!! Hang in here for a second!! The thing
about BFM is that there are few absolutes. BFM is full of "yeah, buts" and "what ifs"...so
let me, for the sake of argument, define the rules!! I want to talk about basic BFM and
how to get the most out of our viewing choices in a typical sim. To do that, I'll restrict
myself to the most basic of scenarios...you want to reduce your angle off and control
closure such that you can arrive at a position in your opponent's six o'clock. We are not
going to talk about all aspect missile employment, or face shots, or off boresight lockons,
or any of that cosmic stuff. Nope, we're going to talk about breaking down the aspect
angle of the bandit. We're going to talk about pushing the bad guy out front where we can
blow him away. We're going to talk about having fun and maybe learning something in
the process. I want you to come away from this with the confidence that you can BFM the
bandit and kill him dead. Let's get started!
Offensive BFM - The Bandit Is In Front of Your Wingline.
We will start with a definition of wingline. Using your nose as the 12 o'clock reference,
project lines out from your 3 and 9 o'clock...this is your wingline...your 3/9 line. We will
assume the bandit is forward of your 3/9 line. The bandit also has a 3/9 line...his wingline.
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If you are looking at him from behind his 3/9 line, then you are in a low (rear) aspect
situation. Conversely, if you are looking at him from ahead of his 3/9 line, you are in a
high (front) aspect situation. These two situations encompass what you usually see in the
beginning moments of an engagement...and usually you see this using the forward or F1
view. Most forward views cover about + or - 45 degrees off your nose, so you are seeing
the bandit in your 10:30 to 1:30 o'clock position. The objective is to keep him there while
you go about the fine art of killing him.
The Low Aspect Situation
Here we are...the bandit is in front of us (at least for now!!)...we're behind his 3/9 line and
that's where we want to stay. What problems could lie ahead? In this case, two potential
problems are immediately obvious....one is angular in nature and the other is closure
related...and they can exist in combination. Let's say that again in a different way...these
are the problems:
1. Turning Room. Turning room is the space needed for you to align your fuselage
with the target. We always make the assumption that you do not want to
overshoot the target's flight path...therefore your problem is to turn tight enough
(align fuselages) such that you remain inside the target's flight path.
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2. Closure. We do not want to fly past the target's 3/9 line...do this and we become the
shootee instead of the shooter!!
These problems are self-obvious...what is not so obvious is how we are going to first, use
our simulation view to assess our turning room needs and rate of closure, and second,
use our simulation view to correct our flight path as necessary. Let's begin by assuming
we are using the forward view initially. The target is in our front quarter (+ or - 45 degrees
off our nose). Here are some tips on analyzing target position.
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Tip # 1. We'll begin by assessing target angle off. In the following picture, note the
extended fuselage line of the target relative to your own fuselage line. If these two lines
are not parallel, the angular mismatch is your angle off. My suggestion is that you do not
allow this angle to exceed 30-45 degrees as a general rule. We'll get to how you do this
in a minute.
Tip # 2. Next, we must recognize what type of pursuit curve we are flying. Here's the
idea. Let's picture ourselves in a left turn. As we look at the target in our forward view, if
we see him in the left side of our front canopy/HUD area, we are in lag pursuit...our nose
is "behind" the target. If we see the target centered in our canopy/HUD, we are in pure
pursuit. Lastly, if we see the target in the right hand side of our canopy/HUD, then we are
in lead pursuit...our nose is in front of the target.
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Tip # 3. Now we'll move on to available turning room. We are going to look at the
target's fuselage line and compare its movement relative to our own nose movement.
Here's the idea. Look at the target as you approach it. Ask yourself, "Is the angle off
increasing between me and the target?" If you begin by seeing mostly the target's rear
end, but are progressively seeing more and more of its side, then your angle off is
increasing. Use this visual clue to determine your turning room needs. If the target is
increasing its angle off (as seen by its fuselage line diverging from your own), then
you, as a rule, do not have enough turning room. In the real world, this is known as
being outside the target's turning circle. On the other hand, as you continue your turn,
if the angle off is not increasing, then you are inside the target's turn circle. NOTE:
This is a huge generalization. It is intended to assist you in learning three dimensional
BFM. This tip may not always be technically accurate. For the purposes of this article,
I am going to ignore the finer distinctions and concentrate on the basics. As you gain
experience and confidence, you will know when to employ this tip or ignore it
Tip # 4. Our next item to consider involves our energy state relative to the target. Let's
look again at the target in our forward view, but let's bring the location of the horizon
into consideration. Begin by noting the target's flight path (its fuselage line) relative to
the horizon. Next, determine the target's bank angle relative to the horizon. As a rule,
one wing will point above the horizon (I call this the high wing), and one wing will
point below (the low wing). The high wing points to the airspace above and behind
the target, and the low wing does the opposite. As a technique, use the high wing
airspace to control excessive closure
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By maneuvering into this area, you are decreasing your energy state relative to the
target. On the other hand, if you have stagnated behind the target, you can turn to
point towards the low wing to increase your energy state and gain closure. The
magnitude of your maneuver is directly proportional to your closure need.
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Tip # 5. Here is another way to look your position relative to the target. As you view the
target in your forward view, extend his fuselage line backwards. Now add in the horizon.
The airspace above the extended fuselage line and above the horizon we'll call the high
six. When you are behind the target's 3/9 line, fly to the high six area when you are trying
to control angle off and closure.
Tip # 6. Next, I'll mention the concept of flying to the elbow. This term comes from the
mental picture of a pilot using his hands to describe attacking a target. The target on one
arm is his hand. His arm extending back from his hand is his fuselage line. His elbow
then is a position behind and in line with the target. By flying to the "elbow", the pilot is
pointing behind the target...he is lag pursuit. Lag pursuit tends to minimize the adverse
effect of the target out-turning you...it helps you manage angle off. This concept of flying
to the elbow is much the same as the high six and high/low wing techniques in that they
all are intended to allow you to control fuselage alignment and closure
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Tip # 7. Lastly, I'll touch on the subject of closure. As I have already mentioned, your
determination of closure is really a depth perception problem, and sims are not too spiffy
in their ability to portray this. If your sim has a modern HUD display, then get a radar lock
on to the target...most HUDs will display closure in knots. Regardless of sim, be sure to
include any HUD feature, pop-up window, or whatever to keep your SA up on this
important variable.
OK!! Up to now, we have looked a variety of ways to view the bandit while it is still in our
forward view. Unfortunately, as we all well know, the bandit is not going to just sit there
and let you shoot at him willy-nilly...so he'll probably put a hard turn on you. This reaction
on his part may well result in the target flying rapidly out of the forward view. We want to
keep him in sight for starters. Then we want to reposition to maintain whatever advantage
we had...and, if at all possible, we want to improve our position. Let's now move on to
countering the target's defensive turn.
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How To Reposition While Attacking From A Rear Aspect
First, we need to keep the target in sight. We will use either the padlock view or the
external player-to-target view. Both have good and not so good points, and they vary in
effectiveness from one simulation to another. But both will "work". Let's start by making
sure we understand what "work" means. Both padlock and external allow you to keep the
target in sight...that's obviously important. But two more items are just as important...you
want to remain oriented to your own nose position...and you want to maintain an
awareness of your attitude relative to the horizon. In order to employ the tips in the
previous paragraphs, you must maintain your situational awareness (SA) with regard to
your own aircraft, the horizon, and the target. If one or more of those variables is missing,
then BFM is going to be very difficult.
We'll begin with the padlock view. Our target has entered a hard turn that has taken it out
of view. Not only have we lost sight while in the forward view, but our angle off and
closure are going to dramatically increase. We must use the padlock view to control this
aspect and closure problem. (Note - I use the terms aspect angle and angle off
interchangeably in this article. They both describe the same situation, and differ only in
the viewer's orientation.)
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The Padlock View - The following screenshots are taken from Combat Flight Simulator.
Figure 16 shows an "extended" padlock view. I like this view in that it allows me to better
see my nose position as the padlock rotates to keep the target in sight.
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Let's look at using padlock. We begin in forward view. In Figure 17, the target has
generated excessive angle off. It has gone from a low aspect position to one of
considerably higher aspect. As this aspect increases, my relative closure starts to also
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increase even though I have not changed my airspeed at all. As a result of these two
changes, my available turning room has disappeared. I can no longer turn "in plane" with
the target. I must maneuver "out of plane" by using the padlock view to keep the target,
the horizon, and my nose position in sight.
Our response is to maneuver out of the target's plane of motion. By moving our plane of
motion away from the target's, we are splitting the planes of maneuver...we are split
plane maneuvering. Another term for our repositioning is "using the vertical for turning
room". I am throwing all these terms at you because you will see them used in most BFM
discussions, and I want you to be comfortable with them.
Figure 18 shows the beginning of our reposition in padlock. In this picture, our
aircraft has begun a climb above the target's flight path. We have initiated our
reposition with back pressure only. We pull up at least 15 to 30 degrees above the
target's plane of motion. The closer in you are and the greater the angle off, the higher
you pull your nose up.
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Once you have your nose up the desired amount, unload (relax g) and roll your lift vector
towards the target. Do not roll it all the way to the target initially. Point your lift vector at
the high six or the elbow. Now start the back pressure on the stick again to keep your
nose moving towards the target.
At this point, you analyze the target's angle off and your rate of closure. Be ready to
repeat this maneuver...you do this by unloading again...then roll away from the target
approximately 90 degrees from its extended fuselage line...then pull "up" some
more...unload again...roll back towards the target and reassess your position. In this
maneuver, as in all your flying, you position your lift vector with roll, and you move your
nose with back pressure.
You probably remember this maneuver as the High Yo-Yo. I just think of it as an out-of-
plane maneuver. It is the bread and butter of BFM. You must be able to successfully fly
this maneuver in padlock to deal with a turning target.
There are several points of emphasis regarding this out-of-plane maneuver. I've already
mentioned one...be ready to perform the maneuver repeatedly until you have reduced
target aspect to manageable terms. Think of doing several small yo-yos rather than one
large one...take the problem in little bites. Re ready to momentarily switch to forward view
if you are losing your SA with the horizon or your own nose position...do not continue to
fly in padlock if you do not know where you are heading!! Lastly, return to forward view as
soon as possible...as a general idea, if the target's angle off has been reduced to about
30 degrees and you have your closure under control, the switch back to forward view and
press the attack.
Now, let's look at the same BFM problem from an external view perspective. Everything
previously said remains unchanged...the only thing that does change is your monitor
picture.
The Player-To-Target External View - Not all sims offer a player-to-target external view.
Of those that do, the typical external view has the pilot's aircraft in the foreground with the
target aircraft in the background. You, as the pilot, are always looking past your aircraft at
the target. The sim rotates the view to always maintain this orientation.
Without a doubt, the most difficult part of using this view is to keep oriented in roll control.
As long as your aircraft is headed away from you, this is not usually a problem. But when
your aircraft is heading towards you, it is easy to get your "rights" and "lefts" confused!! It
helps me to think to myself as I view my aircraft..."roll right - pull"..."unload - roll left", for
example. It's a lot like flying a radio-controlled model plane. Practice makes
perfect...don't let some initial confusion turn you away from this technique.
We begin with the target turning hard away from the attacker. As before, you want to fix
in your mind several key variables...your angle off, your and the target's position relative
to the horizon, and your closure. Of these, closure will, as before, be the most difficult to
measure. Be ready to cycle back to the forward view to check your own speed and nose
position if necessary. The advantage of this view is that angle off, aspect, and horizon
references are immediately obvious...there is little need to analyze this picture to see the
relationship between yourself and the target.
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As before, you initiate your maneuver with a pull up and out of plane. It will not be as
easy to judge how far to pull up unless you use the forward view briefly while pulling up. I
don't think this is necessary. What you want to do is to establish a new flight path for
yourself...one technique is to time the pull up by counting "potatoes"...use a moderately
hard pull up (3-5 g) and count, "one potato, two potato...". Two should suffice for the
typical maneuver!!
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Once you have your nose up, unload, and watch the target. You are looking for it to stop
moving towards you. As soon as you see that the target is starting to increase its
distance from you, roll back towards the target. Your rudder is your aiming reference.
Point your rudder where you want your lift vector to go. As before, initially, point your
rudder (lift vector) at the target's high six...not at the target. Then bring in the back
pressure to start your aircraft turning towards the target.
As long as you think your angle off is excessive, or you need more separation, then
repeat the maneuver.
Once the angle off reduces below 30 degrees, then roll your lift vector on to the target
and pull to the point where it looks like you are pointing right at the target. Then switch
back to forward view and continue the attack.
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What is the advantage to using the external view? Quite simply, it lets you analyze your
position relative to your target much more quickly than does padlock or any other view. In
addition, it is often easier to "see" the split plane perspective in external.
Well...whew!! That's a bunch of words!! I think I'm going to need a Part Four to address
the remainder of this subject. See you then!!

Four
General Offensive and Defensive Considerations
Introduction
In Part Three, we looked at a number of concepts and techniques. The article finished
with a discussion of how to relate these concepts to a conventional rear aspect attack. I’ll
end this series with a final discussion of how these tips and concepts can be employed in
a front aspect attack as well as pass along a few ideas regarding defensive BFM in a
typical air combat simulation.
To briefly recap the main point in Part Three, we learned that BFM is an exercise in
fuselage alignment and the control of closure. The same is true of front aspect and
defensive BFM. For our purposes in this article, our objective in front aspect BFM is to
maneuver to gain a position aft of the target’s 3/9 line. To do this, we will have to turn our
fuselage axis around as much as 180 degrees as we maneuver to the target’s six. This
will require a certain expenditure of energy on our part...while it may be a wonderful thing
to successfully end up at your target’s six, it will do you no good if the target then
escapes your well flown attack simply because you ended up out of airspeed and ideas
at the same time!!
We’ll try to minimize the chance of this happening by stressing the relationship of the
horizon to your choice of maneuver direction. Not only will you see how to get turned
around but you will gain an appreciation of how to conserve energy at the same time.
We will then apply the same thinking to how to defend against an attack when the bandit
is behind our wingline. Again, our objective is to control fuselage alignment and closure,
but now the shoe is on the other foot! When on the defense, fuselage mis-alignment is
often the desired result, and negative closure in the form of an extension or separation
will keep you in one piece for the next fight!
As before, I will illustrate these ideas using diagrams and screenshots of padlock and
external views. Remember, our objective here is to help you fly better BFM. The
academic content of these articles may make you a bit smarter as far as BFM
technicalities go, but I want to improve your flying...and I know you do also. In the real
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fighter world, a skilled pilot is often referred to as "having good hands". That’s my goal for
you...good hands...so let’s get to it!!
Basic Concepts
Fortunately, most of the important BFM academics have already been discussed. If you
are a new reader and have not read Parts One through Three, then please do so before
you attempt this final article. I will assume that, by reading past this point, you understand
and are familiar with the BFM concepts contained in those previous articles.
When we talk front aspect BFM, we must include several additional BFM concepts that
were not significant in our discussion of rear aspect offense. These include lead turns,
lateral separation requirements, and the concept of the one circle/two circle fight. In
addition, because of its very important relationship to energy levels, we will again include
the horizon in our examination of how to use both the padlock and external view to
engage a target "beak to beak".
1. Lead Turns.
In the world of BFM, lead turns are like cleanliness...next to Godliness!! Nothing marks a
pilot as a skilled practitioner of BFM so much as a well flown lead turn. I’ll even go out on
a limb and say that if a pilot could only do one thing really well, then, as long as that one
thing was a lead turn, he has a leg up on anyone he comes across. So much for the
preachin’...how about a definition, for starters?
Lead Turn - the act of aligning your fuselage axis with your target before it does the same
to you. The emphasis here is on the significance of timing in the maneuver. You are
maneuvering your aircraft relative to the target’s fuselage axis before it begins a
maneuver against your fuselage axis.
The most common reference to the lead turn is when the maneuver is flown from a
front aspect situation. In this case, you begin your turn into the target before you pass
its 3/9 line. The assumption is that the target does not attempt to counter your
maneuver. By turning before you pass the target’s 3/9 line, you are turning early...in
fact, some references use the term "early turn"rather than "lead turn".
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While the lead turn is most often described in a frontal aspect situation, this is not the
only time the maneuver can be flown. Lead turns are often the key to success in a
scissors, for example. The point to remember is that good things can happen when you
beat your opponent to the draw when it comes to aligning fuselages.
2. Lateral Separation.
When we talk lateral separation, we are always thinking of turning room...either trying to
get it (in an offensive sense) or denying it (when on the defensive). We usually visualize
our turning room needs by referencing the target’s wingline and fuselage axis. We
maneuver to maximize or minimize the distance from the target’s fuselage axis as
measured along its wingline.
For frontal aspect situations, your attempt to gain lateral separation is usually the result of
your desire to lead turn the target. The lateral separation will give you the turning room
needed to minimize the possibility of overshooting the target’s flight path.
A defender, on the other hand, often is attempting to reduce or eliminate turning room.
The usual objective is to cause the attacker to overshoot or need excessive maneuvering
to regain a threatening position thereby allowing the defender to gain separation.
3. One Circle/Two Circle Fights.

Many of the manuals that come with today’s sims describe a variety of maneuvers and
tactics. To varying degrees, these descriptions are technically correct...but what is
missing is relevant info on how you can fly the maneuver given the viewing system of the
sim. Too often, the maneuver or tactic requires a level of SA that the viewing system
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simply cannot provide. This is particularly true in the case if the one circle/two circle
option.
This option occurs when the attacker meets his target head on...often called "nose to
nose", or in fighter pilot slang, "beak to beak". For purposes of this discussion, we
assume the target will always turn into the attacker. The attacker has the option of
turning into the target...this is the more conventional of the two techniques and allows
the attacker to maintain a tally on the target. In this option, the attacker and target fly
separate turn circles, as a result this option is called the two circle fight.
The attacker has a second option. At the merge...the point where each aircraft passes
each other’s 3/9 line...the attacker can turn away from the target. Called the one circle
fight, this technique has the advantage of reducing maneuvering time but almost always
results in the attacker losing sight, at least initially, with the target.
It is this loss of sight that makes the one circle option less workable in a flight sim.
Some padlocks only "work" if the target is considered visible...if the sim’s padlock
programming determines that the pilot cannot "see" the target in a given situation,
then the padlock view will not be available until the sim’s AI decides the target is
again in visual range and angular limits. For this reason, the external view is superior
when flying a one circle fight...but not all sims offer an external player-to-target view.
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Lastly, the one circle option is a bit higher up the ladder in complexity. Because of this,
most sim pilots will opt out for the two circle fight. For many pilots, it just feels more
comfortable.
4. The Horizon Line.

Once again we return to the relationship of the horizon to the maneuvering situation
between you and your target. We’ve gone over this several times before, but I’ll touch
upon it one more time. How you use the effect of gravity in your BFM can spell success
or failure. Your use of God’s G can favorably or unfavorably impact your energy state. In
this article, I’ll point out some tips on how you can use gravity to gain or maintain your
competitive edge. Well, so much for the academics...let’s strap on our flying machines
and go to work!!
Offensive BFM - Nose To Nose With Your Target - The Frontal

Aspect
Well, here you are...beak to beak with the bandit...how did you get into this situation in
the first place? For our sim flying, I see three typical reasons why. The first and perhaps
most common reason, and the one situation that you will encounter in almost any sim, is
that the sim’s "Instant Action"or "Quick Combat"scenario starts you off nose to nose at
some given distance. Or it may be that you have selected this relationship on the sim’s
set up page...no matter. A front aspect situation is common to all sim scenarios and is
one you want to be proficient with.
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The second possibility is that you have deliberately maneuvered to this position. This can
often be the result of H2H or multi-player scenarios where you and your opponent take
the shortest distance between two points to engage each other...in this case, this results
in a face to face situation.
Lastly, you can end up with a front aspect engagement as the result of a swirling, multi-
player scenario. In these circumstances, many pilots opt out for staying fast and
engaging only those targets that they meet in the front quarter ( front quarter - plus or
minus 45 degrees off your nose). These situations are known as "targets of opportunity"
set ups...they are unpredictable, occur with little advance warning, and require immediate
decision making on your part. Your "opportunity' in this instance is fleeting...your success
or lack thereof is going to depend on your ability to choose a course of action that keeps
the bandit out front and you behind...as it should be...so let’s get down to specifics. As in
the previous discussions, I’ll recommend a few tips that you may find helpful in dealing
with a front aspect threat. Because a lead turn is the maneuver of choice in beak to beak
passes, most of these tips deal with specifics relating to performing lead turns.
Tip #1.
If at all possible, your first job is to get the lateral separation necessary for a good lead
turn. In a perfect world, this separation will be exactly what is needed for you to roll out in
the target’s six. The distance will be double your turn radius as determined by your entry
airspeed and "g" pulled in the turn.
But the world is seldom perfect, as we all know. If you are flying a jet sim, double your
turn radius works out to be around 6000 -9000 feet. For the typical set up, you will
seldom see this amount of separation unless the target simply is unaware of your
position and gives you the time to maneuver that far out on his wingline. Fat chance!!
Instead, you will most likely get one shot at a hard turn away from the target to go for
some lateral separation...then you are going to have to roll back into the target to watch
it. The following picture shows approximate lead turn initiation points that you can use in
any forward view.
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Here’s an idea. This separation does not always have to be measured along the
wingline...in fact, you can visualize this distance as an approximate circle drawn around
your nose...the center of your HUD. If you can maneuver your plane such that the target
approaches any edge of that circle, you can then turn towards the target to align yourself
with the target. For you engineer types out there, consider this circle to be the locus of
points for the initiation of a lead turn!!
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Depending on your energy state, you may find certain advantages in flying below the
target’s flight path as you look for your turn entry point. This descent below the target
may increase your energy level and may make it more difficult for the target to visually
keep you in sight...in fact, because the target will be looking down through its fuselage,
its padlock view may be adversely affected.
In this instance, you will be faced with an upwards turn towards the target...a nose high
lead turn. The target, if it responds to your lead turn, must turn down and towards you.
This will tend to accelerate the target and thereby increase its turn radius. You, on the
other hand, will have God’s G to help you shorten your effective turn radius. While each
situation is different, one technique is to pull down and away from the target on about a
45 degree angle below its wingline. This will result in your pull up being a pitchback
initially, rather than a loop. This maneuver is less demanding on your energy state and is
easier to fly with regard to the horizon.
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Here’s a nose low lead turn seen from the external view. Note that the turn is again
begun before passing the target’s wingline, and your lift vector is oriented below the
target’s flight path.
Tip #2.
As you initially turn away to establish separation, make your turns hard and quick. Rotate
your lift vector to the direction you want to go and then pull hard to move the nose the
desired amount. Then, relax g and roll back to reacquire the target. Minimize the time
that you have your belly up to the target. You can improve your SA by flying this
maneuver in external since the angular relationship of your fuselage axis relative to the
target’s will be more evident than it would be if you were using padlock.
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Tip #3.
Visualize your lead turn point using angles off your nose. As a technique, allow the target
to fly to a point about 20 - 45 degrees off your nose as it approaches you. For many sims,
if you are passing directly abeam and level with the target, this is an area between the
outside edge of the HUD/gunsight and the rounded canopy frame or edge of the monitor
screen when you are using the forward view. Obviously, you do not want to wait until the
target is past your wingline...or you past its wingline. Another way to view this is to
imagine a line from the target’s nose that is about half way from its wingline to its
nose...as you cross that line, begin your lead turn.
Tip #4.
Now, let’s talk energy! As you plan your lead turn, bring the horizon into your crosscheck.
Remember the high wing/low wing analogy from previous articles. If your smash (energy
level) is high, then orient your lift vector above the target’s flight path...if you need to
conserve your energy, then roll to point your lift vector below the target’s flight path
before you turn. Your turn radius will vary slightly in size depending on which option you
choose, but the effect on your energy state will be more important to you in the long run.
Let’s look at this situation using a padlock and forward view.
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In the next picture, the padlock guidance is directing a roll to the right. Here is an
excellent example where I would disregard the sim’s AI and fly my jet the way I want to
fly it...in this case, I would continue my pull into and below the target’s flight path. Don’t
ever expect the sim’s AI to be 100% correct!
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Tip #5.
Include environmental conditions in your maneuvering plan. If possible, get your turn
displacement separation on the sun side of the target’s flight path...then, when you turn
back into the target, the target will have to look into the sun to see you. Consider the
background color of the sky and ground. Try to fly towards the darker of the two...this will
make it tougher for the target to keep you in sight. Avoid "skylighting" yourself against
clouds or sky if you can.
Tip #6.
I recommend you fly your lead turns in padlock or external. In any case, watch the
target’s response to your lead turn. It probably will turn into you. Be ready to immediately
BFM the target’s response. Remember the concept of "flying to the elbow". Use split-
plane maneuvering to conserve your energy and turning room. Continue to maneuver to
the target’s extended six.
Tip #7.
Planning a two-circle entry? This is the most commonly flown merge plan. If so, you
will need some separation prior to the initiation of your lead turn.
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Tip #8.
Or are you going for a one circle fight? Your entry to the merge is much different for this
tactic. You DO NOT lead turn as a rule. You DO NOT want any lateral separation at the
merge. You want to maximize you ability to turn inside the target’s turn circle. To do this,
fly right at the target to minimize spacing. One technique is to fly slightly high so that you
are slicing down and back into the target...this orientation takes advantage of the effect of
gravity on your turn radius and energy state as you turn hard back towards the target.
Wait until the target passes your 3/9 line before you turn...this helps assure the target
remains out in front of your wingline as you come around in your reversal. In the next
figure, the F-15’s initial one circle turn started out pretty much level. But then the Su-27
started a vertical move. The F-15 continues its one circle turn, but counters the target’s
reaction by canting the plane of the turn into the vertical. In the turn back to the Su-27,
the F-15 is thinking "high six...fly to the elbow"!!
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Tip #9.
When should you consider the one circle option? As a rule, ONLY when you are flying a
superior turning aircraft. Otherwise you run the risk of having the target out turn you and
forcing you into a defensive position.
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Tip # 10.
Anticipate the need for a low yo-yo to regain closure if you have elected to fly a two circle
fight. As you come around in your turn, keep your lift vector on or in front of the target
until you can analyze your relative energy state. If your closure is high, then fly to the
elbow. If not, then pull your nose to a point in front of and below the target. Then unload
(relax g) and accelerate.
Tip #11.
Lastly, we’ll return to the initial set up. Are you confused about what to do? Unsure of
which plan to implement? Totally clueless? Don’t feel bad...we’ve all been there before.
Point at the bad guy. Reduce your separation to a minimum. Go full power and blow
through. Extend out for separation while rolling unloaded to keep the target in sight. Then
reassess your position and opportunities...re-engage if appropriate.
These tips are not the "be all to end all" of head-on BFM. But they are a good starting
point. And they all are usable given the viewing systems of a typical sim. Give them a
try...experiment a little...find out which are good for you...and which are not. Then bring
on the bad guys!! In the next section, we’ll spend the remaining time on defensive
considerations.
Defensive BFM - Bandit Behind Your Wingline.
Congratulations!! You have neatly trapped the bandit at your six...now what do you do?
First of all, all is not lost! You do have some options. A little skill and cunning on your part
and you can turn the table on the bandit...but one thing is for certain. You won’t be able
to defend yourself if you lose sight of the bandit...so the first and most important thing for
you to master is to use your views to keep the bandit in sight. Do this with either padlock
or external.
When the bandit is behind your wingline, he is trying to get into his weapon engagement
zone (WEZ) for whatever weapon he is using. Your objective is to keep him out of this
WEZ. You do this two ways...either gain enough separation to get out of the weapons
range limitations or rotate your fuselage axis to generate too much angle off for the
bandit to handle.
I’m going to offer some tips for you to consider. Use these tips and techniques to achieve
one of three goals:
1. Goal #1.
Cause the bandit to overshoot or reposition by rotating your fuselage axis faster than he
can rotate his...this is a fancy way of saying "turn tighter than him", but it underscores the
central theme of these articles...control of your fuselage axis.
2. Goal #2.
Stagnate the bandit outside of his WEZ. Do this by controlling your closure (actually, in
effect, you are really controlling HIS closure) to keep him at arm’s length.
3. Goal #3.
Lastly, and again with closure in mind, force a 3/9 overshoot. Simply speaking, make the
bandit fly past you.
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To make these goals, you have a limited number of maneuver options. These are kick
turns, hard turns, break turns, and unloaded accelerations.
A kick turn is a hard turn (5-7 g’s) of short duration. It is used to move the bandit out of
your deep six. A kick turn lasts one to two seconds and usually moves the bandit out to
your 5 or 7 o’clock position.
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A hard turn is an energy conserving turn flown at less than max g. It is typically a
sustained turn (as opposed to a kick turn) and is intended to keep the bandit in sight
while denying him the ability to close.
A break turn is a last ditch defensive move designed to sacrifice energy and nose
position in order to stay alive. It is flown at max g and max power. It is flown out of the
bandit’s plane of maneuver for a gun attack, and, for a missile attack, in the plane of
maneuver of the missile. NOTE: For a gun attack, you BFM the bandit...for a missile
attack, you BFM the missile!!
An unloaded acceleration is an attempt to maximize energy gain. Do this by relaxing your

stick pressure to less than one g. Bank angle is not important. Use your HUD g reading if
available to hold the unloaded g.
OK!! We’ve got our goals...we’ve reviewed our maneuver options...let’s get to those tips
that are going to hopefully save your bacon!! In the following discussion, we’ll use the
padlock and external views to visualize the important points.
Tip #1.
Recognize your cone of vulnerability. Right off the bat I’m throwing a toughie at you.
Remember the depth perception problem I mentioned in the previous article? Well, it’s
alive and well as we try to defend ourselves using our two views. It’s tough to judge the
bandit’s range as you look to your six. Some padlock views include bandit
range...externals often don’t. A rough rule of thumb...if you can recognize the bandit’s
type of aircraft, you are vulnerable. If the bandit is still just a little dark "spot", then it may
not yet have entered your cone of vulnerability...but sims differ in this regard. There is no
easy answer to this inherent problem in our sims.
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Tip #2.
Rule Of Opposites. This applies to your BFM with the bandit behind your wingline. He’s
coming on like gangbusters, and you’re doing the chicken like nobody’s business. It may
be a gross generalization, but keep this in mind. If the bandit goes up, you go down. If the
bandit pulls down into you, you pull up into him. Saying it another way, if the bandit goes
nose off of you, unload and extend. If he tries to get his nose back on you, then turn hard
into him to take away his turning room.
Tip #3.
Turn only to increase aspect. Aspect in this case is the position of the bandit off your tail.
Your defense should be a series of hard turns and unloaded extensions. Be careful of
flying in a bank as you watch the bandit. In doing so, you often inadvertently have g on
your aircraft...this causes you to turn, and this allows the bandit to close on you. When
the bandit cuts across your turn circle in this manner, he is arcing you. This possibility
exists anytime you have your lift vector pointed in the bandit’s direction. Don’t let the
bandit arc you.
Tip #4.
Know the bandit’s gun envelope. The path of the bandit’s bullets approximates his gun
line. You can visualize this gun line as a vertical plane extending out from his nose and
down. It is lined up with his rudder (his lift vector). For this reason, maneuver towards his
wingtips and away from his lift vector. Do this by rolling your lift vector in the direction of
his wingtip (usually the low one for energy considerations) and pull. Remember that the
bandit must be in lead pursuit for him to have a valid gun shot. Most sims are
programmed more or less correctly for this gun parameter. If you are looking straight
down his nose, he is in pure pursuit and may not have a valid gun solution. Look for his
belly. If you can see the bottom of his fuselage, then he is in lead pursuit, and it is time
for you to do some serious defense!!
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Tip #5.
Know how to do a Gun Jink. A gun jink is a series of random hard turns of short duration
intended only to do one thing...spoil the bandit’s gun shot. A gun jink will seldom
overshoot the bandit, and it won’t present him with any insurmountable closure problems
either. But it may keep you alive for a few more moments. Who knows? Maybe he’ll run
out of bullets!! Seriously, do your gun jink as described in Tip #4. Roll towards the
bandit’s wingtip. Then pull hard for several seconds. Watch the bandit. If he repositions
nose off, then unload and extend. If he continues to move his nose forward in your plane
of motion, then roll away from his gun line and repeat the maneuver. Don’t be a wussie!!
Never give up and don’t just blindly pull on the pole. Fly smart and do your best. You are
not always going to be successful, but give it your best shot...unfortunately, so may the
bandit! Curses, foiled again!!
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Tip #6.
Have a Lost Tally plan. A lost tally plan is nice to have in your pocket for those times
when the world has gone to deep doo-doo and you don’t have a clue. We’re talking here
about a situation where your counter-maneuvering has resulted in you losing visual
contact with the bandit...typically this happens in a guns defense. You whip a world class
gun jink on the bandit...then, you take a quick peek at the forward view to check your
nose position...everything is OK so you switch back to your former view and...no bandit!!
Where did he go? The answer may lie in your last maneuver.
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We begin with the assumption that your gun jink or gun break was successful. This
means that the bandit was forced to reposition to avoid a flight path overshoot or 3/9 line
reversal. You now have to ask yourself...’Where would he most likely go?’. Quite often,
the answer is up...the bandit is rotating his nose out of your plane of motion. He split
planes you and goes vertical to slow his forward motion (closure). Once he has his
closure and angle off under control, he will roll back into your direction and press the
attack again. This is traditional, and therefore predictable, BFM. So you look to where
you expect him to be. If you were in a hard left gun jink, then look high and to the right.
While this can be done in padlock, it is very disorienting. I recommend that this is best
done in external because of the overall scope of the view. If you lose tally in padlock,
switch to external to see the bandit.
Tip #7.
Giving the bandit a Head Fake. Sometimes a little trickery is just the thing to bamboozle a
bandit. Here’s a defensive ploy that can catch an over eager bandit. Imagine yourself on
the defensive. You have a bandit closing in on your six. You want to start a hard turn
since the bandit is not yet in gun range, but you do not want to bleed any energy...in fact
you want to separate and go on your merry way. So you give him a good head fake...you
want him to buy off on it. If he does, you’ll have the time to extend away. Here’s what you
do.
Roll into the bandit and show him a lot of planform (that means he is looking at the top of
your aircraft). then go full power and start a hard turn into the bandit. Watch him. As he
moves away from your six out to about your 5 or 7 o’clock (or more), keep your bank the
same but unload to less than one g. You want it to look like you are still in that hard turn.
You want the bandit to yo-yo off...when he does, you can extend away.
Tip #8.
The Split S as a defensive maneuver. In the sim world as well as real life, the Split S can
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be a winner of a defensive maneuver. Here’s why. Most pilots are fairly comfortable in
maneuvering nose above the horizon...but when they point the nose down and see a
face full of dirt, they tend to have second thoughts. You can take advantage of this.
Often, you as the defender may have a better feel for your altitude above the ground as
far as a Split S is concerned. You may feel that you can make the turn without going
splat. The attacker may not have as good a SA. As you roll over and start your downward
pull, a bandit may follow you down...with one big difference...he may pull lead. If he does,
he may get a nasty surprise. Just about the time that he is congratulating himself on
closing up the distance as he follows you down, he will rapidly become aware that the
world is getting very, very full of dirt, very fast. If he is smart, he will abandon all thoughts
of chasing you and, instead, go into a full blown dive recovery just to save his miserable
skin. He may make it...he may not. In either case, you are most likely long gone. Hey...it
ain’t pretty...but it works!!
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Tip #9.
Last Ditch Maneuvers. Sometimes nothing you do works. Sometimes the bandit is the
Red Baron and nothing will shake him off your tail. Sometimes you are going to have to
throw caution to the winds and bet it all on one last attempt to save your skin. This is
known as the Last Ditch Maneuver. Last ditch maneuvers are maneuvering techniques
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that attempt to force an abrupt role reversal through a severe change in closure and/or
angle off. In real life, they typically rely on the extreme negative effect on airspeed that
high angle of attack (AOA) maneuvers have. But what works in real life may not work in
the sim...and too often this is the case. But, as sim flight models become more like the
real world, you may find that you can employ these techniques against your opponent.
Here are two excellent examples...the High g Roll Over The Top, and the High g Roll
Underneath. In both examples, the assumption is that the bandit is just about to pull the
trigger, and you need to do something miraculous. In this case, miracles can happen!
Both maneuvers are based on you using max aileron and rudder abruptly and
simultaneously. They only differ in which way you roll. Let’s set ourselves up in a hard left
break. For the roll underneath, we would quickly increase back pressure as we add
aileron to continue the roll past the vertical. We coordinate this roll with full left rudder.
This is a not a smooth airshow maneuver. Slam the controls into position. You want the
stick full aft with full left aileron and full left rudder. The nose is going to whip down and
around violently...you will be back to your starting position very quickly. Your objective
has been to cause a closure problem that the bandit cannot solve. When you come back
to your starting position, neutralize your controls and look for the bandit. Be ready to use
your No Tally defense.
For the over the top maneuver, the technique is quite similar. Let’s put ourselves back
into our left break. This time, however, we rapidly increase back pressure as we add right
aileron and rudder. Again, we does this very aggressively. The result is a nose high roll to
the right that basically from the bandit’s perspective appears to stop our forward motion.
The drag caused by the AOA of this maneuver is considerable. We are going to come out
of this maneuver as a wallowing duck. That’s the bad news. The good news is that the
bandit may well be looking at you over his shoulder inasmuch as he has shot past you
like a hot knife going through butter. Ta-da!! Now you are the chaser and he is the
chasee...what a nice turn of events!! Because of the disorienting nature of this maneuver,
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I again suggest flying it in external. Use your No Tally defense to look forward and high
for the bandit.
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What’s the difference between these two maneuvers? Entry energy level. If you are slow,
go underneath. Got extra knots to spare? Go over the top.
Closing
This finishes this series of articles. My hope is that you have a better grasp now on how
to use the padlock and external views in your offensive and defensive maneuvering.
We’ve only scratched the surface here. Many of my suggestions are quite basic and
should be seen as general advice only. As your BFM skills improve, you may find that
these ideas are too simplistic for your level of game play. All I can say is "Outstanding...
You’ve passed the course!!"
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Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part One
by Andy Bush
Be sure to read all of the parts of this series

[ Boom and Zoom, Part One ][ Part Two ][ Part Three ][ Part Four ]
Introduction
In the hot and humid morning air, the Sidewinder snaked towards one of two MiG-17s.
The pair of F-4Es had run a perfect stern conversion intercept on the bandit flight.
Ground clutter prevented the AIM-7 shot…but the lead F-4 pilot took that in stride…he
wasn’t that keen on using the "Great White Hope," given the lousy kill percentage that the
missile had.
"Splash one," Lead called as his heat seeker impacted the MiG-17. The MiG immediately
broke into a smear of flame. The second MiG continued straight ahead for a second or
two…almost as if the pilot had been stunned into inaction. Then it broke hard left…away
from the F-4 flight as it happened…the MiG driver apparently thought a defensive break
was a better idea than continuing to look for a threat that, until a second earlier, he had
no idea was anywhere near.
"Shit hot," thought the F-4 lead as the MiG broke the wrong way. All this did was make it
easier for the lead to solve the angles. The Lead turned hard into the MiG and pulled his
nose out into lead. He reached down to select his gun and verified his gunsight in A2A
mode. His plan was to arc the MiG to close the distance and then yo-yo off into a gun
track position.
Unfortunately, Lead had never seen a MiG-17 turn with a terrified pilot pulling on the
pole. The MiG almost appeared to be swapping ends as it continued its max performance
level turn. Seeing his neat little game plan going down the toilet, Lead shoved the
throttles into burner and pulled his nose further into lead. "Going guns", he radioed his
wingman who was lagging the turn to the outside. Lead set his pipper in the plane of
motion of the MiG and eased the stick forward to get about the one G firing conditions he
was looking for.
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But as the MiG moved towards the HUD, its rate of turn changed what would have been
a 90-degree deflection shot into a front quarter snap shot. This caught Lead again by
surprise. He pulled the trigger, but even as the Gatling spun up, he knew he was too late.
It was time for the lead to get back into the driver’s seat…so far the MiG had managed to
evade his attack.
The Lead had made his share of mistakes for the day…he knew continuing to maneuver
with the 17 was an exercise in futility. It was "back to the text book" time, and out of it,
Lead pulled the chapter on energy fighting. He leveled his wings, selected full AB, and
pulled back on the stick to rotate right on the steady AOA tone for best turn performance.
As his nose reached the vertical, he relaxed his G and pirouetted to keep the MiG in
sight. He eyeballed his slant range for the pulldown, and then made a final roll
adjustment to aim his lift vector well in front of the still turning MiG. Then it was back on
the stick again to the tone and pull the nose down into the re-attack.
Well…we’ll leave this story for some other time while we look at the tactical
decisions that the F-4 pilot made. What was this chapter that he was thinking of?
What is an "energy fight"? That is what this article is going to look at. Many of us use
similar concepts when we fly our favorite sim. In the flight sim community, this tactic
is known as the Boom and Zoom maneuver, or BnZ for short.
Background
If you have read any of my articles before, you know what’s coming now!! Yep…it’s time
for a little academics! A successful BnZ attack is going to come as the result of two
things…knowing when to fly the maneuver and knowing how to fly the maneuver. Let’s
start off with a look at when such a maneuver would be necessary in the first place.
We have this maneuver in our clue bag mainly because we can put our A2A
maneuvering into one of two basic categories with respect to our adversary.
One category is when our fighter "turns better but accelerates worse" than our adversary.
In this case, we refer to our fighter as an angles fighter. The second category is when we
"turn worse but accelerate better" than our adversary…that makes us an energy fighter
when compared to him.
Turning Performance
A word or two on this subject may be helpful. There are two types of turn
performance…turn rate and turn radius. Turn rate means how fast it takes to turn a given
number of degrees…this value is expressed in number of degrees per second. In our
example above, the F-4 could sustain a maximum turn rate of about 10-12 degrees
second under ideal conditions.
Turn radius is self-explanatory…if a fighter were to fly a constant airspeed and constant
G circle, the radius of that circle would be his turn radius.
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The key to your appreciation of turn performance is understanding that turn rate and
radius are only a function of airspeed and G. The winning combination is that of
maximum G at minimum speed to produce the greatest rate with the minimum radius.
One other factor worth mentioning in this turning performance discussion is wing loading.
Wing loading in simple terms considers the lifting area of the wing (in square feet) and
relates that to the gross weight of the aircraft…we end up with wing loading being
measured in pounds per square foot. The less weight that a wing has to support allows it
to generate G at a slower airspeed. A good example can be found when comparing the
P-40 to the Japanese Zero. The weight difference here was over 2,000 pounds, the P-40
being the heavier aircraft. The end result was that the P-40 was unable to match the slow
speed turning performance of the Zero…if the P-40 tried to slow down to match the turn
radius of the Zero, it could no longer sustain the same G as the Zero. Consequently, the
Zero had a higher turn rate and could, and did, get on the P-40’s tail easily in a turning
contest.
The next diagram is a simplified illustration of differences in turn rate and radius. The P-
40 is unable to match the slower Zero’s smaller turn radius and higher turn rate. In
approximately two turns, the Zero is gaining the advantage on the P-40.
Acceleration Performance
With regard to this factor, we are talking both acceleration (ability to increase speed over
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time…knots per second), as well as top speed (knots per hour). In general, when we talk
BnZ capability, we consider top speed more important than acceleration.
Bottom Line…an angles fighter is one that can generate a higher turn rate at a slower
airspeed than the aircraft it is being compared to…and an energy fighter is one that can
accelerate to a faster top speed than its opponent. In our sim world, we often refer to the
angles fight as a "turn and burn" (TnB) and the energy fight as the "boom and zoom"
(BnZ).
Remember…the terms are relative only when making comparisons. It is entirely possible
for a specific fighter type to be both, depending on its opponent. For example, the P-38
would be an energy fighter when compared to a Zero and an angles fighter when
compared to a Me-110.
All right! As is commonly asked these days, "Can’t we move on?." And the answer is
"Most definitely!" Let’s get away from the academics and spend the rest of the time
talking BnZ tips, techniques, and considerations.
Performance Comparisons and the BnZ Attack

One excellent way to examine energy tactics is to study performance specifications for a
given sim’s aircraft. The on-line sim Aces High publishes top speed and maximum rate of
climb numbers for all of its fighters. Other sims such as MiG Alley include energy
comparison diagrams in their manuals. Lastly, some sims benefit from after-market
strategy guides that include performance data…of these, the MS CFS guide is a good
example
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My good friend Leon Smith has let me use the next figure to show how a Spitfire matches
up against a P-51. This figure clearly shows how the P-51 enjoys an airspeed and energy
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advantage over the Spitfire. The two curves intersect at about 250 mph. Below that
airspeed the Spitfire has the advantage…above it, the P-51 does. Comparison diagrams
such as this make it easy to identify the areas of best performance for your particular
aircraft.
An Overview Of Boom And Zoom Tactics
The Two Types of BnZ Maneuvers

To simplify this discussion, I’ll use BnZ as a general term to cover all maneuvers of this
type. Then, I’ll break that down and say, that for the purposes of this article, there are two
types of BnZ maneuvers…the "hit and run" (HnR) and the "hit and climb&" (HnC).
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In flying with some of you folks, it seems to me that often you are flying a "hit and run"
technique thinking this was how the BnZ was flown. Now, there is absolutely nothing
wrong with that! As I have already said, I consider the "hit and run" to be a type of BnZ. I
just want to make sure that you understand that this is but one of two BnZ types.
Later in the article, I’ll go into more detail on the specifics of the HnR. For now, let’s just
say that this type of maneuver is best used against an opponent that has a significant
maximum airspeed deficit relative to you. What does this equate to in terms that we can
use? My rule of thumb would be that your WW2 fighter should have at least a 100mph
advantage in top speed (P-51 vs Zero), and that your modern jet fighter should have a
200 knot advantage over its opponent (F-4 vs MiG-17). Please note that I am intermixing
airspeed in mph and knots to match the indicating system in those era aircraft.
Your other option in the energy fight is what I am now calling the HnC. This is a
maneuver flown out of the plane of turn of the opponent. We usually think of the
opponent in more or less of a level turn, so the HnC is usually thought of as a vertical
maneuver that goes "up" relative to the ground. An example of this tactic is Double
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Attack. This concept was developed after the Korean War and used the superior energy
advantage of the F-104 against the MiG series of fighters.
In either case, when you fly these maneuvers you are looking for turning room to re-enter
the fight. You do this by extending away from the opponent. In the HnR, you are trying to
gain lateral separation as a result of your airspeed advantage…in the HnC, you are
looking for vertical separation by trading airspeed for altitude.
The Reasons for the HnR and the HnC

Why would we want to fly such a tactic? I can think of three good reasons for starters.
The first, we have already touched on...the opponent can outmaneuver us. A second
reason may be that we are outnumbered but still want to engage…rather than get tied up
with odds not in our favor, we decide to make slashing attacks. Lastly, our armament
type may be a factor…in China in 1942, the Flying Tigers liked to go head on against
their Japanese opponents because of the P-40's superior hitting power.
In our sims, the aircraft that we fly have specific performance parameters programmed in.
We often refer to these as the "flight model." If you are going to be successful, you must
be sure to familiarize yourself with your chosen aircraft. In particular, know how it stacks
up against your likely opponents. And never forget that you must do this for each and
every sim you fly. Don’t assume that the P-38 that you fly in one sim will be the same as
in another…bad assumption! Equally bad is to assume that a given opponent is the same
from sim to sim. So choose your sim and the plane you want to fly. Study your aircraft’s
performance and the performance of the adversaries. Then decide how to fly your
aircraft.
Being outnumbered is a bummer! In off-line single mission or campaign flying, we

sometimes have a good idea of what numerical odds we are facing. On-line flying can be
much different. Bandits show up all the time…and often just when you don’t want them
to! On-line flying is usually thought of as a "multi-bogey" environment and for good
reason. Many prefer BnZ tactics when on-line as a means of guarding against being
surprised…not a Lastly, your armament can be a big factor. Want to go head to head
with guns? A P-38 is a great choice due to its hard-hitting combination of 20mm cannon
and 50 cal MG. This particularly true if your sim’s AI weighs armament type in computing
the hit bubble Pk. As with the first factor (relative performance), know how your sim is
programmed when choosing your attack options. Most BnZ gun attacks involve deflection
shooting, rather than a tracking shot. Because of the low Pk of a deflection shot (as
compared to a traditional tracking shot), the heavier your armament, the better chance
you have of getting a kill. Cannon fire (20 or 30mm) is much more effective than rifle
caliber machine gun fire, such as the .303 guns in the early Hurricane and Spitfirebad
idea at all!
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Lastly, your armament can be a big factor. Want to go head to head with guns? A P-38 is
a great choice due to its hard-hitting combination of 20mm cannon and 50 cal MG. This
particularly true if your sim’s AI weighs armament type in computing the hit bubble Pk. As
with the first factor (relative performance), know how your sim is programmed when
choosing your attack options. Most BnZ gun attacks involve deflection shooting, rather
than a tracking shot. Because of the low Pk of a deflection shot (as compared to a
traditional tracking shot), the heavier your armament, the better chance you have of
getting a kill. Cannon fire (20 or 30mm) is much more effective than rifle caliber machine
gun fire, such as the .303 guns in the early Hurricane and Spitfire.
One Historical View of Boom and Zoom Tactics

One of the best (if not THE best) examples of BnZ tactics, is the record of the American
Volunteer group (AVG) against the Japanese in the first six months after Pearl Harbor.
Better known as the Flying Tigers, the AVG unit was commanded by a retired Army Air
Corps pilot who had come to China several years earlier to help the Chinese resist the
invasion of the Japanese. This officer, Claire Chennault, studied Japanese aircraft and
tactics and developed an unorthodox theory as to how to best fight the Japanese fighters.
For a bio of Gen. Chennault, see http://danford.net/clc.htm.
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It was this theory that Chennault brought to the AVG, and he schooled his pilots
thoroughly in these concepts prior to their first combat. As we all remember, the unit had
an excellent record against their opponents. From this, a number of conclusions and
assumptions have been made.
In preparing this article, I did a little research into the AVG and found some very relevant
info that bears directly on how many of us think about BnZ tactics. But I also found that
some commonly held assumptions regarding the AVG use of BnZ need a little
clarification.
The AVG operated as a unit from December 1941 until the summer of
1942. Then, it was absorbed into the regular Army Air Corps. So, the
AVG flew early in the war and only for a relatively short period of time. In that six-month
period, the AVG had an outstanding success record against their Japanese opponents.
But, we need to look at exactly what the AVG did when we start to make generalizations
about how to fly BnZ tactics.
First of all and contrary to what many believe, the AVG did not fly against the Zero
fighter. The Zero was not operating in that part of China at that time. The two types of
fighters that the AVG encountered were the Ki-27 "Nate" and the Ki-43 "Oscar".
One side note of interest…the P-40C pictured above depicts a RAF Tomahawk used in
the North Africa campaign. This was the first use of the "shark mouth" nose art and was
copied by the AVG from these aircraft.
Chennault had not developed his theories by observing Zeros. His experience was with
the older, fixed gear, Japanese fighters. These aircraft weighed about half as much as
the P-40, were very lightly armed, were extremely maneuverable, and were quite a bit
slower than the P-40. In the Japanese Army and Navy pilot training schools of that time,
aerobatic dogfighting skills were emphasized over other types of tactics. As a result,
Japanese pilots were encouraged and expected to dogfight in 1v1 TnB contests.
Chennault came to several conclusions. First, don’t try to dogfight the Japanese
pilot…he’s probably more experienced in this type of maneuvering than you. Second,
don’t try to dogfight with their fighters…they are much too maneuverable and will easily
out-turn the P-40. Lastly, use the P-40's speed advantage to attack and break off under
your conditions, not theirs.
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And so the AVG would make slashing attacks and then dive away to reposition for
another attack. We all know that. What is not so well understood is why the AVG could
be successful at this. That directly relates to how you fly your fighter in your sim. If you
adopt the AVG technique without knowing the "whys," you may be setting yourself up for
disaster!
Here it is in a nutshell. The P-40 had a speed advantage of at least 150mph in a dive
over the Nate and Oscar. With that kind of airspeed difference, it was possible for the P-
40 pilot to dive away from the Japanese fighters. The Japanese fighters might turn to
follow, but they would never catch the P-40. The P-40 pilot would be able to get far
enough away that he could turn back, get his speed back, and re-attack to repeat the
process all over again.
This HnR tactic worked well because of the limitations of the opponent. It is unwise to
assume that the AVG experience is a rubber stamp approval for all A2A engagements.
The main thing to keep in mind is the top speed of your opponent. If he can equal your
top speed, then a HnR game plan may be unwise. Why? Because your opponent will be
able to deny you the spacing that you need to turn around. Don’t try this against a FW-
190 or a MiG-21…you may get a nasty surprise.
Lastly…how well did the AVG do using BnZ tactics? The numbers speak for themselves.
During its seven months in combat, the unit was credited with at least 230 kills. Most
were fighters, and the majority of these (approximately 80%) were Ki-27s. As for losses,
the AVG lost five pilots in A2A engagements and another nine to ground fire during A2G
missions. By anyone’s reckoning, that is an outstanding record.
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See http://danford.net/avg.htm for more info about the Flying Tigers.
HnR And HnC Tactics And Tips
HnR…HnC…Which One Do I Use?

There may be no absolute answer to this question, so I’ll suggest some generalizations.
First, what is your objective? Is your sim mission A2A or are you flying an A2G mission
enroute to the target? Are you H2H in a 1v1 or are you in a multi-bogey situation like we
see in on-line sims such as Aces High or in many campaign missions. The answer to
these questions may well help you decide which tactic to use. If your mission objective is
to avoid getting tied up in a TnB, then a HnR strategy may be best for you.
Next, look at your fighter and its performance capabilities. How does it stack up against
the opposition? Remember that this is a relative situation. You may be a HnC fighter in
your F-4 against a MiG-23 and a HnR when engaging the MiG-17.
Lastly, how good are you at using the views in your sim? Does your sim have a padlock?
HnC maneuvering is much easier when using a padlock…snap views are easy to use
when flying the HnR.
The Entry to the Attack

The next figure is taken from a well-known sim strategy guide. It shows four types of
entries. Fair enough. Your avenues of attack cover a three-dimensional arena. All four
types of entries may "work" under certain conditions. The diagram implies that most
entries are head on. There is no certainty that this will be the case. Most engagements
are too unpredictable to assume any entry type. Other than attacks flown against straight
and level bombers, your entries will be against maneuvering fighters where the actual
entry angle will be hard to predict. Most common is the "high slashing" attack made from
any angle.
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Some assumptions can be made regarding these entries. Don’t use the "vertical" attack
against a target at low altitude…you may not have enough altitude to recover from your
dive! The vertical attack results in a high deflection gun shot…make sure you know how
to make this type of gun attack. The "vertical" entry will have the lowest probability of kill
(Pk).
The "level" and "low slashing" will require a significant energy advantage…this may
work against bombers and less-capable fighters, but will not be as effective against
similar performance aircraft
The Exit from the Attack

Briefly, you have two options. You can dive away and go home, or you may climb away.
The former is the easiest to fly. When you have an energy advantage, the latter is an
option. For example, the AVG P-40 could climb at a higher airspeed than its opponents.
More on exit strategies a little later on.
Defending Against the HnR and HnC

Your defense can take many forms, depending on the initial set up.
Never let an opponent keep an altitude advantage…if you see him soon enough, go max
power and begin an energy conserving climb into him.
If bounced at low altitude, get as low as possible to take away the opponent’s ability to
dive away.
If the opponent is diving on you, try to turn into and below him. This will increase his dive
angle and complicate his gun-aiming problem. This also reduces his lateral and vertical
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turning room…this reduction in bandit maneuvering room is known as "jamming" the
bandit.’
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If the opponent gives you any turning room, lead turn him at the merge.
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If you pick up the opponent too late, then turn into the attack using an energy conserving
turn. Try to get 180 degrees out if you can. Keep as much energy as you can…you may
need it for a gun jink!
If the opponent repositions high (HnC), unload, turn under him to take away his lateral
turning room, and go for speed. This tactic is particularly effective if you do not have the
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energy to climb up into the attack. For example, A-10s use this tactic to defend against
slashing attacks at low altitude.
If the opponent dives away (HnR), turn hard to follow. Lower your nose to about half of
his angle of descent. This will allow you to accelerate while giving you the chance to
close the distance (or reduce his extension) through arcing. When you see him begin to
climb, follow him with an energy-conserving climb also. This will reduce his ability to gain
potential energy on you.
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This concludes our introduction to the basics of the BnZ type of attack. In Part Two of this
article, I’ll cover specifics for each attack type. See you then.
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Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Two
by Andy Bush

In Part Two, we will take a closer look at the HnR attack from initiation to the re-attack
(the HnC attack will be discussed in Part Three.). I’ll use screenshots to give you an idea
what the attack looks like using the snap, padlock, and external views.
Just so we keep ourselves focused on what exactly we are talking about with regard to
these two maneuvers…let’s keep in mind that the HnR and the HnC are reposition
maneuvers for the purpose of re-attacking the bandit. In upcoming discussions of both
maneuvers, your goal is to get enough distance between yourself and the bandit to be
able to turn around, get your energy back, and attack from a position of advantage.
The HnR Attack
We begin by reminding everyone that this maneuver is one in which you gain turning
room by extending below the plane of turn of the bandit. You are gaining lateral
separation, not vertical…even though your extension may take you below the bandit’s
altitude.
When Should I Use It?

Use the HnR attack when you have a significant top speed advantage over your
opponent (+100mph for WW2 aircraft, +200 KIAS for modern fighters). In particular, you
are concerned with maximum indicated speed, i.e., the top speed that you can get in a
dive…be careful of speed values given in sim manuals. Often, these speeds are true
airspeed values that pertain to max speed in level flight for a given altitude. While this is a
good indicator of relative performance, you are much more interested in getting your
aircraft to go as fast as it can.
Why is this important? Because the two can be dramatically different. For example, the
P-40 could dive at a much higher speed than its listed 345 mph. This value is True
Airspeed, not the Indicated Airspeed that you would see on the cockpit airspeed indicator
What is the significance of this? For the AVG P-40 pilot, quite a bit. The fixed gear Ki-27
was not going to match the P-40 in a dive. But the difference does not end here. Other
factors are also major considerations. Two merit mentioning for our sim flying. One is
airframe structural strength, and the other is control effectiveness
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Some sims model aircraft structural strength very well…you may well be able to reach an
airspeed that causes damage to your plane. If your opponent has a lower limitation, you
can take advantage of it by diving away from him. Control effectiveness is another
feature that can give you an advantage. Some sims model this factor very well…as you
increase speed, the controls stiffen. Eventually, in some aircraft, they may well be
useless and the aircraft will be uncontrollable until you slow down (or hit the ground as is
often the case!!). In some WW2 aircraft, the ailerons were the first to lose their
effectiveness. When this happened, the pilot could no longer roll with the same speed as
he was used to…this was an advantage to the F4F Wildcat pilot who knew that the Zero
chasing him would have its ailerons stiffen up to the point that the Zero pilot could not
follow the Wildcat pilot in a turn at high speed.
Summing it up, this airspeed advantage will allow you to extend far enough to be able to
turn back around to engage without allowing the opponent to catch up to you. You should
also use the HnR when you plan a "one pass, haul ass" attack!
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How Is the HnR Maneuver Flown?
We begin with the attack entry. Since our objective is to extend for lateral separation, we
are better served if our attack is initiated from above the opponent. If we attack from
below him, then we waste energy in our reversal from nose high in the attack to nose low
in the extension.
Our extension objective plays a critical role in our attack. Why? Because, when we
extend away from the bandit, we want to do it behind his wingline (3/9 line). If we attempt
to extend in front of his wingline, then we risk getting shot on the way out!
This desire to extend behind the bandit’s wingline has direct effect on our gun attack. We
all know gun attacks come in two forms…tracking and snap shots. Let’s stop for a
moment and clarify something about gun attacks.
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A tracking shot does not always require a low angle off, low aspect approach. It is entirely
possible to track a target at any angle off and aspect. Tracking with approximately 90
degrees angle off is commonly referred to as "tracking on the beam". As long as you as
the shooter have the turn rate available to keep your nose in lead pursuit, you can track
at any angle. By keeping your nose in lead, you are matching the target’s turn rate.
Incidentally, another term…and one used in WW2…was the phrase "deflection shooting".
Many aces such as Hans Marseilles were well known for their deadly ability in deflection
shooting. Deflection shooting is another way to describe a high angle off tracking shot.
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A snap shot, however, is one in which the shooter does not try to match the target’s turn
rate. Instead, the shooter estimates the needed lead angle, and then aims his aircraft in
the plane of motion of the target. Often, the shooter is at or near one G when attempting
this attack. When the target nears the lead point, the shooter fires with the expectation
that the target will fly through the bullet stream. In this type of gun attack, the shooter
accepts a lower probability of kill (Pk) but, in doing so, preserves his angle off/aspect
angle.
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Not so with the tracking shot. As the shooter adjusts his aim to track the target, he is at
the same time reducing his angle off/aspect angle. The longer he tracks the target, the
less the angular difference between himself and the target becomes.
Do you see where I am going with this?!! Good!! You are right…trying to track the target
reduces your angle off/aspect angle. This makes it harder to extend away behind the
target’s wingline because your tracking has aligned your nose with the target’s.
The point in all of this is to always be aware of the end game results of your attack
profile. If it puts you at a disadvantage, then you may want to choose a different plan.
When your game plan is to HnR, be careful not to spend excessive time trying to track
the target…instead, take your snap shot and get out of Dodge!!
OK!! Enough of the "H" part of the HnR…let’s move on to the meat of the matter, the "R"
part!
The significance of the HnR lies in what we do when we break off the attack. You have
two objectives. First, you want to separate as rapidly as possible, and second, you want
to retain your tally on your opponent.
Separation is a function of two things…airspeed and angles. Use all the power you
have…WW2 guys, use WEP (War Emergency Power); jet jocks, use full burner when
available. You are not looking to get Corner Velocity…you want max speed and you want
it as fast as possible. Step one is to jam the throttle full forward. Step two is to plan your
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extension flight path wisely. This is where the angles part comes in. Your separation
angle has two parts…one relative to the opponent, and one relative to the ground.
First, let’s take the angle relative to your opponent. This also has two parts. To begin
with, you have the angle that exists when you cease fire. Ideally, you want this angle to
be as large as possible to maximize your ability to extend well behind the bandit’s
wingline. The second angle I’m talking about is the angle between your extension flight
path and the position of the bandit. As a technique, I propose that you extend with the
bandit at your 5 or 7 o’clock, in other words about 30 degrees off your tail.
Why have the bandit here and not at your dead six? Visibility! If you are using a snap
view to keep the bandit in sight, your headrest may block your ability to see your six. The
30 degree angle lets you see the bandit and still maximize your extension.
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Let’s start with our position at the open fire point. Since your attack can come from any
direction, I’ll generalize again and say that your attack path can be from the front of the
bandit’s 3/9 line…or behind it. Let’s take the frontal situation first.
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Look at the target’s projected flight path. Now estimate a spot about 30 degrees off his
tail. That is your extension direction. If you are within 45 degrees of the bandit’s nose,
make a quick turn to your extension heading. If you are in the 45 to 90 degree arc of his
nose, then a harder and larger turn will be necessary. In both cases, you can use your
attack heading to help you estimate your extension heading.
If the bandit is turning, extend to the side opposite his turn direction. This gives the bandit
the maximum number of degrees to turn in order to point at you in your extension. This
takes time...time that you can use to get extra separation. It also forces the bandit to
bleed more airspeed in the turn…another advantage to you.
Make these turns hard (5-7 G) to minimize the time spent in the turn…with your nose low
attitude, this will not cost you any energy. As always, roll quickly to your desired bank
attitude (lift vector aimed at your extension point). Next, pull your nose to that point. Then
unload (relax back pressure to about one G), and roll back to a wings level attitude. Roll,
pull, unload, roll. Try not to roll and pull at the same time…your fastest rate of roll is when
you are unloaded. Now, check your rear view.
Is the bandit where you want him…about 30 degrees max off your tail? If he drifts into
your six o’clock blind spot, then turn slightly to move him back out to where you can see
him again. Use a quick, hard turn…known as a "check" or "kick" turn…to put him where
you want him. Moving the bandit with reference to your tail is also called "kicking the
bandit out" (although the term "kick" has nothing to do with rudder…it’s just a slang term
for a quick, hard turn of short duration). Perform the check or kick turn by rolling unloaded
into a bank angle that is 90 degrees opposite the opponent’s attitude. Then, make a short
and hard pull to move the nose about 30-45 degrees…this should take 2-3 seconds or
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so. Then unload, roll back to wings level, and continue your extension. Remember the
roll/pull/roll technique!
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As an alternative, you could use rudder to yaw your aircraft to see the opponent, but do
not fly with the rudder in this position. This would cause unnecessary drag, make your
aircraft hard to control, and bleed energy. Instead, use the rudder to take peeks at the
opponent.
Now let’s consider the rear aspect attack. If you are attacking from behind the bandit’s
wingline, then your HnR extension flight path will require you to turn as much as 150
degrees to reach your extension heading.
Because of the magnitude of the turn needed to put you on your extension heading, you
may want to make this a slicing turn, i.e. one in which you turn while descending. Such a
turn will help you retain you energy and uses gravity to reduce your turn radius and
increase your turn rate at the same time. If you are approaching for the bandit’s six, you
do have another option if you have sufficient altitude…instead of turning, roll inverted and
split S away.
As before, use the bandit’s projected flight path to estimate your turn. Once you have
rolled out on your extension heading, then begin your extension. Kick the bandit out as
necessary to keep him in sight.
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Now, let’s talk about your extension angle relative to the ground. The main issue here is
gravity…how it helps you accelerate. You want to unload to get less than one G...if
available, use your cockpit G meter to hold about +.5 G. Do not overdo the unload…too
much negative G and you may "red" out! This may not require a steep descent angle. Do
not automatically shove the stick forward and put yourself in a steep dive. You want to
deny your opponent any chance to arc you…in this case, in the vertical. The next figure
shows this situation.
Your objective is maximum airspeed with minimum altitude loss. Remember,

potential energy and kinetic energy are interrelated. What you gain in your descent,
you will lose as you climb back up. This is particularly true of the difference between
your altitude and the bandit’s when you decide to turn around. Assuming that you
want to re-attack from at least level with the bandit, every foot of altitude that you
must regain is lost energy…and lost energy is lost airspeed, lost maneuvering
potential, lost advantage. Think of your starting altitude as money in the bank. If you
have to spend it, spend it wisely and get your money’s worth. Consider your
opponent’s ability to accelerate. If he is thrust limited compared to you, then keep
your nose close to the horizon as you extend to minimize your altitude loss. This may
result in slightly longer extensions in terms of distance from the fight and time, but
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will pay off at the end in reduced energy bleed in the turn
back
The next question to be answered in the HnR is "How far do I extend before I can turn
back?" There is no "one size fits all" answer to this question. The required separation
depends on the relative performances of you and your opponent. You must have an idea
of the minimum distance between you and the pursuing bandit before you attempt a turn
back. This distance will depend on two things…(1) how well your aircraft can effectively
reverse its heading and, (2) the bandit’s airspeed when you begin the turn back.
First, let’s consider our own performance. In the previous sentence, I used the words
"effectively reverse" for a reason. The turn back is more than just a turn of 180 degrees.
Your energy level at the finish of the turn is an important consideration. Remember, you
are not on the way home…you are returning to combat…and very quickly at that. An
"effective reversal" is one that allows you to turn the required number of degrees at the
least expenditure of energy. BFM is always a balance of kinetic energy (airspeed) and
potential energy (altitude). How well your aircraft maintains its energy in a turn (level,
climbing, or descending) will determine your turn around strategy.
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How do you find this info? Trial and error. Take your aircraft out and fly it. As for your
performance, you would like to turn around as quick as possible with minimum airspeed
loss. The quickest way to turn is to perform a 135 degree inverted slice…but this puts
you further below the bandit when you roll out…and for this reason may not be your best
choice. Your other options are to turn level, pitchback (an inclined climbing turn – the
opposite of a slice), or pull up into an Immelmann-type of maneuver.
The pitchback and Immelmann offer the advantage of increased altitude at your roll out,
but also result in slower roll out speeds. As a matter of technique, I prefer these to a level
turn on the assumption that I will be able to get my speed back in the re-attack.
Remember to consider the use of flaps to help you turn…just be sure to raise them after
you have completed the turn.
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Compare turnaround times and airspeed losses. Vary your altitudes. Find the most
effective turn (min time, max airspeed at roll out), and then practice that maneuver until
you can do it in your sleep. In a fight, you do not want to put all of your attention on
maintaining basic aircraft control…in the turn back, you will be watching the bandit as
well as your own position…guess which one is most important?!!
As a rule, the fighters in modern jet sims are much better in vertical maneuvers than prop
fighters in WW2 sims. A typical jet has a much higher thrust to weight ratio than a prop
fighter and, as a result is better at retaining energy in vertical maneuvers…and this is a
blanket statement made without regard to any particular sim’s flight model. Some WW2
sim aircraft seem to have a difficult time "getting over the top"…Aces High comes to mind
here. So, as with all BFM, never forget that all maneuvering is relative…in this case,
relative to your particular aircraft’s capabilities. Do not pick a turn around technique just
because "you like to do it that way"! If your aircraft turns into a wallowing pig at the top of
an Immelmann, then this may not be the best maneuver to pick!!
OK! So much for the discussion of the effect of our performance on the turn back. The
second part of that issue is the bandit’s performance. What aspect of his performance is
significant to how and when we begin our turn back? The answer is his airspeed…we are
going to focus on how fast he is going as he attempts to follow us in our extension.
Here’s the situation. In our extension, we have been accelerating away from the bandit.
But, once we begin our turn back, our opening speed begins to slow and quickly stops as
we turn 90 degrees to the bandit. Meanwhile, the bandit is closing on us.
Let’s jump ahead to when we roll out of our turn, regardless of what type of turn that was.
We end up basically nose on to the bandit. Now, we’ll freeze the two aircraft and examine
the distance between them. The question you want the answer to is what should that
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distance be as a minimum. Just for example, let’s say that we would like 6000 feet (one
nm) for WW2 aircraft and 12,000 feet (2 NM) for modern jets. These are just
examples…you may find that more or less will work for you. No matter. Once we have
determined the desired minimum distance at roll out, we can then work the problem
backwards to find out the range that we should begin the turn back at. Here's how we do
that.
Let’s visualize an extension with the bandit attempting to catch us. I’ve made some rough
rules of thumb for you to consider based on turning performance. I’ll assume that we can
complete the 180 degree turn around in 10-15 seconds. During that time, the bandit will
be closing on us. This figure shows the situation:
Next, I’ll choose two types of bandits…a WW2 type at 300mph and a modern jet at
600KIAS. These speeds allow me to compute how far the bandits travel in the time
that it takes us to turn around (I’ll average the distance for the 10-15 second period).
By rounding the numbers off, I come up with a distance of 1nm (6000’) for the WW2
fighter and about 2nm (12000’) for the jet fighter. I then add my desired distance at
roll out and end up with approximate values of 2nm for a WW2 situation and 4nm for
a jet situation. These are just rough values, but they do give you a feel for the
time/distance relationship of the turn back maneuver
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How do you know when you are at these ranges? Many sims offer target labels that gives
you bandit range. I do not look upon these as a cheat since the depth perception and
ability to depict fine graphical detail is lacking in our sims. If the video picture allowed us
to recognize and measure range as easily as can be done in real life, then I would not
favor labels…but that is not the case.
The reason why I went through this math drill was to show you that the distances are not
as close as some might imagine. In order to effectively return to the fight, you must get
substantial separation prior to initiating the turn back. One cautionary note – these are
real world approximates. They are based on specific turn rates. Your sim flight model
may or may not use real world turn rates…we have all seen bandits do some amazing
turns and reversals in our sims. In those cases where a sim’s flight model is suspect, only
trial and error will produce an answer to the question of "how far is far enough".
One last caution. If you are going to err in this estimation of when to turn back, err on the
conservative side. Extending too far is much better than not far enough. What may
happen if you do not go out far enough? Quite simply, the bandit has the opportunity to
rejoin on you in your turn.
Views of a HnR Attack

Let’s finish off this discussion by looking at screenshots of two HnR attacks…a WW2
situation where a Fw-190 is dueling with a Hurricane, and a Vietnam scenario where an
F-4E is wrapped up with a MiG-19.
These screenshots were taken using MS Combat Flight Simulator. I chose this sim
simply because it has an extremely user-friendly editing system that allows me to position
the aircraft to get their relative positions just the way I want them for instructional
purposes. The views may not look exactly like they do in your sim, but they should be
good enough to allow you to understand the points being made. Then it’s up to you to go
kill the bandit!
The main things to look for are shooter and target fuselage alignment references, nose
positions relative to the horizon and flight path corrections made to keep the tally.
Here we go…first the WW2 HnR engagement.
We begin with the Fw-190 pilot in a nose low attitude as he attempts a high angle
deflection shot. The Hurricane’s high turn rate has forced the shooter’s nose into lag. At
this point, the Fw-190 pilot must decide what his next move will be. He decides that he
has some good smash (high airspeed) and that he can extend away nose low to get
some separation. The question becomes one of which direction does he go in this
extension. He uses the fuselage axis and wingline of the Hurricane to approximate a
direction to turn to.
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The shooter rolls rapidly to his right to place his lift vector in the direction noted. He then
pulls his nose hard to that heading. This is done using the forward view. The short
duration of the hard turn allows the shooter to keep the bandit’s position in mind even
though he momentarily loses a tally. Reaching his desired heading, the shooter looks left
using a snap view to see the bandit’s reaction.
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The bandit is still in his left turn. The shooter then selects forward view, unloads, and rolls
wings level. As he rolls wings level, the shooter positions his nose slightly below the
horizon to maximize his acceleration.
With his nose now in the right attitude for his extension, the shooter checks his throttle at
full power, adds some nose down trim for the airspeed increase, and then selects a snap
view to monitor the bandit. The bandit was turning left and was initially slightly offset to
the shooter’s seven o’clock. Because of this, he selects his "back left" view.
Much to his alarm, the bandit is not in this view! Not to worry. He remembers the
geometry of the set up. The Hurricane was turning hard left…towards the shooter’s
extended six. That’s where he probably is now. Here are two views of this situation.
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So the shooter selects his "rear" view and this is what he sees
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Yep", the shooter thinks…"Just like I thought." The shooter does some quick geometry in
his head…"the bandit is turning left…I want to kick him out so I can watch him…if I kick
him out on the right side, I’ll be turning into him…not good…so I’ll kick him out on the left
side".
With that thought, the shooter returns to his forward view, rolls quickly into a left bank and
pulls hard for a second or two. He keeps his nose slightly below the horizon
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Then he quickly unloads, rolls wings level again, and checks his nose position relative to
the horizon. He is going to switch back to a rear view, and he does not want to do this
with his nose out of position…too high and he loses energy…too low and he may hit the
ground.
Then he selects his rear view...and sees this.
"Good," he thinks. The shooter also has a readout of bandit range…a feature available in
many sims. At about 1300 feet range, the shooter is relatively safe. The Hurricane had to
expend a lot of energy in order to get his nose around to the shooter’s position. The
bandit may be nose on to the shooter, but their relative airspeeds are very different. The
bandit’s speed is probably no more than 200mph…possibly less due to his hard turn.
Now check the shooter’s airspeed in Figure 27…500kph equates to more than 300mph.
The shooter has his desired extension airspeed difference (+100 mph) and will be slowly
adding to that figure as he continues to accelerate. He can now concentrate on extending
as he switches back and forth between his rear and forward views.
All that is left for the shooter is to monitor bandit range until the turn back point is
reached.
Now, let’s look at the F-4E Vs MiG-19 situation. The set up is somewhat similar with the
exception that the F-4E is meeting the MiG in more of a head on position. As the F-4 pilot
merges with the MiG, he notes that he can pretty much extend straight through. He is in a
left bank, and the MiG is also. The F-4E pilot looks to the MiG’s five o’clock for his
extension heading. He wants to extend to the MiG’s right side to increase the number of
degrees the MiG has to turn to follow the F-4E.
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As the two aircraft merge, the F-4E pilot maintains his left bank, selects his left snap
view, and pauses to watch the MiG. What’s he going to do? The F-4E pilot’s extension
plan is going to depend on the MiG’s follow-on move.
Another option for the F-4E pilot is to use a padlock view to observe the bandit at the
merge. When he selects padlock, he sees this picture. He uses the horizontal and
vertical stabilizers to orient himself to the bandit and the horizon. He uses the vertical
stabilizer as his lift vector. He sees that a roll to the right will bring him wings level
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with the bandit still to his left rear. But the bandit is in a left turn that will take him to
the F-4E’s six o’clock. To ensure that the MiG remains on his left side, the F-4E pilot
rolls to the left slightly to orient the lift vector just below the horizon and then makes
a hard, check turn into the bandit’s six. This kicks the MiG further out to the F-4E’s
seven o’clock
OK! Regardless of whether the F-4E pilot is using a snap view or padlock to watch the
bandit, he maintains his tally and analyzes the MiG’s intentions. He sees that the MiG is
staying to play and, by continuing its hard left turn, is intent on flying a two-dimensional
level turning fight…a plan that will cost the MiG pilot time and knots, as the F-4E pilot
knows. The F-4E pilot selects forward view, rolls right to a wings level and slightly nose
low attitude, unloads and rams his throttles into full AB. The F-4E leaps forward, gaining
over 50 knots almost instantaneously.
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The F-4E extends away from the MiG in a nose low attitude. With the MiG not yet nose
on, the F-4E pilot has gained an excellent extension on the MiG. Now, as with the
previous WW2 example, it’s a race for the roses! The F-4E pilot uses his rear view to
monitor MiG range and aspect. He will check turn as need to keep the MiG out of his
dead six until he gets the needed separation for the turn back. In any case, he is out of
both cannon and Atoll range. The call is now his…he can choose to engage or
not…proper use of fuselage alignment, nose position relative to the horizon, and his
available sim views have given him the room to make that decision on his terms, not the
MiG’s.
Well, folks…that pretty much wraps up our discussion of the HnR attack. In the last part
of this series, I’ll discuss the HnC attack and throw in some tips on how to fly the HnC in
a 2v1 situation that you can practice using your favorite sim and comm programs such as
Roger Wilco.
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Three

by Andy Bush

I’ll conclude this series with some basic tips on how to fly a Boom and Zoom using "Hit
and Climb" (HnC) tactics. Following a discussion of the some academic considerations,
we’ll look at two situations…a WW2 setting and something a little more current. We’ll
focus in on the use of snap, padlock, and external views to understand how to visualize
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this maneuver in our sims. I had planned to finish up this part with a look at the typical
maneuver flow and simple communication techniques that you and your flying partner
may find helpful as you gang up on the bandit in a 2v1 engagement, but, because of the
length of this last part, I’ve decided to put that into a separate article
What Is the HnC?
The HnC is an exaggerated High Yo-Yo type of maneuver. In some A2A manuals, you
may find a maneuver called a Quarter Plane maneuver. The HnC resembles this
maneuver as well. The main difference between a HnC and these two maneuvers is the
point at which the maneuver is begun. The Yo-Yo or Quarter Plane maneuvers are
repositioning maneuvers intended to gain or preserve turning room and are usually
begun before the pilot reaches gun range in order to avoid a flight path overshoot. On the
other hand, the HnC maneuver is usually begun after the pilot has fired.
When Should I Use It?
Use the HnC to make slashing attacks on an opponent that you have an energy
advantage over. This maneuver is well suited for an engagement where you cannot turn
with your opponent and your top speed advantage is minimal…an example would be the
F-4 against a MiG-21. The top speeds of these two fighters are close enough that you in
your F-4 cannot count on a HnR tactic to get you the needed lateral turning room. In your
attempt at a HnR, the MiG-21 probably will not be able to catch you, but it will be able to
remain close enough to get inside the turn radius of your turn back maneuver…and this
is to be avoided at all costs!
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You may also use the HnC tactic when you want to avoid a prolonged turning fight…often
the case when you find yourself outnumbered or at some other tactical disadvantage.
The HnC is best used against a bandit that has depleted its energy state…usually as the
result of a hard turn. When I flew the F-4 and the F-104, we used this maneuver against
the F-5 (a good MiG-21 surrogate). We knew that if we could get the F-5 into a hard turn,
it would not have the excess energy to be able to follow us into the vertical. We used our
superior thrust to weight to power ourselves up and out of the plane of the F-5’s turn.
How Is the HnC Maneuver Flown?
Let’s follow the same line of thought that we used in the HnR discussion…we’ll begin with
the entry. Again, I caution you all about making big assumptions…but here are some
ideas to consider. Unlike the HnR, I would prefer the HnC attack to be initiated from a
level to climbing entry. Why? Because my objective is to climb above the plane of turn of
the opponent. If I dive on the opponent, it is possible that when I initiate my climb that my
turn radius actually takes me through that plane of turn. If the bandit is in a level turn, I
would therefore be descending below him before I started back up. Any altitude that used
to be below the bandit is of no good to me in my climb…it is wasted energy, fuel, time,
and therefore turning room.
Because of this, if I dive on my opponent, I want to level off prior to reaching gun range.
To do this, you must have the lateral turning room needed to descend down towards the
bandit and then be able to raise your nose to level your aircraft with the plane of the
bandit’s turn. More detail on this will come later. A diving entry is fine just as long as you
do not allow it to turn around and bite you on the rear as you execute your vertical
extension!
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Now let’s consider the actual pull up. But first, let’s stop for a second for a reality check.
Don’t forget why we are in this position in the first place...we are making a gun attack! So
make a good one! Let's not start thinking about our reposition and forget about killing the
bandit…that’s getting the cart before the horse! Drive in and take your shot…then start
your HnC reposition. It’s nice to plan ahead, but don’t take it too far.
OK! Back to the problem at hand…
In the HnC pull up, you want an answer to two questions…when do I begin the
maneuver…and how do I do it?
Let’s take the ‘when’ first. In the HnC vertical pull up, there is a fine line between ‘too
soon,’ ‘just right,' and ‘too late.’ In your sim, you will not have much time to ponder this!
The decision point comes very fast. As in most BFM situations, there is no simple
answer. Here are some of your considerations…you do not want to pull so soon that you
‘telegraph’ your intentions to your opponent. On the other hand, if you delay your pull up,
there is a good chance that the bandit may be able to extend away from your re-attack.
Here is a tip. Use the angle that you approach the bandit at as a reference. If you are in
his front quarter…within 30 degrees of his nose…then consider pulling up before you
pass his wingline. What is this called? A Lead Turn!! Remember, in BFM a well-
performed lead turn is next to Godliness!! Your closure in this situation is a major point of
emphasis…the greater the closure, the sooner you may initiate the lead turn pull up. You
can expect the bandit’s speed to give you the required lateral spacing as you climb.
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If you approach the bandit on the beam, be very careful about pulling up too soon. Do
not ‘telegraph’ your intentions in this way…you are letting the bandit ‘off the hook.'
As soon as he sees you pull up, if he’s smart, he’ll unload and head for the deck (or if
he has the energy, he may pull up into you to force a vertical scissors). Instead, delay
your pull up until you approach his flight path. In this manner, you are pulling up into
the bandit’s six area, not his wingline area
For me, one technique is that I begin my pull when I cease firing the gun, regardless
of approach angle. I know that my firing distance is close enough that I’ll not pull up
too soon in the front quarter, and it will also be close enough that I’ll not give my
intentions away on a beam approach. The next diagram shows a red ellipse that
represents typical pull up points depending on the angle of your approach to the
bandit. The concept is derived from nominal max effective gun ranges. The idea is
that your pull up point varies with aspect
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Now the second part of our question…the "how". How to perform the HnC pull up is
basically a matter of lift vector control. In the HnR, our first step was to turn to an
extension heading. In the HnC, we follow the same thinking, but instead of turning,
we are going to climb. Just as the HnR turn heading was important, so is the
orientation of the HnC climb
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When we talked about the HnR attack in Part Two, we said the extension had both a
lateral and a vertical component. The same is true of the HnC climb. The first is the flight
path relative to the bandit. Here, once again, we bring the bandit’s wingline into the
discussion. Visualize yourself looking down on to the bandit’s plane of turn just as the
HnC fighter is beginning its pull up. The fuselage axis of the HnC fighter makes an angle
with the bandit’s fuselage.
In the pull up, the HnC pilot wants to get vertical separation…and he also wants a little
lateral separation. This lateral separation is usually gotten behind the bandit’s wingline.
Why? Because the HnC pilot is setting himself up for a re-attack, and he does not want to
be overhead the bandit so much as he wants to be high and slightly behind. He needs
the spacing to the bandit’s six o’clock in order to be able to level out of his re-attack dive
prior to taking another shot.
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What this then means is that the HnC pilot needs to get his nose behind the bandit’s
wingline prior to (or during) the pull up. He does not want to climb with his nose pointed
ahead of the wingline. This will impede his ability to get lateral separation…and even
worse, may offer the bandit a chance to pull up and force an overshoot. Your objective in
the climb is to minimize your forward movement relative to the flight path of the bandit. In
doing this, you will force the bandit to move out in front of you, creating as a result lateral
separation in addition to the vertical separation you are getting in the climb. In the next
diagram, picture yourself looking down upon the bandit’s plane of turn from above. The
flight path vectors represent movement in the plane of the bandit only.
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But you can overdo a good thing! There is no advantage to pointing too far into the
bandit’s six. I suggest that a nose position of down the wingline to no more than 30
degrees aft is sufficient. The only exception to this is the situation where the HnC pilot
meets the bandit more or less head on. In this case, the HnC pilot should disregard his
excessive fuselage misalignment and not try to change his heading before beginning the
climb...to do so would take too much time…time that would allow the bandit to possibly
separate. In this situation, the HnC pilot should pull up on his attack heading. Once in the
climb, he may pull up in a loop-type reposition or may roll into a bank to incline his
climbing turn into a pitchback-type maneuver.
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Good! Let’s move on to the climb itself.
The second angle is the climb angle…the angle of the HnC fighter’s flight path above the
plane of the bandit’s turn. Let’s be careful here. We are talking about the angle between
the HnC pilot’s flight path and the plane of the bandit’s turn. Do not use the horizon as a
reference unless the bandit is in a level turn.
What if the bandit is not in a level turn? Can you still fly a HnC attack? Of course!
Remember…BFM is always flown in relation to the bandit, not the horizon. The climb
portion of the HnC is a vertical reposition…but the "vertical" in this case is in relation to
the bandit’s plane of turn…not the horizon. The next figure shows this.
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Ideally, you want to orient your lift vector 90 degrees opposite the bandit’s plane of turn.
One way to help you visualize this is to use his fuselage as a reference. You want your
lift vector to point 90 degrees away from his fuselage line. Be careful, though.
Remember, this is a three-dimensional problem, so you need to consider the bandit’s
bank attitude as well to ‘see’ his plane of turn. Rather than make this issue too difficult,
let’s just level our wings with the bandit’s flight path prior to beginning our pull. That
should be good enough for most situations.
There is no "right" value for this angle. The purpose of the vertical move is to get
turning room in the vertical. The amount of turning room needed is a function of the
HnC fighter’s airspeed and G capability at the pulldown point. The HnC pilot wants
enough turning room to be able to get his nose back on the bandit. He also wants to
have enough acceleration distance to be able to re-engage the bandit with sufficient
energy to continue the HnC attack profile or allow a successful
separation/disengagement. At the same time, he does not want to needlessly extend
the climb…to do so allows the bandit to gain separation and energy. A perfectly
executed HnC vertical move is one that allows the HnC pilot to reposition for his re-
attack while forcing the bandit to maintain a defensive turn
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You must always be aware of your energy as you enter this pull up. WW2 fighters
will deplete their energy quicker in the pull up than a modern jet will. Because of this,
WW2 climb angles may be less steep than a jet’s. This is not all bad since WW2
aircraft require less turning room in their re-attacks. Conversely, because of a jet’s
greater speed (and resulting turn radius), it usually requires a steeper angle to keep
lateral spacing within desirable limits. The HnC pilot wants the vertical separation to
be greater than the lateral
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Let me suggest a climb technique. I’ll do this with two entry situations in mind. The first is
the beam entry, and the second is the front quarter entry.
For the beam entry, I suggest that you use a 45 – 60 degree climb angle if you are flying
a WW2 fighter…and a 60-90 degree angle if you are flying a modern jet. Now, these are
only approximates and will vary with your energy level and bandit position at the pull up.
The point is that you will probably need a steeper climb to get the needed vertical flight
path in a jet…and that you need to have at least 45 degrees to get the same relative
displacement in a prop fighter. The 60-degree max for the WW2 fighter is a concession to
the more rapid energy depletion rate of a prop fighter.
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How about the front quarter attack? This one is relatively easy! When your energy level
permits, regardless of fighter type, pull up to about a 90-degree angle. The bandit’s
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speed in the other direction should take care of the lateral spacing that you need…what
you want now is the vertical turning room. Fine, you say! But what if your energy level
doesn’t allow this? Then make your climb similar to a pitchback, in other words, incline
your turn.
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One note of caution. If you are forced to use a pitchback type of inclined climbing turn, as
a rule do not turn into a bandit that is in a turn…you may not be able to get the needed
vertical and lateral room and even worse, the bandit may be able to meet you head on.
Instead, turn to the bandit’s six (away from his turn direction). Make a ‘two circle’ type of
re-attack. Accept the extended time that this will take on the notion that caution is often
much more advisable than a ‘no guts, no glory’ approach.
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From a top view, it looks like this:
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Now we are ready to begin the pull. Your objective is to gain spacing as quickly as you
can. If you over-rotate and pull too hard you may stall your aircraft or bleed energy too
rapidly. So, your pull is not a max G effort. Instead, smoothly increase backpressure to
get an energy sustaining nose rotation. As a rule, look for 3-5 G’s for WW2 aircraft, and
5-7 G’s for modern aircraft. These are again rough numbers based on average
conditions…experiment a bit with your specific aircraft to get best results.
Our last discussion item regarding the pull up is the HnC pilot’s aircraft attitude relative to
the bandit. Let’s use his lift vector as our frame of reference. In the climb, the HnC pilot
will want to aim his lift vector in a specific direction based upon the flight path of the
bandit. In doing so, he will establish a pursuit course…either lead, pure, or lag.
Remember the general rule…lead is for increasing your closure, lag is for increasing your
separation.
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The HnC pilot usually establishes the initial direction of his lift vector as he is pulling up.
Once his climb angle is established, he can ‘fine tune’ his attitude based upon the
bandit’s behavior.
Great so far…but how do we point the lift vector? Or more to the point, how do we
recognize the lift vector? We remember that we can visualize our lift vector as coming out
of the top of our canopy. This is important since the padlock and snap views both have
cues that allow us to recognize this direction. The forward snap view is easy…the lift
vector is always at the top of the monitor screen...in fact, in most snap views, you can
think of the top of the monitor screen as the lift vector. In many padlocks, there is a lift
line that can be used (as well as cockpit structure) to identify the top of the canopy area.
Figure 21 shows a padlock view from Flanker2…and Figure 22 is an external view of the
same shot. The Flanker has pulled up outside the bandit’s turn and should roll right to
place the lift vector arrow over the bandit to begin the pull down.
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When we think of lift vector orientation, we often use the concept of the pirouette. The
pirouette is an unloaded aileron roll in which the pilot rolls to aim his lift vector in a
particular direction. The HnC pilot uses the pirouette to position his lift vector in relation to
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where he wants his flight path to be in the pull down. If this pull down flight path is to be
lead pursuit, then the HnC pilot pirouettes to aim his lift vector in front of the bandit. If the
HnC pilot need to increase his lateral spacing, he will point his lift vector either at the
bandit (pure pursuit) or behind the bandit (lag pursuit).
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What comes next? Let’s call it the ‘pulldown’, or the return to the fight. In your climb, you
do not want to bleed all of your speed off. You will need speed to get your nose back
down. Let’s start with a minimum of 150-200 mph for WW2 fighters and 350-400 KIAS for
modern fighter types.
Well, that sounds easy enough in theory, but what you want to know is how to do this in
your sim. What cues do you have available to help you? First, you must keep a close eye
on your energy level. This means airspeed…so you should cross check your speed
frequently. Sounds reasonable, right? But, be careful…it’s not that easy! Many people
use snap views in their sim…and snap views do not have any airspeed info. So, if this
applies to your style of flying, be sure to cycle back and forth between your snap view
and your forward view. Most padlocks include flight data so airspeed cross-checking is
not much of a problem.
Your view type is your next cue. Regardless of what type of view you are using, your
objective is to maintain an awareness of the bandit’s flight path relative to your own.
What are you looking for? An indication that the bandit is beginning to increase its
separation from you. You do this two ways.
First, watch the bandit’s fuselage axis. Maintain your climb until you see the bandit flight
path begin to move away from you. Look at the bandit’s fuselage and nose position. As
you see his nose move away from your flight path, you may consider the pull down, I say
‘consider’ because you may want to get a little more separation in the climb. This is
OK…the important thing is that you recognize that the bandit is pulling away from you.
The second cue is more subtle…and may also vary with the sim viewing display. In the
first instance, you can use bandit relative size as a cue…look for the bandit size to begin
to get smaller. In the second instance, some sims include distance labels that you may
use to see that the bandit is beginning to move away from you.
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To begin the pulldown, we want to first orient our lift vector into a pursuit course relative
to the bandit. How do you know whether to use lead, pure, or lag? Make this decision
depending on your closure and position on the bandit. If the bandit is pulling away at a
noticeable rate, then you may want to pull down using lead pursuit. On the other hand,
you may use pure or even lag pursuit if you need additional spacing. One good example
of this is if you are in an ‘overhead’ position on the bandit and want to move more to his
six o’clock.
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While still in the climb, unload and pirouette your aircraft until you are looking at the
bandit out of the top of your canopy. Then, smoothly bring in the backpressure to start
your nose moving towards the bandit. Make sure you have max power, and drop flaps if
appropriate (and it is almost always ‘appropriate!’ Some aircraft like the F-16 will
configure automatically…or should…but for the WW2 types, flaps can really help out.).
Then pull your nose into your desired pursuit course…you should now be back in a dive
and heading for another gun attack. Keep your power in, retract your flaps, and start
working on your gunnery aiming problem.
The BnZ Attacks As Seen from a Sim’s Viewing System
Next, we’ll take a look at how these attacks can be visualized using the padlock and snap
views. The screenshots come from MS CFS, Aces High, and Janes USAF. One note
regarding Aces High…on line sims have a strong following, and BnZ tactics are a favorite
with their pilots. These sims have one similarity…none of them include a padlock view.
Instead, snap views are used to provide the pilot with a sense of three-dimensional SA.
As we go through the HnC maneuver step by step, I’ll use snap views from Aces High to
supplement the views from the other sims. Please note that I have drawn in the bandit on
these snap views as a matter of convenience. These ‘bandits’ will be drawn larger than
they would normally be in actual play in order to make the desired academic point more
easily seen.
In addition, I used a Tu-22 as the bandit in the USAF shots, again as a matter of
convenience. It was a lot easier to position the USAF F-16 against the Tu-22…when I
first tried using a fighter adversary, I couldn’t get the sim AI to cooperate with the
positional set ups I was looking for!!
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As in Part Two, I’ll describe a WW2 and a modern jet HnC scenario.
The HnR Attack

We’ll begin with the WW2 profile…using an MS CFS P-40 vs Ki-27 engagement and
supplemented with an Aces High Me-109G-10.
The first screenshot shows the P-40 pilot beginning his pull up after making a beam gun
attack. He will level his wings with the bandit’s plane of turn and pull up on his present
heading since the forward speed of the Ki-27 will move the P-40’s flight path behind the
bandit’s wingline.
The P-40 pilot smoothly rotates to about 45 degrees of pitch angle above the plane of the
bandit’s turn and then checks his left rear snap view.
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The P-40 pilot now unloads and climbs while watching the bandit. He is looking for cues
that the bandit is beginning to pull away from him. Along with diminishing relative size,
the P-40 pilot is looking for the bandit’s flight path (nose position) to begin to move
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behind his own wingline. In this next figure, note the increasing angle between the bandit
and the P-40.
Seeing the Ki-27 moving away, the P-40 pilot rolls inverted and then checks his rear
view. The roll is complete when the P-40 pilot orients his lift vector across the turn circle
relative to the bandit.
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- 305 -
From this attitude, the P-40 pilot pulls through to begin his re-attack. As he completes the
pull, he will fine-tune his heading to establish the desired lead angle.
Now let’s look at a HnC profile using the snap views available in Aces High.
I’ll draw in the bandit positions to simplify matters (and because getting good, specific
screenshots was a pain in the rear end!!). Remember that, unlike a padlock view, in a
snap view, the lift vector always points up to the top of your monitor screen.
One other thought before we get into the action. In sims such as Aces High that do not
offer either a padlock or external view for use, you have two types of views that you may
use in your BFM. These are snap views and pan views. Snap views are individual views
looking out of the cockpit in a specific direction…up, aft, left, etc. Pan views are slewable
(movable) views looking from the cockpit to the outside. Both snap and pan views may
be ‘zoomable’ depending on the sim.
Snap views have been around since the earliest sims and are the easier of the two types
to use. Pan views are more difficult to control, requiring a higher level of manual dexterity
in using the keyboard and/or flight stick hat switches. In either case, the pilot that has
success in using these views in a three-dimensional BFM situation is as much an
accomplished view manager as he is a good BFM pilot.
The point to keep in mind when using snap or pan views is that, unlike padlock or
external views that automatically follow the bandit, these views require you to manually
switch or pan the view to follow the bandit. In padlock or external, the sim’s AI is
responsible for centering the bandit in the field of view…in sims such as Aces High, you
must do this for yourself.
OK…so much for philosophy!! Let’s get to it!
We begin with the bandit turning left across the attacking Me-109’s nose. The 109 pilot
plans a snapshot and a vertical reposition.
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Once the pilot begins the pull up, he must switch out of the forward view to keep the
bandit in sight. The pull up requires him to keep an idea of where the bandit is (and is
going) in his mind as well as having a pitch (horizon) reference for basic aircraft control.
Selecting a side view (or panning sideways) is the answer.
Once the climb angle is established, the Me-109 pilot must manage his view selection
to keep the bandit in sight. A slight roll may help keep the bandit centered in the side
snap view. One tip is to think of the wingtip as a pointer…raise or lower the wingtip
as a means of keeping the bandit in the view. One thing I might mention…don’t use
the rear view in this situation…here’s why
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The bandit is not there! Why not? Because it is moving off to the 109 pilot’s left aft side.
He needs an aft rear view to continue to watch the bandit. Here it is:
The 109 pilot now looks for the same pulldown cues as described before…diverging flight
paths, bandit getting smaller as its range opens. Seeing this, the 109 pilot prepares for
his pulldown. To do this, he needs to get his lift vector pointed across the circle in the
direction of the bandit. This can be a problem when using snap views. Here’s why.
This figure shows a pyramid-shaped cone extending upwards from the climbing 109. This
represents a viewing area that is difficult to use while maneuvering. It is NOT a blind area
as such…your snap views include a view straight up…but it is a view that I consider very
disorienting to use when maneuvering due to the lack of cues that tell you ‘where you are
going!' Note in Figure 38, that the pilot will be rotating the ‘blind cone’ towards the bandit
as he rolls to put his lift vector on the bandit for the pulldown.
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The end result is that the 109 pilot is going to have to use other views for the pulldown.
Initially, he uses his side view. He rolls to move the bandit towards the top of the view
(towards his lift vector) and then begins to apply backstick pressure. This will bring his
nose back down and may be assisted through the use of flaps. The next figure shows the
nose returning to the horizon.
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This transition from a climb to a descending pursuit curve will be the most critical part of
the HnC when using the snap views. It helps if the pilot can maintain a good sense of
positional relationships in his mind. This will allow him to roll and then pull his nose into a
general area with some expectation that the bandit will also be there!
As soon as the 109 pilot has his nose down near the horizon, he can change to a forward
side view to keep the bandit in sight.
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Now, with the lift vector pointed back towards the bandit (and with a view that keeps
his sense of orientation), the pilot can fine-tune his pulldown angle
In the next two forward views, the 109 pilot maneuvers to set up his next gun attack.
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- 312 -
Well…what about you padlock users?
Let’s go to that view type now with a jet scenario…an F-16 maneuvering against a Tu-22.
These shots from Janes USAF include the lift line.
Speaking of the lift line, here are a few words on its meaning and use. In many of our
padlocks, when we look at the target out of the top portions of the canopy, we no longer
have any cockpit structure in view. This tends to disorient us since we lose track of where
our nose is. The lift line concept was developed to help solve this problem. While the
actual depictions vary from sim to sim, the general idea is the same.
In USAF, an add-on file was built that would add a white line on the top of the canopy,
running down the centerline of the canopy from front to rear. This line has a series of
arrows spaced along its length. The arrows point towards your nose, and the number of
arrow diagonal marks are placed to tell you what part of the canopy you are looking
through…one arrow indicates the front portion of the canopy, while the four arrow marks
indicate you are looking up through the rear top of the canopy. In the next picture, you
are looking down into the F-16 cockpit from directly overhead. The location of the lift line
corresponds to that part of the canopy that the pilot will be looking up through.
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Notice also the two side arrows located approximately half way from the canopy rail to
the main lift line. These include the letters ‘L’ and ‘R’ plus the arrowhead to indicate that
you are looking out of the side of the canopy, and not the top.
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Since the placement of the arrow line is along the top of the canopy, we can think of it as
representing the lift vector. When we pull backpressure, our aircraft flight path will be
towards what ever the line is superimposed over…hence, the name lift line.
The lift line can be used for out-of-plane maneuvering as well as in-plane. By rolling to
place the lift line away from the target, you can align your flight path in lead, pure, or lag
pursuit. This will be shown in the following HnC maneuver. One last note on the USAF lift
line…in my screenshots, I will highlight the lift line since it is difficult to see in some of the
shots.
Let’s begin with the F-16 at the end of a beam pass on the Tu-22.
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As his nose passes the target’s tail, the F-16 begins its pull into the vertical. The pilot
selects full afterburner and rotates the nose quickly to keep his forward velocity to a
minimum. In the following padlock views, I’ll circle the bandit, show his wingline, and
indicate his flight path for easy reference.
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The F-16 pilot continues his pull into a near-vertical attitude as he watches the flight path
of the target. He is looking for the target to begin moving forward on his padlock side
view…this will indicate that the target is beginning to open the distance between the two
aircraft, thus giving the F-16 additional lateral turning room.
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Now, at the top of his zoom, and with the target beginning to pull away, the F-16 pilot
rolls right to aim his lift vector (lift line) at the target. As he reaches this new inverted
attitude, he takes another look at his vertical and lateral spacing. Is there enough room to
pull down for another attack?
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"Don’t think so…," the Viper driver says to himself. He’s got a little too much forward
velocity…not enough lateral turning room. If he pulls down from here, he’ll end up with a
rushed attack. He needs to buy himself some time…some more lateral spacing…and he
does this by rolling further right and pulling his nose into lag on the target. This will allow
the target to move further away. The F-16 has plenty of vertical turning room, so the pilot
is not worried about making the corner when going downhill. This lag reposition using the
lift line will result in him rolling out at the target’s six with sufficient spacing to make a
controlled attack…if he had not corrected his lift line, he may well have pulled out too
close to the target.
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Now, the F-16 pilot quickly rolls upright and plays the bottom of his pull out to move
into the target’s six. He comes out of burner, double checks his gun switches, and
presses the attack.
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And the inevitable result of a well flown HnC reposition
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Well, folks, that just about wraps up the series on BnZ tactics and considerations.
Hope you learned something…and the next time you see me stooging around in Aces
High…just remember this article…and be gentle!!
Boom and Zoom Tactics, Part Four:

2v1 Techniques

Introduction
This article is linked directly to the previous series on BnZ tactics. While
those articles dealt with the BnZ attack by focusing on your techniques
as a single attacker, this final article is intended to provide you with some tips and
techniques on how to fly a BnZ HnC attack as a two ship.
What I’m going to propose is a set of simplified procedures that you and your sim partner
can use to attack a bandit. These procedures include good piloting, effective radio
communication techniques, and flight path coordination. What follows does not cover all
the possibilities of a 2v1 engagement, but it is a way to get started in mutual support
flying in our sims. One thing to make clear...this article is about procedures to use when
flying with a human wingman...unfortunately our sim AI wingmen are not quite advanced
enough to try these ideas with...not now, at least, but maybe someday!
In the A2A world, air combat maneuvers are grouped into three categories...basic fighter
maneuvers (BFM), air combat maneuvers (ACM), and air combat tactics (ACT). When
two aircraft maneuver together in a 2v1 engagement, these maneuvers are known as
ACM (air combat maneuvers) and ACT (air combat tactics)…not BFM. It is not a minor
technical distinction. BFM is a term reserved for 1v1 maneuvering, either offensive or
defensive. ACM are 2v1 ‘initial move’ offensive or defensive maneuvers, usually
practiced in a training A2A mission profile, that do not end with a ‘kill.' ACT, on the other
hand, is what is more commonly thought of as a full blown engagement between two or
more fighters and any number of adversaries (two or more versus one or more) where
the maneuvering ends with a kill or successful separation.
In our 2v1 HnC maneuver, we will not practice ACM. Instead, we will individually fly good
BFM and collectively fly good ACT…hope this clarifies things a little! One other
thing...before you and your sim buddy fire up your sims, let’s recognize what we are
dealing with. The 2v1 is not something often addressed in our typical sim flying. There is
a little more here than meets the eye. Here’s why.
The 2v1 is obviously a situation where two friendlies are attacking a single bandit. In our
case, we are limiting ourselves to a HnC scenario. The 2v1 covers many other options
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besides the HnC, but, for now, I’ll limit myself to that situation. As a result, this article will
be limited to a discussion of us and a buddy flying in concert with a specific goal in mind.
Seems simple enough, but there are a couple of things that you need to know about to
make this work.
Number one...you will engage with a specific tactic in mind...the HnC. Number two...this
will require you to follow the procedures of a specific type of tactical employment...for
example, Double Attack or Loose Deuce, two attack types often mentioned in our forums.
Number three...you need to be in a specific formation such as combat spread. And
number four, all of this will involve a fair share of coordination and communication
between you and your buddy. Not much has been said about this in our sim
literature...this article hopes to plug that gap. We’ve already covered the HnC in a
previous article, so this article will introduce procedures and techniques to cover the
other three areas.
Lastly, we should keep in mind that it is a very real possibility that we may have
limitations to our sim flying that may present problems with our ability to replicate a 2v1
attack. The two main limitations are the ability to communicate in an effective and timely
manner and the ability to use the sim viewing system to keep track of everyone’s
position. These two factors will be mentioned throughout this article.
Basic Concepts - The 2v1 Offense
I’ll begin by outlining the basic 2v1 game plan. This game plan has four important
elements...a specific formation, a specific formation tactic, Basic Fighter Maneuvers
(BFM), and Air Combat Tactics (ACT).
Here is how these four elements relate to each other. The two ship is arranged in a
specific formation to be use in a specific manner (tactic). The formation members, the
leader and the wingman, will individually max perform their aircraft (BFM) to achieve a
mutual goal through coordination and communication (ACT). The point to keep in mind is
that BFM is only a single maneuver, while ACT is a series of maneuvers flown in concert
with other flight members to reach a specific goal. Let’s now look at each element in
some detail.
Basic Concepts - Formation

I’ll start by discussing how we put together a formation. The following discussion only
involves a two ship...if the formation is to include more than two aircraft, additional info
may probably apply that will not be mentioned here. We have a number of choices,
everything from a close formation such as fingertip to a widely spaced formation like
spread. Most sim manuals include some info on formation types. Do you know which one
to fly in this situation? Do you know why? The rationale for this decision is based on real
world considerations. Do you know what they are? Here are some ideas to think about.
When the flight leader decides on a formation type for his mission, he has a number of
things to consider...two of the more important are formation maneuverability and
formation lookout coverage.
Formation maneuverability.
Here we are talking about two things...the procedures the leader uses to maneuver the
formation and the adaptability of the formation to the conditions that the flight is operating
in.
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To begin with, we tend to name formations with reference to where the wingman is in
relation to the leader. We’ll consider two possibilities...one, the wingman is line abreast
(side by side) and, two, the wingman is placed behind the leader’s wingline at some
angle. For the first, I’ll use the term "spread", and for the second, I’ll use the term
"wedge."
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OK so far. Now, do we have a viewing system that will allow us to position ourselves in
these formation types? Yes. Let’s start with spread. The side snap view is good for
spread formation for both the leader and wingman. Position the other flight member in the
middle of the monitor screen...don’t worry about where your wing is...in a WW2 sim, you
could put the other aircraft near your wingtip. But in a jet sim, your wing may or may not
be in view...in that case, the middle of the screen will do fine.
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What if you want to fly wedge instead? Again, no problem. The forward side view works
well for positioning yourself off the other aircraft. If the view includes a canopy bow, try
putting the wingman just aft of the bow. If the canopy bow is absent, just maneuver to
place the other aircraft again in the center of the view. In wedge, the lead can monitor the
wingman using the rear side view.
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Padlock may be used for both the leader and wingman spread and wedge positioning as
long as your sim allows you to padlock friendlies.
How do you determine distance? If you do not have range labels available, just estimate
it. Here are a couple of screenshots to give you the idea.
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You can stack high or low off the lead if you want, but I’m not convinced that this has the
same effect on complicating the bandit’s ability to see you both at the same time in the
sim as it does in real life. It will make using the snap views more difficult for not much
advantage gained.
Finally, fly your formation with the wingman on the side opposite where you think the
bandits will be. This will let him look through the leader into the direction of the threat.
This works particularly well if you beam the fight...in other words, stay on the edge of the
engagement area with the fight off to one side or the other while you look for the easy kill.
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Formation maneuvering is not a simple matter of "follow the leader." Instead, specific
procedures and techniques have been developed that spell out both verbal and non-
verbal communication procedures as well as recommended pitch, bank, and power
settings to use during the maneuvering. Specific maneuvering geometry is taught to
cover a variety of turning options. The end result is a far cry from what appears to be the
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leader going where he wants and the wingman tagging along. The next discussion
touches briefly on a procedure known as the "tactical turn."
The "tactical turn" technique has the wingman changing from one side of the leader to
the other as the leader turns. Rather than just following the leader, the wingman uses
cutoff and "S" turns to maintain the desired position when using this technique. In our
sims, you can do the same using the snap views to monitor lead’s position.
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If the leader turns into you, fly straight-ahead while watching the leader. Plan to cross his
flight path slightly above his altitude. This helps in providing you with some terrain
clearance when you begin your turn. Just as you cross his flight path, make an
aggressive turn into his direction. Switch your snap view to keep him in sight as you roll
out to parallel his flight path.
If the leader turns away from you, make an immediate turn to cross his flight path to end
up on his other side.
These specific procedures have a direct impact on the formation’s adaptability to the
operating environment. What does that mean? It simply means that some formations are
easier to fly in certain conditions than others. Level flight cruising at altitude is one thing,
but high speed, low-level ingress in hilly terrain is something else.
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Is there a rule of thumb? Yes. Spread formations are good for cruising conditions where
constant turning is not expected. Wedge formation is well suited for low level work where
frequent turns are more common. By permitting the wingman to look forward, wedge
allows the wingman the freedom to maneuver while giving him the chance to monitor his
altitude. In either case, the wingman uses tactical turn techniques to remain in position.
Let’s now talk for a bit about formation lookout coverage. Lookout doctrine involves both
the leader and the wingman. Specific formation types have specific lookout
responsibilities for each position. The next figure outlines the basic responsibilities of the
formation positions.
Up until the introduction of the all-aspect missile, the primary threat to the formation came
from the rear. As a result, most formations were designed to provide a six o'clock lookout
capability. That sounds pretty obvious, doesn’t it? If so, why would I use the word ‘most’
in the previous sentence? For the simple reason that some formations were designed to
provide maximum offensive potential, often to the detriment of defensive lookout...the
best example perhaps is the WW2 RAF ‘vic’ of three fighters. In the RAF ‘vic’, the intent
was to bring the wingmen into very close formation so that when the leader aimed his
own airplane at a target, he was, in effect, aiming three. That’s different!! Why would he
do that? The idea was to mass the concentrated fire of three fighters armed with eight
machine guns apiece. The thought was that no enemy bomber would survive that
amount of firepower. Unfortunately, it took so much effort on the wingman’s part to fly the
close formation that he had little to no opportunity to check six. The good news for the
leader was that the bomber target was in front of the formation...the bad news for the
wingman was that the escorting Me-109s were behind.
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Hard-learned lessons like this resulted in changes to formation doctrine that emphasized
the improved lookout advantages of a line abreast formation. Let’s pause for a moment to
see why this was the case.
There are two things that affect the wingman’s ability to provide effective lookout. The
most obvious is that he must have the chance to take his eyes off the leader so that he
can look around. This is tough to do in a close formation, so the first thing the tacticians
did was spread the formation out to give the wingman a little freedom to check six.
The second was the realization that formation geometry played an important role in
lookout effectiveness. Line abreast turned out to be much better than an angled back
formation when it came to formation lookout, at least as far as the wingmen were
concerned. Why? Because too many wingmen were getting shot down!! Wingmen were
doing a great job at clearing the leader’s six, but they were not doing such a great job at
clearing their own. If I were a wingman, I would have asked why the leader was not
clearing me. The answer was not that the leader was paying too much attention to what
was going on out front. Instead, the truth was that the leader could not easily see the
wingman’s rear area. Here’s why.
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The solution was to move the wingman up to line abreast. In that position, the leader
could see the wingman’s six as easily as the wingman could see the leader’s. Hand in
hand with this position change was the formalization of specific lookout
procedures...specifically, the areas of responsibility that each flight member was
responsible for. Here is the general idea.
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Finally, we come to the issue of how lookout coverage varies with the expected enemy
threat. In the case of a guns only environment, the lookout coverage was based on the
maximum range of machine gun or cannon fire. But, when missiles such as the
Sidewinder were introduced, that type of coverage was totally inadequate. It was one
thing to defend against a gun attack that had a max range of about 3000’, but in a missile
attack, max launch range had increased out to as much as 3nm (first generation IR
missiles).
Well, that’s easy enough to understand. But what does this have to do with a formation?
The answer is the heart of the lookout coverage issue. Here it is. In a spread formation,
the distance between the two aircraft determines the six o’clock lookback distance.
How so? Simple math and the assumption that the typical pilot has a max lookback angle
of about 60 degrees behind his wingline. Certainly, if the pilot were to really crank his
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head around, he might be able to increase that lookback angle, but in practice, the 60-
degree limit is realistic. Here is how math figures into this situation. We assume the two
aircraft are exactly line abreast. By knowing that distance, we can visualize a triangle with
three points...the wingman, the leader, and the point behind the leader where the
wingman’s 60-degree lookback angle crosses the leader’s extended six o’clock. This is
what it looks like
A rough rule of thumb is that your six o’clock lookback distance is about one and one half
times your distance apart in spread formation. In the real world, we like to have at least
6000’ lookback at low altitude...at medium altitudes (above 10,000’), the desired lookback
is at least a mile and a half or more. One negative factor in this concept is the size of
your fighter. You don’t want to spread out your formation so far that your wingman is too
hard to see! For that reason, spread is easier in F-15s than in Harriers!!
OK...so much for formation arrangements. You now know why spread formation is best
for mutual support, and you understand how spread distance affects lookout coverage.
Great! Let’s now take our spread formation and move on to the type of tactical
employment we are going to use.
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Basic Concepts – Formation Tactics
In the introduction, I mentioned two forms of tactical employment that are often
mentioned in forum posts. These two forms of employment are Double Attack and Loose
Deuce. These two concepts have been around for years now, having been formalized in
the post-Korean War era. I’m not too sure that everyone understands these concepts, so
let’s take a look at them. Maybe a little more academic background is in order!
We’ll start with the term "wingman." In the normal sense, a wingman is subordinate to the
leader. Usually the leader is the more experienced of the two, and their military
organization has given him the command authority for the flight. Whatever he says, goes.
But in Double Attack and Loose Deuce tactical doctrine, that practice is set aside for the
duration of the combat portion of the flight. As a rule, the flight member that has the best
opportunity to attack is the one to initiate the attack, regardless of whether he is the
designated wingman or leader.
When one of the flight members begins the attack, the other becomes, in effect, the
"wingman." At this point, let’s stop using the word "wingman", and start referring to the
flight members as the "engaged fighter" and the "supporting" fighter. The terms Engaged
Fighter and Supporting Fighter are defined in the Engaged Fighter/Supporting Fighter
Contract, a set of responsibilities for each role during an engagement.
The responsibilities of engaged (EF) and supporting fighter (SF) are the meat of this
subject...and the area that will become your bread and butter as you fly the 2v1 in your
sim.
The EF has one primary responsibility...kill the bandit...but with that come some
obligations. Energy management is a major one. The EF should never maneuver such
that he loses his energy advantage over the bandit...excessive turning to sweeten his
shot leaves him vulnerable in the event he has to pull out of the fight. On the other hand,
he should not be so aggressive in his attack that he blows through on a low Pk shot while
leaving the SF out of position to enter the fight. What does the EF do? He manages his
energy by using the vertical to gain turning room and control closure...this is a nice way
of saying that he uses maneuvers like yo-yos to keep his total energy level (kinetic and
potential) high while he maneuvers for a firing position.
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Does this present a challenge when we try to fly the 2v1? Not that I can see...just fly
good energy conservative BFM, and things should work out just fine. As we will see in
the next section, our sims offer views and a communication capability that are sufficient
to allow the EF to meet his objective.
What about the SF? What are his responsibilities and how does that fit in with 2v1 flying
in our sims? For our purposes, the SF needs to do two things. One, he needs to watch
out for other bandits becoming a threat. Second, he needs to be in position to support the
attack with one of his own. His exact positioning will depend on whether he is flying
Double Attack or Loose Deuce.
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Fine, but does the SF have the tools to accomplish these two objectives? No problem
with the first one...our views are excellent when it comes to scanning around for new
bandits. But the second objective...now that is where the work comes in. The SF must
find a way to maintain an offensive position on the bandit, remain aware of the EF’s
position, and communicate his intentions. Later in this article, I’ll suggest ways of doing
this.
OK! So much for the background info...let’s now move on to some Double Attack and
Loose Deuce specifics. For the purposes of this article, I’ll refer to these tactics in a 2v1
offensive context. This focus is intentionally narrow, and I fully realize that these two
concepts have a far greater application.
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These two tactics have their similarities and differences. One similarity is the formation
itself...spread. In both, the distance apart varies anywhere from 1000’ to >6000’ and is
determined by the anticipated threat. Another similarity is that they both use the EF/SF
Contract...but they follow a different philosophy with regard to the wingman’s freedom to
engage the bandit.
The primary difference between Double Attack and Loose Deuce is when the free fighter
can engage the bandit. In Double Attack, the free fighter can only engage the bandit with
the express permission of the engaged fighter...while in Loose Deuce, the free fighter is
expected to maneuver to attack the bandit as soon as he can achieve an entry into the
fight. This is a significant difference.
This allows us to think of Double Attack as a "shooter-cover" concept and Loose Deuce
as "shooter-shooter." Either one is workable in our sim flying...just decide which one you
want before hand!
Is this decision that big of a deal? You bet it is! This difference in the role of the SF has a
direct impact on how the EF flies his attack. In Double Attack, the EF is free to attack as
aggressively as he chooses...the only restriction is that he should not lose the offensive.
While the EF is doing this, the SF flies a cover position and maneuvers to be in a position
to attack if called upon.
Loose Deuce is different. The EF in Loose Deuce is really a "herder"...his job is to make
the bandit predictable so that the SF can plan and execute an entry into the fight. To be a
"herder", the Loose Deuce EF will avoid ‘going for the throat’ and possibly risking a
bandit role reversal. Instead, the EF will maneuver behind the bandit’s wingline to force it
to turn defensively. The EF will take a shot if he has the chance, but he will never risk an
overshoot or role reversal in doing so. This reminds me of a line from the old Patton
movie. In Loose Deuce, the EF is going to lead the bandit around by the nose while the
SF kicks him in the tail!!
Which one will it be? Is one easier to fly in our sims than the other? I don’t think so...our
viewing system should offer the SF about the same chance to plan and execute an attack
in either tactic. It is the role of the SF that determines the answer to those questions. I
think it is a toss up. In on-line sims such as Aces High where a supporting bandit can
show up unexpectedly, Double Attack may be more advisable due to the greater lookout
emphasis in the SF role. If your sim mission is more predictable...as in the case of a
‘canned’ mission that was developed using a mission builder within the sim...then Loose
Deuce may offer a greater potential for turn and burn fun flying.
Basic Concepts - BFM

The last two elements of our basic game plan, BFM and ACT, deal with how we actually
fly our aircraft. The BFM element describes how we as individuals maximize our
performance within the HnC maneuver. The ACT element describes how we, as a team,
communicate and coordinate our flight paths to attack the bandit.
Let’s take the BFM first. The focus in this article is on the vertical HnC fight. One fighter is
attacking as the other is providing mutual support. Two things are going to make or break
this coordinated attack…energy conservation and positioning.
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How does energy conservation fit into the picture? As the EF or the SF, there are several
ideas to keep in mind. To begin with, don’t get slow! Avoid getting slow by using max
power and watching your G rates…too much pulling on the pole can bleed your energy
down. Next, take full advantage of your ability to trade altitude for airspeed and vice
versa. As the SF, use yo-yos and cut-off to keep your energy level as high as possible.
Next…we want to be in the proper position…here the focus is again on the SF. Be
aggressive with lead pursuit. Stay in close to the fight. It’s far better to be too close, than
too far. If too close in, you may be able to delay your roll in by turning to a lag heading for
a moment or two…but if you let yourself get too far away from the fight, then there is
nothing that you can do but roll out and drive at the fight.
What does this look like from the SF cockpit? Let’s start from a wings level attitude. Now,
imagine lookdown angles extending down from you at 45 and 60 degrees. These angles
form a lookdown "window" that looks like this.
My suggestion is that you keep the bandit generally located within this "window." A
lookdown angle of more than 60 degrees is probably too close…and outside of 45
degrees is likely too far. Now that’s not a very big area. As a rule, I would suggest you
keep the bandit closer to the 60-degree area than the 45…again the idea of aggressively
crowding the fight. How do you recognize 45 degrees? It’s halfway to the horizon when
you are wings level. Don’t let the bandit get further away than that! And where is 60
degrees? Take the 45-degree point and cut it in half. In many sims, the edge of the
canopy rail is a reasonable approximation.
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The canopy rail is not an exact reference, but it is a visual point that you can easily see
from the cockpit… Another way of ‘seeing’ this window is to keep the bandit closer to
your canopy than the wingtip (in those sims where there is a wingtip!). If you do anything
using this technique, you tend to crowd the fight a bit. And as I am trying to say
repeatedly…crowding is not all bad! So…keep the bandit somewhere between half way
to the horizon and half way between that point and directly under you. Here are some
screenshots to help you visualize the point.
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Basic Concepts – ACT
OK. So much for the BFM…now, what about the ACT aspects of the 2v1? What is this all
about? Well, it’s about the "2" in the 2v1. It’s about the coordination required to make this
concept successful…it’s about the communication needed to make this happen.
Coordination…communication. One term deals with flight path control, and the other is
concerned with effective timing. Here’s how it works.
The first order of business is flight path coordination…then we’ll discuss some techniques
on how to communicate effectively to coordinate that flight path.
When we talk about flight path coordination, we begin by noting that this coordination
varies depending on whether we use a Double Attack or Loose Deuce tactic. In Double
Attack, the SF maneuvers to be in a position to initiate an attack when called upon to do
so...whereas in Loose Deuce, the SF maneuvers to initiate an attack at the first
opportunity. The obvious difference in these two results in different flight path options for
the SF.
The Double Attack SF coordinates with the EF by maneuvering with two objectives in
mind. He wants to maintain an energy advantage...this is usually in the form of an
altitude, rather than airspeed, advantage. Secondly, the Double Attack SF wants to be in
a position from which he can make a timely attack should the EF so order. By "timely", I
suggest that the SF should be in a position to immediately bring offensive pressure upon
the bandit. Here is one way to visualize this using the EF flight path as a reference. I’ll
refer to the SF position as the "perch."
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In the figure, the SF maneuvers to fly in a rough sector behind the EF wingline. This
sector is as much as line abreast when opposite the bandit turn direction and tends to
be limited to a wedge-like angle back when on the inside of the turn. The reason why
you have this sector of airspace to maneuver in is to allow you to maintain an
offensive position on the bandit. Use the 45-60 degree look down technique from the
previous paragraph to help judge your position relative to the bandit. To maintain this
position without changing airspeed, fly a series of ‘S’ turns above and behind the EF
flight path. Not only will this help you maintain the perch, but it will also allow you to
use a pan view to look around for other bandits
Let me say that again! Your objective is to maintain an ability to attack the bandit quickly
if called upon. Do that by maneuvering using two references...fly in the perch sector to
provide cover for the EF...and maneuver in the perch to maintain the desired 45-60
degree lookdown position on the bandit. Often, this results in the SF maneuvering ‘out of
sync’ with the EF. Here’s what I mean. If the EF is yo-yoing off to the outside of the
bandit turn, the SF will slide to the inside of the EF to maintain the perch lookdown
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position. Then, as the EF rolls back into the bandit, the SF will slide across the EF’s flight
path to the outside of the turn.
The perch will effectively place the SF in an advantageous attack position if called
upon. By being in a good perch position, the SF has met his flight path coordination
requirements.
The Loose Deuce SF has got a tougher job when it comes to flight path coordination.
He is looking for an entry to the fight, but, unlike the Double Attack SF that
maneuvers relative to the EF, the Loose Deuce SF maneuvers relative to the bandit.
The Loose Deuce SF cannot simply follow the EF as he attacks the bandit. Instead,
the Loose Deuce SF must maneuver looking for the separation needed to make his
own individual attack on the bandit. One of the more effective ways of accomplishing
this is to use counter-flow maneuvering
As already noted, the Loose Deuce SF should maneuver as quickly as possible to attack
the bandit. But...at the same time, he must honor the fact that the EF is doing the same
thing. The result is a time lag between the EF and SF attacks. During this ‘time lag’, the
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bandit will be maneuvering in response to the EF. The SF must anticipate the bandit’s
actions by maneuvering to the bandit’s weak point...and that point is the bandit’s belly.
In a counter-flow entry, the SF maneuvers opposite the bandit turn direction to attack
from outside the bandit’s turn, in other words, on the belly side. Here’s one way to do this
in our sims.
The SF takes his cue from the bandit’s response to the EF. When the EF rolls in on the
bandit, the SF maintains an altitude advantage. The SF uses the same 30-45 degree
lookdown cues that were mentioned before as a rough estimate of lateral spacing. He is
looking for the direction of the bandit turn.
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As soon as the SF sees the bandit go into a defensive turn, he turns hard into the bandit
while maintaining altitude. The SF continues the turn to pull the bandit across his nose
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and over to his 10:30/1:30 o’clock position (about 45 degrees one side or the other of his
nose).
Now, the SF rolls back into the bandit while maintaining altitude. He is looking for the
bandit’s nose to point in his direction as the bandit continues his defensive turn. This
"nose on" position is the cue for the SF to roll in on the bandit.
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In this "roll in" position, the Loose Deuce SF has met his flight path responsibilities. He is
not conflicting with the EF. He has maneuvered in a timely manner, and he is in a
favorable position to begin his own attack.
The second of our two basic ACT concepts is communication. The heart of the 2v1
coordination concept is the communication needed to allow the two attacking pilots to
interact effectively. In the real world, fighter pilots practice extensive communication
procedures used in A2A engagements. This discussion will not attempt that level of
proficiency. Instead, I’ll suggest a couple of simple techniques that should allow you and
your wingman to interact effectively within the limits of the typical flight sim.
You will find that the greatest challenge in communication in a 2v1 in a sim lies in the
problem of keeping track of the bandit and your wingman. Those sims that offer a
padlock for both target and wingman will be the easiest to practice this profile with. For
sims such as Aces High that only have snap or pan views, this challenge will be more
difficult. Regardless of view type, coordinated attack communication includes an initial
specific radio call from the attacking fighter followed by an acknowledging call from the
second pilot.
These calls are of two types...directive and descriptive. The EF is responsible for
declaring his intentions (descriptive) as well as issuing commands to the SF (directive).
As the SF, regardless of type of attack, you want to keep the EF informed of your position
and/or intention (descriptive), and, when necessary, order the EF to pull off the attack
(directive). In both the Double Attack and Loose Deuce attack, once the EF has made his
initial call, most of the remaining communication falls on the shoulders of the SF.
For the Double Attack SF, he doesn’t really get into the action until called upon by the
EF. His response then is a simple acknowledgement of the EF order to attack. Additional
commentary may include the direction that the SF is in from and the direction the EF
should pull off to.
Things are a bit more complicated for the Loose Deuce SF. His commentary is driven,
not by the directives of the EF, but by his own actions. The SF is going to say three
things to the EF...his initial intentions, his ‘in’ call, and, if necessary, a call to order the EF
to pull out of his attack.
Let’s wrap this article up with a couple of typical communication exchanges...one for the
Double Attack and the other for the Loose Deuce.
Communication - The Double Attack Profile

We begin with the flight detecting the target. The person sighting the target radios his
tally using this format" ‘Bandit type, position (left or right), clock position, elevation (high,
level, low), range.' I’ll assume the person sighting the bandit is also going to be the EF.
A typical call might be "Bandit, 109, left, 10 o’clock, slightly low, 2 miles, engaged."
The wingman replies with either "Tally" or "No Joy." If the call was No Joy, the first fighter
should provide additional descriptive info to talk his wingman’s eyes on to the bandit.
Once the other pilot calls the tally, he should include the term ’free’ to tell the EF that he
is accepting the SF role. Once he does this, the EF/SF Contract is established. The pilot
also includes the term "visual" to indicate that he still has sight of the EF.
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Tally, visual, free."
The SF should then maneuver to the side of the EF opposite of the bandit’s flight path by
taking the bandit’s flight path into account. In the example above, if the flight was meeting
the bandit head on, then the SF should maneuver to the right side of the EF. This allows
the SF to look at the bandit through the EF.
The EF should radio his intentions to allow the SF to start planning his own subsequent
maneuvering…"I’ll be in in ten’…meaning that he will begin his attack in 10 seconds.
Once the EF has declared his intent to attack, the SF should maneuver to place the
bandit in the 30 – 45 degree area described earlier. In this position, the SF is essentially
on the ‘perch.'
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The next radio call is the "in" call from the EF. As discussed earlier, the EF will make
every attempt to kill the bandit as quickly as possible. If the EF is successful, the attack is
over at that point. But what if the EF is unable to kill the bandit for some reason? The
answer is to call in the SF. This will require both directive and descriptive calls from both
flight members to keep themselves separated and ensure that the EF/SF roles are
changed safely. The EF should, if possible, make a call that he is about to discontinue his
attack. That call will alert the SF to be ready to accept a command to enter the fight.
"I’ll be off in 10."
Hearing this, the SF should clear the area one last time for other threats and then turn
towards the bandit. He also keeps a visual on the EF...he needs to be ready to attack or
separate, depending on the decision of the EF. We’ll assume the EF will want to keep the
flight engaged, so the EF adds a directive call and ends with a descriptive call that tells
the SF what the EF is doing.
Engage the bandit, I’m coming off right."
The SF then responds by acknowledging the directive call and adds his own descriptive
info to update the other pilot on his position.
"Roger, I’m engaged...I’m in at your 7 o’clock high."
The old EF now looks back to pick up the visual on the other pilot. Seeing him, he radios
that he sees him and still has a tally
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Visual...tally...I’m off right, free."
With those words, the EF/SF roles are changed. The new EF dives in to attack the bandit
while the new SF maneuvers back up to his own perch to await the outcome of the new
EF’s attack. Should the need arise to exchange roles again, the process would be
repeated just as before.
Communication - The Loose Deuce Profile

Let’s assume the engagement begins as before. But once the initial calls are completed,
the SF does not remain on the ‘perch.' Instead he will aggressively maneuver to an entry
on the bandit.
As the EF attacks, the bandit breaks to the right...into the SF. The SF decides that
maneuvering to the right will take too much time, so he elects to go left and set up a
counterflow. The SF flys straight-ahead for a few seconds to get some turning room and
then turns hard left to kick the fight across his tail. After turning about 90 degrees, he is
able to pick up the EF and the bandit and then plans a slicing left roll in on the bandit.
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As the SF continues his left turn, he varies his turn to set up a belly entry on the bandit.
As he nears his roll in point, he makes a descriptive call to alert the EF that a second
attack is imminent and includes info such as direction and time remaining.
"I’ll be in from the west in 5."
The EF should roger that back and continue to ‘herd’ the bandit by making the bandit
predictable for the SF.
The SF now turns hard to the belly of the bandit and closes for a kill. He radios that he is
attacking and adds a direction to allow the EF to pick up a visual.
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I’m in at your 12."
The EF then answers back, "Tally, visual." It is at this point that the Loose Deuce
situation gets a bit fluid. Since the objective is to kill the bandit, in combat the SF would
get the kill and the engagement would be over without the need to exchange roles. The
EF retains that role despite the fact that the SF is actually getting the kill.
That is not to say, however, that the Loose Deuce cannot evolve as did the previous
Double Attack example. How could this happen? One way would be for the EF to force a
role reversal by pulling out of the fight. For example,
"Tally, visual, I’m off to the south, free."
The attacking SF hears this and confirms the role change.
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"Roger, tally, visual, engaged."
Now the new EF assumes the role of "herder" and the new SF maneuvers for his new
entry. Once he is in position, the process begins anew.
Conclusion
This brings us to a close in our look at the BnZ and 2v1 tactics. While the situation above
is a little simplistic, it does give you an idea of what you can do given the capabilities of
our viewing systems and communication programs. If you are getting tired of the same
old thing, you might give this a shot.
Good luck.
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I had the help of several people in putting this last article together. Many thanks to Chuck
"Vadr" Grimes, Kommandeur, III/JG2 for his suggestions on comm procedures. Also to
John "Spoons" Sponauer and Dan "Cras"’ Crenshaw for their enthusiasm in boom and
zooming me in a 2v1 in the AH training arena
Air Combat Basics: The Scissors

Maneuver
by Andy Bush and Leon "Badboy" Smith
Counter-Offensive BFM – The Scissors
This article is about the maneuver known as the scissors. The format will be similar to our
previous discussions. We’ll begin with an academic dissection of the scissors maneuver
and then finish up with some recommendations on how to fly the maneuver in our sims.
But, before we get into the meat of the matter, we need to set one thing straight.
For the purpose of this article, the scissors is a defensive BFM maneuver. There is no
such thing as an offensive scissors. When flown as a defensive maneuver, the scissors is
a response to an attacker’s position…the scissors is a result of an attacker’s failure to
control overtake and/or angle off.
Why the emphasis? Simply because some folks seem to think that a scissors is a
maneuver that you can initiate against an opponent. It’s the old "what came first…the
chicken or the egg?" In this case…in our discussion…the answer is clear. The bandit’s
position and maneuvering potential comes first…the scissors is only a counter to that
bandit’s BFM error.
Our discussion will look at four questions. One, what is a scissors? Two, how does the
defender begin the scissors? Three, how does the defender stay in the scissors? And,
four, how does the defender get out of the scissors, if necessary?
Oh…and one more thing. Please be clear about one thing. When you commit yourself to
a scissors, you have just jumped into the phone booth for a knife fight. Be ready for that.
If you aren’t, then don’t scissors…it’s as simple as that.
Part One – Scissors Academics
In this section, we’ll lay out the background for the scissors maneuver. The scissors is far
from the simple maneuver that some may see it as. In some respects, the scissors is a
"last ditch" gambit. When entering a scissors, you are betting the ranch on your abilities
in a slow speed fight. If that’s your game plan, then let’s do it armed with as much intel as
we can absorb. Part One is that intel.
Section One - What Is A Scissors?
A scissors is a situation where two adversaries are attempting to gain an offensive

advantage by turning to get behind each other. Since both adversaries are attempting
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the same outcome, the resultant maneuver flow looks like a series of flight path
reversals. The result is typically a contest of who can fly the slowest
Types of Scissors. There are two general types of scissors…flat and rolling. The flat
scissors is an "in-plane" two-dimensional maneuver, while the rolling scissors is a
three-dimensional maneuver
Flat Scissors. The Flat Scissors is by far the most common form of this maneuver. The
word "flat" refers to the orientation of the maneuver flow with the horizon…the flat
scissors is flown more or less with the plane of motion (POM) being level with the
horizon. In this maneuver, the pilot attempts to fly at minimum speed to produce the
least forward movement and smallest turning radius relative to the other aircraft. The
Flat Scissors is an "in-plane" maneuver in that both aircraft are flying "side to side" in
the same general POM
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Rolling Scissors. The Rolling Scissors is probably the least commonly flown type of
scissors. Unlike the flat scissors, the Rolling Scissors is a three-dimensional maneuver
where each opponent flies "out-of-plane" with the other. The overall objective
remains the same…limit forward velocity to force the other aircraft out front. While
the flat scissors typically has its orientation defined by the horizon, the Rolling
Scissors may be oriented at any angle to the horizon. This type of scissors may be
visualized as two aircraft barrel rolling around each other’s flight path.
The Rolling Scissors has an additional element that is not as highly stressed in the flat
scissors, and that is the importance of energy management. Since the Rolling Scissors is
a series of climbing and diving turns, the importance of energy retention and
management becomes critical. The pilot who can best preserve and use his energy will
be the victor.
In this article, we are going to use the Flat Scissors as the focus of our discussion.
Unless specifically mentioned, all further techniques, tips, and academic basics are
based on flying the Flat Scissors!
The Scissors Is A Defensive Maneuver! Now that you have the general idea of what a
scissors looks like, let’s talk about how you would get into one in the first place.
The scissors is the result of a defender trying to take advantage of an attacker’s

overshoot. In other words…move – countermove. The overshoot is the move, and the
scissors is the countermove. Think of it as a "stimulus – response" kind of thing. We need
to get this idea down pat since everything that follows is based on the idea of recognizing
and then acting effectively on a scissors opportunity.
Section Two - The Starting Point For A Scissors
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The opportunity for a scissors begins with the attacker overshooting a defender’s flight
path. This typically results from the defender making a hard or break turn into the
attacker. The attacker is unable to stay within the defender’s turn radius and flies through
or "overshoots" that turn radius. The usual reason for the attacker’s inability to match the
defender’s turn radius (often referred to as "making the corner") is excessive speed
combined with too much angle off.
The Overshoot Has Three Components. These will be important for you to recognize
later when we talk about how to fly the scissors in our sims.
These components are the attacker’s angle off, the rate that the attacker crosses your
six, and his distance back when he overshoots your flight path. Remember these well
and remember them in this order…angle off, rate, and distance back.
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Angle Off. Angle off is the difference in headings between the defender and the attacker
at the overshoot. When the defender looks back at the attacker, he compares the
attacker’s fuselage alignment with his own. For this discussion, we’ll call any angle off
less than 45 degrees "small", and any angle off greater than 45 degrees "large".
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Rate. Here we are talking about the speed of the attacker as he crosses the defender’s
six o’clock. It is not practical to refer to this in knots or mph…or in degrees/second. This
rate of movement is a visual perception issue and is gained through experience. In this
article, we’ll refer only to "fast" or "slow" rates.
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Distance Back. When the attacker crosses the defender’s extended six, the separation
between the two aircraft is the "distance back". We won’t measure this in
feet…instead, we’ll think in terms of the defender’s turn radius. "Close in" will be a
distance less than that radius, and "far back" will be anything greater than that radius.
The Attacker’s Lift Vector – How He Signals His Intentions. At this point, we have an
attacker who seems to be overshooting our six. We want to know if we can or should
reverse…or continue our defensive turn. We mentioned the three components of the
overshoot, but let’s stop for a moment and remind ourselves that the attacker may not
allow himself to overshoot. Is an overshoot good BFM? No…probably not. Typically, an
overshoot would be a BFM error for the attacker. If he was smart…and saw the
overshoot coming…he would be wise to do something to prevent it from happening…or
at least minimize it. That’s what you would do…right??!!
So…what would you do? Yo-yo off, you say! Correct. A High Yo-Yo is a good maneuver
to use in this situation. An attacker doesn’t have to continue blowing through your flight
path. He may roll out and yo-yo off to preserve his offensive position.
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The key thing for us to focus on now is those words "roll out". As the attacker comes in,
he’s trying to match your turn. That means his bank angle is about the same as
yours…he has his lift vector more or less aligned with your POM.
But if he decides to yo-yo off, he must roll away from your bank angle to orient his lift
vector out of your POM. If he does this, it will be very obvious to you. If his lift vector is
pointed away from your POM, he is signaling his intention to yo-yo.
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This is a crucial point for the defender. What should he do now? The attacker is
maneuvering out of plane. Is it possible to reverse now? Can the defender scissors with a
bandit that is repositioning in the vertical?
The answer is a qualified yes...a definite maybe! The defender better have a bunch of
energy! It is possible for the defender to perform a climbing reversal. The result is often a
rolling scissors. What I suggest, however, is that we keep it simple at this point. In most
cases, the defender may not have that level of energy. It probably will not be possible or
practical for him to reverse in this situation. So, here is a rule of thumb for most
situations.
Consider a reversal only if the attacker’s lift vector remains aligned with your POM in the
overshoot. If the attacker rotates his lift vector out of your POM, he is signaling a yo-yo.
Your better response to this is one of two things. Either continue your defensive turn…or
immediately unload and extend for separation. The extension is the traditional BFM
counter to a yo-yo. Unload and extend to get some of your energy back, increase your
separation, and set up your next defensive move.
So much for the yo-yo…let’s get back to handling the overshoot. Your next move is the
reversal. There are a number of considerations to keep in mind
The Reversal. OK!! The attacker is sliding across our six. We want to take the fight to him
by reversing into a scissors. Sounds simple…but in fact, the reversal is a bit more
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involved than just reversing our turn. We need to have a firm understanding of what we
want to achieve and how to do it. First the "what" and then the "how".
Your Objective In The Reversal. What are we trying to do when we reverse? Some may
say that we are trying for a role reversal…make him the defender and us the attacker!
First, we have to explain the significance of your 3/9 line.
The Concept Of The 3/9 Line Advantage. Your 3/9 line defines your offensive/defensive
status. If you have a bandit ahead of your 3/9 line (your "wingline"), you tend to be
offensive…and if you have a bandit behind your wingline, you tend to be defensive. This
becomes the crux of the issue when you reverse. How will your reversal end up? With
you ahead of or behind the attacker’s wingline?
The point that we are trying to show is that your turning performance in the reversal
should result in your ending up behind the attacker’s wingline (offensive)…or at least on it
(neutral). If your reversal only results in you flying out in front of the attacker, then why
bother?
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Wing Loading’s Effect On The Reversal. In general, a fighter with a light wing loading as
compared to one with a heavier loading will have a turn advantage. As a rule, if you are
flying a heavier wing loaded fighter, you may not want to reverse against an attacker
flying a lighter wing loaded aircraft. Be aware of your relative performance
advantages/disadvantages and fly accordingly!
Types Of Reversals. There are two types of reversal techniques. One is an unloaded,
fast rate of roll reversal. The other is a loaded up (high g) relatively slow rolling
reversal. In the fast reversal, you use primarily aileron to roll with…in the high g
reversal, you use a combination of aileron and rudder to roll with. For the high g
reversal, the use of rudder is important since the rudder (particularly in swept wing
aircraft) is often the more powerful roll control at high g (high AOA).
When would you use one versus the other? The fast, unloaded roll technique is used
when an attacker is crossing your six with a fast rate and/or high angle off. In this
situation, the attacker’s high speed is going to create the turning room for your reversal.
The high g loaded roll is used when the attacker is overshooting at a slow rate and/or low
angle off. Here, your loaded reversal is going to produce a minimum turn radius that will
create the turning room that you need.
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Lift Vector Control In The Reversal. Regardless of the type of reversal, when you finish
the roll back into the attacker, you want to aim your plane properly. Use the concept of
pulling to the "High Six" of the attacker. Do not roll out in lead pursuit or even pure
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pursuit. Pull to the attacker’s six initially fly to "push’ the attacker more in front of your
wingline. If you can orient your lift vector "above" the attacker’s extended six (the High
Six position), all the better, as you will tend to further increase your overall advantage.
Throttle Control In The Reversal. Your objective in the reversal is a small turn radius.
Speed is the enemy of a small turn radius. Your smallest turn radius will come when you
turn at speeds at or below your corner velocity. Therefore, if you are above your corner
velocity, then slow down as you reverse. Reduce your throttle…idle and speedbrake, if
needed. As you turn, monitor your speed carefully. You do not want to get too slow. Be
ready to add power as needed to hold your airspeed at or below corner.
Lead Turning In The Reversal. A lead (or "early") turn in the entry to a scissors is when
the defender begins his reversal before the attacker crosses the defender’s flight path. A
lead turn can be very significant to how you end up in the 3/9 line game. However, lead
turns are not always advisable. In general, look for two things in the attacker when
considering a lead turn…large crossing angles combined with high crossing rates. If
there is any doubt in your mind, don’t lead turn! Doing so may well solve the attacker’s
turn radius problem!
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OK! At this point, we have covered a number of considerations that deal with how and
when to reverse. Let’s move on now to how to maneuver once the scissors is
established.
Section Three - Maneuvering In The Scissors
Let’s start with a few assumptions…we’ll assume the attacker has decided to scissors
with you. Second, remember that we assume that we are in a "flat scissors". Finally, I’m
going to stop using the term "attacker’ and instead use the term "bandit". If our reversal
has been successful, we have at least changed a defensive situation to a neutral
one…so let’s look at the other guy as now the "bandit"!
OK! What Do I Do Next?! Here we are…we’ve reversed on the bandit and we’ve pulled
towards his six. Of course, he’s doing the same to us…so what do we do next to win this
fight?
We have two primary objectives. We want to remain behind the bandit’s wingline, and we
want to align our fuselage with his so that we can get him in our gunsight! The first
objective is really a matter of our ability to control our forward velocity relative to the
bandit. The second objective is dependent on our ability to "out-turn" our opponent. Let’s
examine each separately.
Controlling Forward Velocity. Our forward velocity is more than just the airspeed that we
see on our airspeed indicator. In the scissors, we use the position of the bandit as the
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measure of our control of speed. Success in a scissors depends on your ability to
maintain effective control over pitch at slow speeds.
Slow Speed Contest. In a scissors, we want to "flush" the bandit out in front of our nose.
In a sense, we do this by flying "slower" than the bandit. Our actual airspeed is really not
that important. What is important is our forward velocity with respect to the bandit…as
long as we can move him ahead of our own position, then actual indicated speed is
irrelevant.
We control this forward velocity a number of ways. First, we recognize the role that trim
plays in assisting our control over pitch. The second is the most obvious…we use the
throttle to change our power setting. Next, we can add or subtract drag…usually by
extending the speed brake or flaps. Lastly, we control forward velocity by orienting our lift
vector relative to the bandit.
Trim. Back stick pressure control is very important. Anytime we relax g, we allow our
forward velocity component to increase. Avoid the mistake of unconsciously relaxing
back pressure on the stick. If there ever was a time to use trim when maneuvering, it is
now. Trim your nose "up" and keep your lift vector oriented away from the bandit’s flight
path!
Throttle Control. Throttle control in the reversal is important. If you are doing an unloaded
roll in the reversal, then consider using a reduced power setting. If you are doing a
loaded roll, then you may need to keep the throttle up…as much as full power, depending
on your entry speed. Once you complete the reversal roll and have oriented your lift
vector behind the bandit, then use power to hold your speed constant. If your nose wants
to "drop", use power to help hold it up since your thrust vector will be a component of
your total lift vector
Flaps. Flaps lower your stall speed and increase your available g when below corner
velocity. Consider using flaps in a scissors to allow you to fly at a slower airspeed as
well as allow you to have an increased control over your stall margins.
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Lift Vector Control. The direction of our lift vector determines our actual forward velocity
component as the next figure shows. If possible, try to orient your lift vector behind the
bandit to minimize your forward velocity.
Turn Performance In A Scissors. Turning allows us to orient our lift vector. We can
improve on our turn performance by keeping these concepts in mind:
Roll Rate. As a rule, the aircraft with the faster rate of roll has a big advantage in a
scissors. Typically, you can roll the quickest when you are not pulling g, so when
possible, unload and then roll. This is not always possible, so be sure to use rudder to
assist in rolling, particularly when rolling and pulling g.
Lead Turns. Just as important is the point at which you begin a reversal in a scissors. A
lead turn is when you initiate the turn before you cross the bandit’s flight path. Your
objective in the lead turn is to reduce your angle off. Eventually, you want to align your
fuselage with the bandit. By using a lead turn as you minimize forward velocity, you will
be able to push the bandit out in front
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Use Of Rudder. When you are in a bank, your stall speed increases if you try to maintain
level flight. You will have to increase your g to maintain level flight…and you may not
have that extra g available because you are already flying close to the stall. In times like
this, consider using the rudder to turn with as you use opposite aileron to hold a wings
level attitude. This will take extra power due to the increased drag but it a useful
technique, particularly in swept wing aircraft.
Section Four – Getting Out Of The Scissors
Eventually there may come a time when you decide things are not really going your way.
You need to find a way out the scissors, but here you are, all tied up neat and close to
the bandit. Is there a way out?
Yes…sometimes.
The approved solution is to get "in synch" with the bandit. Do this by lead turning him to
align your fuselage as much as you can. Your objective is two-fold. One, you want to fly
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under the bandit to make him lose sight. Two, you want to exit to his blind side. Here’s
how it works:
As you and the bandit approach for another crossing, lead turn him to minimize angle
off. At the same time, relax a little g to descend slightly below his plane of motion.
You want to begin your separation as soon as you cross under the bandit. Your
separation will be a "Split S" type of maneuver.
Begin the Split S by rolling inverted relative to the bandit’s POM and simultaneously add
power, use flaps, and g to achieve your max pitch rate until you have your nose pointed
down. Once your dive angle is established, retract your flaps, maintain full power, and
extend nose low. Remember, you may have been trimmed for a slow speed, so in the
dive, re-trim to keep your nose from rising as speed increases. You do not want your
nose to come up. Maintain a constant dive angle as you extend away.
As you extend, make a quick check turn into the bandit to maintain a tally. Be ready to
defend again with a defensive turn. This separation maneuver may only get you out of
the scissors…it may not guarantee a complete separation from the bandit.
Part Two – Flying The Scissors In A Simulation
Section One – Your View Choice
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As with any BFM maneuver, you can only fly what you can see. The scissors is no
different. Your ability to implement the concepts discussed in Part One is directly affected
by your choice of what view you use and your proficiency with it.
You have three choices of views…snap (fixed) views, the padlock, and external views.
We’ll assume you are familiar with these view types, how they are selected, how they are
used, and their respective advantages and disadvantages. Since most players do not use
the external view, we won’t discuss it here.
You have seen the importance of lift vector control in Part One. Your ability to orient your
lift vector is the key to success or failure in the scissors. This skill is two-fold. You must
be able to find and point at the bandit’s "high six", and you must be able to recognize the
initiation point for a lead turn.
We have already discussed the significance of the 3/9 line in maneuvering terms. This
concept is equally important when it comes to using your chosen view. We can look at
view use by considering two viewing problems…the "behind our 3/9 line" view and the
"ahead of our 3/9 line" view.
Each sim has its own design for snap views. The typical design will have one view that
covers the rear quarter area (approximately the 6 o’clock to 8 o’clock area), another view
that covers the beam area (8:00 to 10:00 area), and a third that covers the forward
quarter (10:00 to 12:00 area). For ease of discussion, all view references will be to our
left side (6:00 to 12:00).
Likewise, each sim has its own padlock format. While this view may differ slightly from
sim to sim, in general, the basic concept is the same. When using the padlock, you will
again be presented with a two-fold viewing problem…with the 3/9 line being the dividing
line between the two types.
"Behind The 3/9 Line" Viewing Problem. The first viewing situation in a scissors results
from the typical defensive posture…an attack from behind our wingline. This external
view shows the viewing area.
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The bandit’s position makes situational awareness (SA) of our nose position difficult. This
difficulty complicates our ability to maintain a good defensive turn without having to cycle
our view back to a forward view to check our bank angle and pitch attitude. A typical view
looks like this…from IL-2. The problem is that when in a bank, the look back view is
mostly down and does not present a good picture of your six o’clock…the area that the
overshooting bandit will be in.
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This viewing angle is also present when we initially reverse with the bandit. We have to
use a rearward looking view to keep the tally as the bandit moves from our rear quarter
towards our 3 or 9 o’clock (beam) position.
Aces High has a similar view but also offers an elevated aft looking view that is an
improvement in that it shows more of the sky area. Even better is the pure six view in
Aces High…unfortunately, this view is missing in most sims. This view will give the best
look at an overshooting bandit.
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Some sims have a limited selection of rear looking views. In these cases, you may find
that the rear looking view is inadequate when it comes to watching the area that an
overshooting bandit will be in. The new sim, Strike Fighters, has a limited set of snap
views. As you can see in this next screenshot, the Strike Fighter rear view does not
adequately cover the area of the overshoot.
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"Ahead Of The 3/9 Line" Viewing Problem. This viewing angle results from the initial
reversal and our turn back towards the bandit. As the bandit moves from our beam
towards our nose, we change our view from the side (beam) view to the front quarter
view (10:00 to 11:00) and finally to the front view. The frontal merge situation is shown in
this external view.
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For viewing the merge as it unfolds in the scissors, most pilots will use the sim "up"
views. The "up" views are focused along the lift vector. Both IL-2 and Aces High offer
several "up" views. The "front up" view centers on the line of sight that is about 45
degrees above the aircraft nose and is excellent for positioning for the merge. It looks like
this.
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Strike Fighters comes up short again because of its limited selection of snap views.
The sim does not have a "front up" view…it only has an "up" view that is focused
straight up along the lift vector. As such, it has limited usability in a merging
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situation. The left/right up view is not effective in flying the merge as the view is
centered too low as the next figure shows
This discussion has centered on the snap view. If you are using the padlock, then
some of these limitations will not exist.
Section Two – View Objectives Based On 3/9 Line Position
Now we move on to what we are trying to do when using these views. The basic
maneuver in a scissors is the reversal, and it comes two forms. I call these the "initial"
reversal objective and the "follow-on" reversal objective. In the initial reversal, what are
we trying to do first? Gain control of the bandit’s 3/9 line. Once we are "in" the scissors,
what are we trying to do? Win the minimum forward velocity contest. Now, I realize these
two distinctions can get pretty narrow, but, as far as view use goes, let’s think of view
objectives in this manner.
The Initial Reversal - Control the 3/9 Line. "Controlling the 3/9 line" means reversing so
that we end up behind the bandit’s wingline. To do this, we have to win the turn radius
contest as both we and the bandit turn hard into each other. Your decision is what kind of
reversal to make…an unloaded or loaded reversal. To answer this question, we first
consider the objective. Then we look at how we get there.
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Where We Want To End Up. This is the objective. Getting our flight path behind the
bandit’s wingline. To do this, we must know what that looks like. In simple language, it
looks like lag pursuit. It means your gunsight pipper is pointed behind the bandit. When
your reversal ends, this is what you want to see:
How Do We Get There? We start with the bandit’s overshoot…his angle and rate will
determine how we reverse. You must know where you expect the bandit to end up…in
this case, outside your original turn and approximately level with your turning plane. It is
of supreme importance that we keep in mind where we want to end up…pointing in lag.
Here’s an external view of the situation:
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For unloaded reversals, begin with a quick view change to the forward view. This allows
you to use the view as a basis for rolling your lift vector to the anticipated position of the
bandit. Unload your g, then roll hard to the right, using the horizon line and expected
bandit position to orient your initial roll out point.
For a loaded reversal, you will do the same mental projection of the roll out point. But
now, since your roll is going to be a loaded, high AOA roll, your roll axis is not going to be
straight ahead…so there is no need to cycle through the forward view. Instead, you
bypass the forward view and switch immediately to the opposite side beam/rear side view
as you blend in your backstick and rudder to roll your plane around to the roll out point. In
this roll out, try to roll out with your lift vector above the bandit’s flight path. This will
accentuate your control of your forward velocity vector.
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These last two examples assumed a snap view use…if you are using the padlock, the
end result is the same…you just don’t have to cycle the views…the padlock does that for
you!
How About A Lead Turn? Could you improve your initial reversal by using a lead turn as
the bandit approaches your extended six? Possibly…it all depends on crossing angle and
speed. My advice is to be really, really, really careful about attempting a lead turn on the
initial reversal. If you misjudge this, you will be committing hara-kiri! You’ll fly right into his
guns! If in any doubt, wait until the bandit actually overshoots and then perform your
reversal.
Follow-On Reversals – Minimize Forward Velocity.Once you are established in the

scissors, your reversals will occur with the bandit tending to be in your front
quarter…ahead of your 3/9 line. You and the bandit will be "scissoring" with each other.
You will both have the same objective…you want to "flush" the bandit out front.
This is where the scissors becomes a "who can fly the slowest?" contest. Our point now
is to show that "slowest" in this context is not only a measure of airspeed. It is also a
measure of flight path velocity. Your airspeed is what you read on your airspeed
indicator…your flight path velocity is your forward vector relative to the bandit’s flight
path.
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Where We Want To End Up. We want to end up with our gun pointed at the bandit! In-
plane, in range, and fuselages aligned. The problem is that we and the bandit are
weaving back and forth…not exactly a picture of fuselage alignment. Being in-plane and
in range are not significant problems to solve…but how do we deal with this fuselage
alignment thing?
We do it by timing our reversals so that we reduce our angle off as we keep ourselves
behind the bandit’s wingline. Sounds good…but how is this done?
How Do We Get There? The problem is two-fold. One, staying behind the bandit’s
wingline. This is where the scissors becomes a "slow speed contest". Two, we have to
find a way to solve the angle off problem.
Winning the wingline contest is going to require you to do two things. Get your lift vector
behind the bandit’s six and fly at minimum maneuvering speed. Let’s put ourselves into
our cockpit and visualize the situation. The bandit is in our front quarter…we are pulling
towards each other. We want to fly to his six. Here is how. Slow to minimum
maneuvering speed. Lower flaps if appropriate. Then roll to point your lift vector at the
bandit’s high six…behind and "above" his extended six. Then pull your nose to this point.
How About a Lead Turn? Now you have half of the problem solved. Next, you want to
minimize angle off. Do this by looking for a lead turn opportunity prior to passing the
bandit’s 3/9 line.
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How do you know when to begin the lead turn? As a rule, the point to begin the lead turn
is when you are in the "lead point window". This is an area that is defined as the space in
the bandit’s front quarter from 45 degrees off his nose to 60 degrees off his nose. It looks
like this:
When do you use the 45 degree lead point versus the 60-degree point? Treat this as
function of lateral separation from the bandit. If you are going to pass close to the bandit,
then wait until you reach the 60-degree point. If you distance is wider, then consider
turning sooner, at the 45-degree point. This is really a turn radius issue…that’s why the
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use of the lateral spacing technique. Here are two more views of the lead turn window,
one an external view over your nose, and the other an internal forward quarter view.
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Section Three – Specific Techniques
In this section, we’ll talk about flight control inputs and weapons employment. By now,
you should have a good idea of how to use your views…now let’s discuss the mechanics
of the scissors. We’ll continue to use the Flat Scissors as our focus.
Throttle Technique. Here’s a general rule to follow: when pulling g, use power. When not
pulling g, throttle back. Why this generalization?
Because of the "slow speed contest" nature of the scissors. You want to minimize
anything that tends to increase your forward velocity relative to the bandit. When turning,
you want just enough speed to fly a small radius turn…and no more. When unloading,
you do not want to accelerate.
Remember the concept of lift vector to bandit flight path. In the scissors, we want our lift
vector to point away from the bandit’s flight path. This will minimize our velocity relative to
the bandit. As long as you keep your lift vector oriented to the bandit’s high six, you may
add power without unduly increasing your forward vector.
Practice flying your aircraft at slow speeds. Develop a feel for the sim’s modeling of buffet
and other stall warnings. Armed with this knowledge, let’s run through a typical scissors.
You are in a hard break. Your throttle is at full power. The bandit overshoots. You decide
to reverse into a scissors. What you do with the throttle depends on two things...your
speed at the beginning of your reversal, and the type of reversal you are going to make.
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Entry Speed. At what speed do you get your maximum turn rate? Corner velocity! At
what speed do you get your minimum turn radius? Mmm…depends on aircraft type! More
often than not, your minimum turn radius speed will be a little slower than corner velocity.
Let’s simplify things and just go with corner velocity! It’ll be "close enough". Find out what
your corner velocity is for your aircraft. For WW2 fighters, it will vary between about
180mph to nearly 300mph, depending on aircraft type, weight, and altitude. For jets, use
about 300KIAS to 400KIAS.
Entry Speed Versus Reversal Type. As the bandit overshoots, decide what kind of
reversal you are going to fly…unloaded or loaded (high g). For an unloaded reversal, if
your speed is above corner, immediately throttle back as you unload and roll. Then, as
you point your lift vector behind the bandit and begin pulling towards him, check your
speed again. Add power to stabilize it at corner. If your speed was below corner to begin
with, consider unloading and rolling with the throttle left at full power. This will accelerate
you towards corner speed. Then, vary the throttle to hold that speed as you pull towards
the bandit.
For a loaded reversal, you will most likely need all the power you can get. Unless you are
well above corner velocity, consider leaving the throttle at full power as you initiate the
loaded roll. Because of the high energy bleed of this maneuver, you will need full power
by the time you are half way through it. Roll towards the bandit and keep both your g and
throttle on as you point behind him. Once you have your nose where you want it, you
may reduce the throttle to keep from accelerating.
In subsequent reversals, use the technique of throttling back when unloaded and
throttling up when adding g. Think of the throttle and stick as moving opposite to each
other! Stick back…throttle forward…and vice versa!
Flap Technique. Here is where the real world and our sim world sometimes go their
separate ways! Not all sims model flap effect. If your sim does not change its flight model
when you lower flaps, then there is not much point in using them!
Flaps are used to lower stall speed. If flaps are modeled correctly, then you can expect to
see a slight decrease in turn radius along with this lowering of stall speed. You will also
have to consider the maximum flap employment speeds of your sim. Do not lower flaps
above corner velocity…you gain nothing but drag in doing so. If below corner, you may
lower the first "notch" of flaps as the max flap lowering speed is typically above corner. In
the next diagram, we begin at Point 1…a 3 g turn with no flaps. If we extend flaps, the
stall line (the green curve) moves left showing how flaps decrease stall speed. Points 2
and 3 show the performance gain if airspeed is held constant (point 2) or g is held
constant (point 3). This diagram is strictly an academic example and may not represent
actual real world or sim flight performance.
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If your sim models flap effect on stall speed, then consider putting flaps out as you enter
the first reversal, speed permitting. Then, as the scissors develops, you may lower
additional flaps to control your stall speed. As a rule, do not use full (landing)
flaps…typically full flaps do not significantly lower stall speed and only add a bunch of
drag. You may not have enough power to maneuver with if you use full flaps.
Gun Employment. Let’s not forget why we are in the scissors! We want to shoot the
bandit, not put on an airshow for him! That raises the question of snapshooting in the
reversal. If you get a chance at a snapshot while scissoring, should you pass it up to
continue to maneuver for a lower angle off shot?
First of all, when would you get a chance at this? As you and the bandit approach each
other in the front quarter. Pardon my lousy artwork, but the picture is attempting to show
the forward view of a gunsight!
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You will find yourself in one of three positions. You will either be inside the bandit’s
turn…outside his turn…or matching his turn.
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Only one of these is good. The one where you are on the inside. Only here will the bandit
fly through your gun line. If you are on the outside, it’s you that is likely going to get fired
at. In the case of matching turns, neither you or the bandit will get a shot, because if you
try for one, you’ll probably end up mid-airing the other guy!
So, let’s look at the good case. You are turning inside the bandit. Should you take a
shot? The answer is a conditional yes. If you are flying in or close to the bandit’s plane of
motion, then taking a snapshot is advisable. If you are not close to the bandit’s plane of
motion, you probably won’t have the time to make the needed correction to get in-plane,
so my advice is to concentrate on making a good lead turn and forego the snapshot.
One last word about what to do if you are on the outside of this situation. Now the
bandit has a snapshot opportunity on you if you let him. DO NOT fly in-plane with
the bandit when he has the inside position. You will get shot! If you come out of your
reversal and see the bandit to the inside, make an immediate bank change as you pull
towards him to move out of his plane of motion
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Section Four – The Rolling Scissors
Up until now, we have focused this article on the Flat Scissors. But there is another type
of scissors that can be flown…the Rolling Scissors. In terms of complexity, the Rolling
Scissors is considerably more difficult to fly in a simulation. Why? Because of the BFM
skills involved and the view management problems posed by the maneuver. This section
will briefly touch upon this type of scissors with the emphasis being placed on BFM and
view management.
The Vertical Aspect Of The Rolling Scissors. Earlier, we mentioned that the Flat Scissors
was typically flown in the horizontal plane. The Rolling Scissors may be flown in any
plane…often times, the vertical. Because of this, you may see the maneuver referred to
as the "Vertical Rolling Scissors".
We also noted that the adversaries tended to fly the Flat Scissors in the same plane of
maneuver. By flying "in-plane", we mean that the two adversaries tend to keep their lift
vectors oriented in the same general direction to produce two flight paths that tend to
"overlap". The Rolling Scissors differs in this respect. While both adversaries tend to
follow somewhat of the same vertical path, they deliberately maneuver "out-of-plane" to
minimize their forward velocity and accentuate their relative energy capabilities. The
primary factor in winning the Rolling Scissors fight is the optimization of our energy state
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relative to the bandit’s position. What makes the Rolling Scissors different is the
increased importance of energy and the different use of the sim’s views.
Energy Use In The Rolling Scissors. Here’s a side view of a Rolling Scissors. The plane
of maneuver is "vertical" to the horizon for ease of discussion.
The maneuver typically begins with the bandit overshooting the defender while
attempting an attack from above. The defender responds to the overshoot by pulling
"up" and then reversing to put his lift vector on or behind the bandit. The bandit elects
to join the scissors by pulling back "up" after his overshoot…now the battle is joined.
The Effect Of Gravity. In a Flat Scissors, the effect of gravity is relatively constant since
the plane of maneuver is "horizontal". In a Rolling Scissors, since the adversaries are
either going "up" against gravity or "down" with it, gravity plays a more significant role in
how the planes accelerate (or bleed energy) as well as affecting turn performance (how
the one g of gravity adds to or subtracts from turn rate and radius). Gravity will add to
your turn performance (smaller turn radius) when coming over the top…and will tend to
widen your radius and lower your turn rate when pulling up. When climbing or
descending, you want to unload to no more than one g to minimize drag and allow you to
maintain or gain energy.
While the Flat Scissors is basically a slow speed contest, this is not necessarily the case
in a Rolling Scissors. While the overall objective is to minimize forward velocity, velocity
in the climb and descent is used to control turn performance and climb potential. Victory
in the Rolling Scissors goes to the adversary who can best manage his energy…in this
situation, getting "slow" may not be a good idea!
How does "energy" play a role in winning the Rolling Scissors? Primarily in providing the
"oomph" that allows one adversary to fly a longer climbing leg than the other. A higher
energy state allows the pilot to orient his flight path more into the vertical, and it allows
him to remain in the climb longer. The adversary that cannot zoom as well is forced to roll
back towards the ground…in doing so, he is pushed forward.
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Perhaps the best way of explaining this maneuver is to go step by step through a typical
Rolling Scissors…and point out the various considerations as we go along.
A Typical Rolling Scissors. A Rolling Scissors is usually entered from two

situations…one, as a response to an overhead attack, or, two, from a flat scissors
situation where an altitude separation exists between the attacker and defender. We’ll
use the first as our example. Some of you might recognize this example…it’s from
Shaw’s excellent book, Fighter Combat. I’ll add some minor notation to amplify the points
of emphasis. Disregard the exact position of the aircraft in the following diagrams. I have
placed the red numbers on the aircraft ribbons at the place where the aircraft should be
as described by the text.
The Overhead Attack. You pick up the bandit in your high six as he dives down for a gun
attack. You begin a hard right turn into the bandit to force his nose into lag. You add
aileron as necessary to roll slightly away from the bandit’s flight path…this takes you out
of his gun line. This is Point 1.
Your hard turn produces an overshoot. As the bandit crosses your six, you elect to enter
the scissors by rolling back left to begin a climb. You continue to pull up as you pirouette
in a left roll to watch the bandit as he overshoots to your left side. Once you have your
climb angle established, you unload to maximize your zoom potential and continue rolling
as needed to keep the bandit in sight out of the top of your canopy. As you do this, you
see the bandit has begun a climb as well and is pulling back towards you. At this time
you are "canopy to canopy" with the bandit…you both have your lift vectors on each
other (Point 2).
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Now, you continue to analyze the bandit’s flight path and roll as necessary to point
your lift vector behind the bandit. You then add back pressure to begin pulling your
nose smoothly to his six. The bandit is also pulling into you…this results in your
flight paths tending to come nose-on to each other (Point 3
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At this point, you and the bandit are nearing the top of your climbs with your flight paths
converging. Now is when you want to pull down aggressively. Do so and you will "make
angles" with a lead turn. Use full power, flaps as needed, and max available g to produce
the maximum turn rate in your pull down. Roll as needed to keep your lift vector pointed
behind the bandit. Point 4 is the pull down.
Once you have your nose down, unload the g, go full power, retract the flaps if
appropriate, and accelerate. Now watch the bandit as you check your speed. In our
example, the bandit is going to make a lead turn in the vertical as we dive down on him
(Point 5). He will signal this by beginning his pull down before we pass his 3/9 line. Does
this mean he’s going to use this lead turn to gain an advantage?
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Maybe…but it will only be illusory, because by cutting short his climb into the
vertical, he’s going to lose a little overall energy potential. We continue our descent
and throttle back to keep our speed around corner. As the bandit comes "over the top",
we wait for him to get his nose "buried"…well established in a nose down
attitude…and then we set the hook! Boom! Back up into the vertical we go!
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As you begin your second pull up, do not use max g. Instead use your best sustained
g…that will be about 3-5 gs for the typical fighter. Level your wings and pull up…as
before, pirouette roll as needed to keep pointed at the bandit’s six. Do not fly out in front
of the bandit. Point behind him! Once you have your nose up, then unload again and use
your airspeed to gain altitude.
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In your climb, you will see the bandit attempting to stop his dive and pull up and into
you. This series of rolling pull ups and downs is what makes the maneuver a Rolling
Scissors. Assuming each pilot flies good BFM, the victor in this contest will go to the
plane that has the better energy sustainability characteristics. The pilot of that plane
will be able to fly extended pull ups and tighter pull downs that will tend to force the
other plane forward along the axis of the scissors.
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View Use In The Rolling Scissors. It is not unusual for the Rolling Scissors to maintain
one direction of roll. As each adversary rolls about the other, they will look at each other
out of the tops of their canopies. As they roll to point behind each other, they will see
each other out of the side of the canopy that is the direction of roll. This tendency to look
only in one direction is different from the bi-directional view technique used in the Flat
Scissors.
Separating from the Rolling Scissors. Your best chance of a successful separation is
when you have pulled down into your nose low acceleration attitude. Unload to one g or
less and dive out of the fight. Roll unloaded as needed to watch the bandit. Be ready to
counter any follow-on attack.
Conclusion
Here are the main points to take from this discussion:
• Enter a scissors with caution. Once in, it will be difficult to get out.
• Generally speaking, the lower wing loaded fighter has the advantage, pilot skills
being equal.
• The Flat Scissors is a slow speed contest. Be proficient at slow speed flight
techniques. Know how to use flaps.
• The Rolling Scissors is an energy fight. Know your corner velocity and energy
gaining and sustaining techniques.
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In any case…this is what it’s all about…
Air To Air Gunnery - Theory and

Application, Part One
by Andy Bush
Introduction
I’ll never forget a piece of F-4 gun film from Vietnam. The F-4 pilot has
gotten himself nicely situated at the six of this MiG-21. He’s well within
range…maybe 1000’ or less. He’s at low angle off, with his closure
under control, and in plane with the MiG. He’s got a good radar lock on
so his gunsight has accurate ranging. But the pilot has two little
problems. One is that the pipper is behind the MiG as the pilot chases
the bandit in a descending turn. The other is that the pilot is pulling the
trigger. He’s got a full load of 20mm tracer, and, as you watch the film, you see the pilot
spewing those beautiful cannon shells out into nowhere as he tries to work the pipper up
to the MiG.
BRAAAP! BRAAAP! The tracers continue to fall just behind his target as the F-4 pilot
moves the pipper ever so closer to the MiG. Finally the pipper is there! Smack dead
center on the fuselage of the bandit….just as the Gatling Gun runs dry. Oh, the
heartbreak!
Well, no doubt emotions run high in combat, but this day, our F-4 pilot could have used a
bit more discipline. His Silver Star was there for the taking, but he blew the opportunity.
Was it impatience or lack of skill? We’ll never know. In this article, I’m going to talk about
the latter…the ‘skill’ part. The gun is not magic, nor is it an ‘I wish you were dead!’
weapon system. It may well be the most difficult of all air to air weapons systems to use,
and its successful use is seldom a matter of luck. Skill in aerial gunnery is based on two
factors…a solid foundation in the academics of the subject, and the opportunity to train
realistically. Fortunately for us simmers, most of our simulations offer a realistic
representation of a gun weapon system…so we can practice as much as we want. It’s
the academic part that has been missing. Few manuals explain the gun system or offer
tips on how to use it. That’s what this article is going to do. Explain the gun system, and
then pass along a few pointers on how to employ it.
Here’s the overview. The available literature on gunsights and their use is fairly limited.
To help make up for that, I’m going to make this article an in depth review of the subject.
Because of its length, the article will be in three parts. Use this overview to jump to the
parts that you are interested in.
Overview
Part One - Basic Theory.
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Terminology definitions.
Gun line concept.
Harmonization.
Bullet density.
Lead angle problem.
- Lead for target motion.
- Gravity drop.
Part Two - Gunsight Types.
Fixed Sight.
Lead Computing Optical Sight Systems (LCOSS).
- Disturbed reticle – Pipper and Funnel.
- Director Systems.
Part Three - Attack Types and Techniques.
Tracking.
- Low aspect.
- High Aspect.
Non-Tracking (Snapshot).
Basic Theory
I know you all want to jump right into the part where we gun the bandit’s brains out, but,
sadly, we’ll have to set that part aside for a time. The simple fact is that the more you
understand gun employment theory, the better you are going to be at it. Sounds about
right, you say. And it is…but this understanding comes at a price. And that price is your
willingness to put a little study time into the various principles involved. My role in all of
this is to take this academic mumbo-jumbo and make it as digestible as possible…and
make it relevant to our sims at the same time.
We’ll start off with some definitions. Most of these are terms that you may have run
across at one time or another. The definitions that I’m going to use are intended to get
the idea across without getting too deep into rocket science. Gun employment theory can
get real complex, real fast…I don’t want to do that, so I’ll keep it as simple as I can.
Definitions
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Machine Gun versus Cannon. As far as fighter aircraft go, these terms are roughly
related to the caliber of the gun. Anything up to .50 caliber is a machine gun…anything
over that is a cannon.
Caliber. The caliber of a gun is the size of the round as measured by its diameter. The
units may be inches or millimeters. A .50 caliber is about one half inch in diameter. A
20mm is about one inch in diameter. A 37mm round is about one and one half inches in
diameter. The following figures show the relative sizes.
But diameter is only half the picture. As diameter increases, so does projectile
length…and, consequently, projectile weight. The next figure makes this clear.
Kill mechanism. Projectile types include ball, armor piercing, incendiary, high explosive,
and combinations of these.
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Ball - Typical rifle round, not used in modern fighters. More suited for WW1 and
early WW2.
Armor piercing - The round has a hardened steel core for penetration of aircraft
structures.
Incendiary - The round contains a chemical that ignites upon impact. Good for
setting fuel and hydraulics on fire.
High explosive - Similar to the incendiary round, except the chemical has more
destructive power.
Combination – The above round types can be combined…HEI (high explosive,

incendiary), API (armor piercing, incendiary) for extra hitting power.
Rate of fire. Also known as cyclic rate. This is the number of rounds fired in a given
amount of time, usually rounds per minute (rpm). May be expressed for a single gun or
multiples. Some modern guns, such as the Gatling 20mm, may have cockpit selectable
rates of fire. For example, the F/A-18E pilot can select a 4000 or 6000 rpm setting. The
A-10 pilot can select either 2000 or 4000 rpm. Korean War and earlier gun types did not
offer this feature.
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In Figure 4 and 7, the colored horizontal lines represent values for typical WW2 guns.
You can compare these lines to the modern day guns shown in the figures.
Muzzle velocity. The speed that the round leaves the barrel. Usually expressed in feet
per second (fps) or meters per second (mps). Most modern gun types have muzzle
velocities around 3000 fps. After leaving the barrel, the projectile will decelerate as a
function of its unique ballistic characteristics. The modern US 20mm round has
improvements that have greatly increased its ability to retain a high velocity. Other
rounds, such as the Soviet 37mm in the MiG-15, have a low muzzle velocity to begin with
that is further degraded due to high drag during its time of flight.
Time of flight (TOF). The time it takes the round after leaving the barrel to reach the
target. Usually measured in seconds.
Dispersion. A target shooter will fire his rifle a number of times to establish a ‘group.’ The
smaller the group, the more accurate the shooter is. A modern aircraft gun has a similar
characteristic. Technicians will fire the gun at a target and then count the projectile
impacts and measure their pattern from the center aim point. Typically, this calculation
will be expressed as a percentage of rounds fired within a certain area, usually a circle
with the aim point at its center, and is called the gun dispersion. A typical modern gun
dispersion results in about 80% of the rounds being grouped in a five foot diameter circle
at a range of 1000 feet.
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Weight of fire. A concept used to describe hitting power. More often used in Korean
War and earlier gun types. Literally expressed as ‘x’ amount of weight in a given
period of time. A good example is the Spitfire with its eight .303 caliber guns. Even
though the gun had a small caliber, it had a relatively high rate of fire, and when all
eight fired in unison, the amount of lead being thrown was considerable. Because of
the lethality of the modern aircraft cannon round, this term is seldom used anymore.
Angle off. This refers to the relative headings of the fighter and its target. Angle off is
simply the difference in the direction the two aircraft are pointing. If they are pointing
in the same direction, the angle off is zero…if they are approaching head on, then the
angle off is 180 degrees. Angle off is a measurement of heading
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Aspect angle. This term is a measurement of position. The heading of the attacker
relative to the target is irrelevant. Aspect angle refers to the attacker and is measured
using the target as the reference. This measurement originates at the target’s six o’clock.
This is the zero aspect position. The twelve o’clock position off the target’s nose is the
180 degree aspect position. From the six o’clock position to the twelve o’clock, aspect
angles are referred to as either ‘right’ or ‘left.’ This is in reference to what side of the
target you as the attacker are looking at. If you are looking at the target from its 3 o’clock
position, you have a 90 Right aspect. And if you are looking at the target from its 7:30
position, you have a 45 Left aspect. Remember, your heading is not included in this term.
Aspect angle is only a way of defining your position relative to the target.
Note: Aspect and angle off tend to be used in the same manner when we talk about gun
attacks. This is a unique situation and occurs because we are usually thinking of the
attacker being pointed at the target. When the attacker has his nose on the target, then
his angle off and aspect are basically the same. In this discussion, I’ll use the term ‘angle
off’ with this in mind.
Target apparent size. We all recognize the significance of target size. Big targets are
easier to hit than small ones!! Target apparent size refers to a single target and how it
looks from various angles. If we shoot at a target from its dead six, we have a much
smaller target size than if we were to fire at it from directly above. Planform is a term
that refers to target apparent size. Planform is greatest when looking down on the
target. The greater the planform, the better chance of hitting the target. Planform and
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aspect angle have much in common since they both refer to how the target appears
from the shooter’s perspective
Ballistics computer. This device takes into account range, closure, and altitude values
to arrive at a TOF computation. The TOF value is used to then compute a gravity drop
correction
Gunsight computer. I’ll use this term in the broad sense to refer to the device that takes
into account target position (range, aspect, angle off, closure, rate of turn, etc) to
compute the lead for target motion value.
Line of sight rate (LOS). The LOS is the speed that the target is crossing your gun line.
This value is zero in a head on or tail aspect, and is maximum when the target is at 90
degrees angle off.
The Gun Line Concept
If you were to look through the barrel of the gun out to infinity, you would be looking along
the gun line. The gun line establishes the initial vector of the round as it leaves the barrel
(also known as the line of departure, the LOD). The gun line is an important part of the
process of matching up the gun sight to the gun in an aircraft. It is the basis upon which
all other calculations are made. If an aircraft has multiple guns, therefore it has multiple
gun lines.
In our modern aircraft HUDs, the gun line is often represented by a small cross. This
cross is ‘fixed’, meaning it doesn’t move. You can think of it as being similar to the sight
on the end of a rifle. It is one way of visualizing where the gun is aimed.
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The Sight Line Concept
The sight line is similar to the gun line. It too is a line from the eye to infinity, but this time,
we are talking about the pilot’s eye as seen from the cockpit. Since few guns are co-
located in the cockpit, there is a difference in the physical location of the gun line and the
sight line. The following figure illustrates this difference.
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Gravity Drop
Once the round leaves the barrel, it becomes a falling object subject to the laws of
gravity. A round will drop approximately 16 feet in its first second of flight. The next figure
will give you an appreciation of this factor. In this figure, notice that the pipper in the
reticle is below the gun cross. The aircraft is in wings level flight at one G. The pipper
position represents the gravity drop of the round over the range that the sight is
computing for. As you can see, gravity drop is not an insignificant value as TOF
increases
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Harmonization
In discussing harmonization, we will use the concepts of gun line, sight line, and gravity
drop. Harmonization is the process of lining up the gun line so that it intersects the sight
line at some point in front of the aircraft. The TOF for the round to cover that distance will
be computed and used to calculate a gravity drop value. That value will be added to the
gun line. Then the gun(s) will be adjusted so that the resulting projectile path (including
gravity drop) will intersect the sight line.
In older fighters that had guns installed in the wings and nose, harmonization was
much more of a factor to be considered. The basic idea is to adjust the guns so that all
the gun lines converge at a predetermined distance. Why, you ask? Some might think
it would be better to have the guns adjusted to spread out the gun lines...that way the
pilot might have a better chance of hitting something. Now, there is a smidgen of
logic to that idea, but only a smidgen. The better idea is to have the gun lines come
together. That way the pilot has a highly concentrated area of fire that will deliver a
killing blow to whatever it hits. Certainly, that area may be relatively small, but the
issue is not the size of the projectile impact area. Instead, the issue is accuracy in
aiming. We’ll get to that eventually. For now, we just want to establish the idea that
harmonization is the process of converging gun lines so that they intersect the sight
line at a predetermined distance
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During WW2, harmonization was a hot topic among pilots. The debate raged back and
forth over what range the guns should be harmonized at. Some liked a short
range…short being in around 300 feet. Others wanted the range a bit further out…as
much as 1000 feet. In many fighter units, the matter was left up to individual preference.
Projectile Density
In simple terms, projectile density refers to how many bullets we can expect to have in a
given amount of space at a particular point in front of our aircraft. We all immediately
recognize that the denser the bullet pattern, the greater chance we have of hitting our
target.
We have all seen the WW1 movies of the Red Baron blasting away at his opponent. Rat-
tat-tat-tat! One, maybe two small caliber machine guns. A moderate rate of fire for the
time. But nothing like the modern guns of today’s fighters. Today, the common perception
is that a fighter’s gun fire is like a red hot laser beam. Well, not quite!!
Let’s try to interject a reality check to the matter of projectile density. What you want to
take away from this part of the discussion is the understanding of how angle off and
aspect angle affect your chances of hitting your target.
We’ve all heard it before. "Man!! That Gatling spits out 100 rounds a second! Nothing can
escape that kind of firepower." If only it were so. Too often, the typical person visualizes
those 100 rounds all in the same spot. Not true. A little math will make this clear.
Let’s fire a one second burst from our M61. 100 rounds, just for argument’s sake. Now
let’s picture what the bullet stream looks like. For starters, it’s 3000 feet long…remember
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muzzle velocity. As the last round is coming out of the barrel, the first round is one half
mile away! Spread those rounds out over that distance, and we end up with one round
every 30 feet. Then we have to remember dispersion. The bullet stream is not a ‘frozen
rope.’ Instead, it is a cone that is about 15-20 feet in diameter at 3000’.
One round every 30 feet! Not exactly the blizzard of fire that some might think. And then
those rounds get spread around due to dispersion. That doesn’t help things much. But
there is one more parameter that we need to look at, and that is the relationship of the
target’s flight path to our bullet stream.
If we are at the target’s dead six and are shooting at it, then many of the rounds have a
chance of getting a hit. This is because the target remains in the general area of the
bullet stream during the entire burst length. But what happens if the target is crossing the
bullet stream? Whoa!! Our neat little picture of instant target obliteration takes a big hit
(no pun intended!). Let’s use a little math again to make the point. Let’s have the target
cross the bullet stream at 90 degrees. We’ll say the target is doing 500 knots…that will
give it a speed of about 850 feet per second. The target is a typical modern fighter with a
length of about 60 feet. How long does it take the target to cross the bullet stream? About
one tenth of a second! We remember our rate of fire was 6000rpm or about 100 rounds
per second…so, in 1/10 of a second, only about 10 rounds have a chance of hitting the
target. Now, we throw dispersion into the equation and our chances of hitting the target
become even less.
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It is very important to visualize the bullet stream as three dimensional. In the next
screenshot, the bullet stream is represented by a funnel display. The funnel extends
below the gun line and appears to run through the target. Because of this fact, this may
look like a valid aiming solution. But it is not. In fact the rounds that are at target range
are in front of the target…this aiming solution has too much lead.
Figure 16 is a drawing of what the situation in Figure 15 would look like from a side view.
This drawing when combined with the screenshot gives you the complete picture…a
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three dimensional visualization that makes the concept of the bullet stream much more
meaningful.
In seeing the bullet stream in this manner, significance of target angle off and apparent
size becomes all too clear. The faster the target moves through the bullet stream, the
less chance it has to be hit. If we as the shooter can do something to keep the target in
the bullet stream longer, then we increase our chances of success. This is an aiming
problem, and since this article is ultimately about aiming the gun, we’ll now move on to
looking at that problem. We’ll call that problem ‘the lead angle solution.’
The Lead Angle Problem
There are two variables to solve for when we look at the lead angle problem. First, let’s
identify that problem. We are in a gun platform that is moving. We are trying to hit a
target that is also moving. We intend to shoot rounds at the target…this will take a certain
amount of time (TOF) and this in turn will result in some gravity drop.
The problem then is to fire our gun having taken into consideration two things…lead for
target motion, and gravity drop. The next figure is a common illustration of the lead angle
problem found in many sim manuals. Both the attacker and target are flying straight. The
situation is similar to a skeet shooting problem. We’ll use this figure to discuss the
problems in computing lead for target motion and gravity drop.
Computing the lead angle. In a gun attack, the firing geometry can range from a pure tail
chase to a head on set up. Clearly, the lead for target motion is greatest when the target
angle off is 90 degrees and is essentially zero when the angle off is zero or 180 degrees.
The gunsight computer must solve for this value, and the first question that always came
to my mind was ‘how does the computer know where and what the target is doing?’
Believe me…when it comes to gunsight computations, that is the $64,000 question!!
Our illustration shows a target that is not turning. Throw in a turning target, and the
problem becomes very difficult to solve. In fact, it has only been in recent years that
radar technology and computer improvements have been able to come close to an
accurate answer. Prior to these new systems, gunsight computers used a number of
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assumptions about both the attacker’s and target’s flight behavior to arrive at a
solution. As you might expect, life seldom matched these assumptions, and the
resulting lead angle solutions were only approximate at best. Some of these
assumptions included the following: the two aircraft were co-speed…the aircraft true
air speed was a certain value…the range was fixed…the altitude was a constant…if
the target was turning, it was turning at the same rate as the attacker. It was a lucky
day for the attacking pilot when these assumptions matched the actual firing situation.
More often than not, this was not the case, and the pilot had to fall back upon prior
experience to make up for errors in his sight system
Computing gravity drop. We have already shown that the gravity drop value is a
function of TOF. Many of the assumptions mentioned above also have a negative
impact on the gravity drop calculation. Incorrect closure, range, and altitude values all
result in errors…while the gravity drop part of the total lead angle is usually much
smaller than the lead angle part, the value is still significant to the overall gunnery
solution
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Putting it all together. The next figure shows a hypothetical (and simplistic) view of the
lead angle solution. In Part Two, we will go into each gunsight type in detail and explain
how each type either does or does not replicate this view.

Application, Part Two
INTRODUCTION
In Part Two, I’ll discuss the various types of air to air gunsights from the point of view that the
better you understand their operation and inherent limitations, the better you will be able to
effectively use them in your simulations. The emphasis in this article will be on real world
theoretical concepts and how well those concepts are modeled in today’s sims.
The thought came to me that I might try a different approach in explaining this subject than is
commonly found in sim manuals or other references. This approach will focus on this
question. How much, if any, does the particular sight know about the target’s position?
Here’s the reason for this. The gunsight computer system needs to know two things to arrive
at a valid solution. It needs to know your conditions of flight in order to compute the correct
ballistics. And then, it needs to know as much as possible about target behavior in order to
compute the lead for target motion.
It is the question regarding target behavior that is the ‘fly in the ointment’…the major variable
that is so hard for gunsights to get a handle on. The ballistics problem is secondary…not
insignificant…just secondary. Let’s keep our focus then on target behavior as we look at
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each type of sight. The major aspects of target behavior that we will consider are target
range, range rate (closure), and line of sight rate (angular motion across our gun line).
GUNSIGHT TYPES
We’ll take a look at three types of gunsights…the fixed sight, the disturbed reticle sight, and
the director sight. At this time, I must emphasize one thing to the max!!
The air to air gunnery problem is always the same. The only thing that changes is the
way we look at it through our HUD. All gunsights try to do one thing…show the pilot
where he should aim. While gunsights may look different and may operate with
different inputs and assumptions, the bottom line is that they are designed to allow the
pilot to point his gun line in the correct direction. For a given situation, there is only
one aiming solution.
With that firmly in mind, we’ll move on to the various gunsight types. In each category, we’ll
look at two issues…basic operating principle and system implementation. We’ll start with the
fixed sight.
The Fixed Sight

The first question that comes to some folk’s minds is what does the word ‘fixed’ mean.
Simply put, it refers to a sighting reference that does not move. There are several types. Up
to the beginning of WW2, the most common was the ‘ring and bead’ sight. Note the ring and
bead sight mounted in front of the windscreen of this P-40.
Basic operating principle

This type of sight was used in the same way a shooter aims a rifle. A rifle has two sights…a
rear notched sight and a front blade sight. The idea is to aim the rifle with the top of the blade
aligned in the notch. This aligns the shooter’s eye to the barrel gun line. The shooter then
takes that ‘sight picture’ and aims it at the target. The next drawing shows a typical rifle sight
aiming picture.
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The ring and bead sight works the same way. The ring represents the rear rifle sight, and the
bead represents the front blade sight. When the pilot aligns the center of the ring with the
bead, he is looking down the sight line. Let’s recall our discussion of harmonization. The gun
line is adjusted to cross the sight line at some predetermined point in front of the aircraft. The
operating principle then is simple…line up the target using the ring and bead and shoot, as
the following picture demonstrates.
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What could be more basic? As long as the pilot was still sitting on the ground and was
shooting at something else on the ground, then this gunsight was pretty easy to use!! Put the
airplane in the air and shooting at any kind of target…now that was something else entirely!
We should stop for a moment and make an important observation. It is much easier for a pilot
to adjust the aim of a fixed sight if that sight is lined up with the roll axis of his aircraft. If this
is the case, when the pilot makes flight control inputs to correct his aim, the aircraft will roll
around the gunsight axis. If, however, the gunsight line is not aligned with the roll axis, then
the pilot cannot use the sight as an aiming reference when making corrections. The reason
for this is an aiming problem known as ‘pendulum effect’. Those of you that flew Sabre Ace
will remember the difficulty in trying to use the gunsight as a maneuvering cue. This was
because the roll axis of the F-86 in that simulation was not aligned with the gunsight. The
next figures explain pendulum effect.
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The ‘ring’ part of the sight often had one or two circles. The diameter of these circles could be
used to estimate target range. This is done by using a technique known as ‘stadiametric
ranging.’ This concept is a central part of many past and current gunsight designs. In the
discussions to come, we will look at reticles and funnels that use this principle in their
operation, so a clear understanding of this is a good thing to have!
Stadiametric ranging
Stadiametric ranging uses the relationship of small angles and the arcs they subtend over a
given distance. Whew!! I hope you are still with me!! Here is the basic idea.
We all are familiar with how we use clock code to define a position around our aircraft. Each
one hour of the clock represents an angle of 30 degrees. We can use angles to estimate
range, as well as position. We begin by focusing on a very small angle…one degree. I ’ll now
draw a figure that shows how this small angle can be used to compute range. The point of
origin for this angle will be our gunsight, and the lines of the angle will be projected along the
sight line. Sometimes a picture is easier to understand.
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Now, we go to the math part. The distance between the two lines of the angle is known as
the arc that the angle subtends. Fighter pilot instructors will say it this way; "The angle ‘x’
subtends an arc of ‘y’ feet at a distance of ‘z’ feet." Notice the unit of measurement for
distance is feet. The unit of measurement for angles is NOT degrees…it is a value known as
a ‘mil.’ There are about 17 mils in one degree…so a mil is just a very small angle. This is the
definition of a mil:
A mil is an angle that subtends one foot at 1000 feet range. The arc size versus range
relationship is linear, therefore, one mil = one foot at 1000 feet, two feet at 2000 feet range,
and so on. Similarly, if one mil = one foot at 1000 feet, then 10 mils equals 10 feet at 1000
feet range, 20 feet at 2000 feet range and so on
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Let’s show a practical example of this concept. Go out to your car and then pace off exactly
50 feet and mark that spot. Now, get a piece of glass and look through it at your car. Draw a
line on the glass equal to how long your car appears. Next, draw a circle on that piece of
glass with a diameter equal to that line. You now have a tool to find out how far 50 feet is
using your car as a reference. Just walk towards your car looking through the glass. When
the car length matches the diameter of the circle, you are at 50 feet!!
Now we take this idea and apply it to a gunsight. Let’s draw a circle on a piece of glass and
say its diameter is a certain number of mils wide. If we were to hold that circle up in front of
our eye and look through it, then the circle could be used to show what a certain distance
looks like at a given range. For example, if we said that the circle had a diameter of 50 mils,
then the circle would span a distance of 50 feet at 1000 feet range.
You know where I’m going with this…right?!! Now, we’ll think of that circle as our gunsight
reticle. We know the mil value of the gunsight reticle…50 mils in this example. The two
remaining variables are range and arc distance. Let’s change the name ‘arc distance’ to
‘wingspan.. We now have a simple mathematical situation where we can solve the problem
of determining target range. Here’s how. Pick a target…say a Su-27. Its wingspan is a
known value…approximately 50 feet.
Let’s put ourselves at the Flanker’s six and compare its wingspan to our 50 mil reticle. Picture
in your mind the wingtips just touching the edges of the reticle. The range computation is
"The 50 foot wingspan is 50 mils in size…therefore the range is 1000 feet." Now, let’s pull the
power back and increase our distance behind the Flanker. When we look at the Flanker in
the reticle now, its wingspan looks to be about one fourth of the reticle diameter, or about 12
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mils. What is the new range? Divide the observed wingspan size in mils into the known
wingspan size in feet…forget about the decimal points!! 12 into 50 equals about 4…so the
range is about 4000 feet. The next figure explains the process.
Some might ask why am I going through all this hoopla. The answer is simple. Effective use
of the gun requires a pilot to estimate range quickly and correctly. Gunsight reticle and funnel
displays are made to be a certain size to help the pilot accomplish this.
OK!! Enough of that stadiametric stuff. Let’s get back to our review of fixed sights.
One problem that pilots had with using the ring and bead sight was that the pilot’s head had to
be held perfectly still when lining up the ring and bead. This was hard to do while
maneuvering. A solution to this problem was the telescopic sight. This sight was essentially
a tube with the ring on one end and the bead on the other. By leaning forward and looking
through the tube, the pilot was lining up the ring and bead with his head in the proper position.
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The technique in using the telescopic sight was identical to the ring and bead sight. The pilot
had to maneuver behind his target. Then looking through the telescope to see the ring image,
he would make the final pitch and roll corrections to superimpose the ring over the target (this
must have been a lot of fun in a hard maneuvering fight…I don’t know how those guys did
it!!). But technology marches on, and by the time WW2 had begun, the ring and bead sight
was being replaced with the ‘reflector sight’. The next picture shows a Spitfire cockpit and its
reflector sight.
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The reflector sight was just a ‘high tech’ ring and bead sight. The reflected image was
focused at infinity, and represented the gun line. The main advantage of the reflector sight
was that it was always ‘in alignment.’ This allowed a small freedom of movement of the pilot’s
head, whereas when using the ring and bead sight, the pilot had to hold his head perfectly still
when aligning the sight with the target.
The reflector sight got its name from the fact that the gunsight image was reflected off a pane
of glass towards the pilot’s eyes. This pane of glass was called the ‘combining glass’
because it ‘combined’ a light image formed by a gizmo under the front glare shield. The
combining glass looks like a small HUD. The only difference between a combining glass and
a HUD is that the HUD contains more info than just a gunsight reticle.
That covers the operating principles of the various types of fixed sights. Next, a few words
about how the fixed sight was meant to be used.
Fixed Sight Implementation

From WW1 onwards, everyone agreed that there were two types of air to air gunnery
attacks…low angle off and high angle off. The low angle off attack was by far the easiest for
the average pilot to learn. This type of attack had the highest probability of success in that it
maximized the desired aspects of fixed sight gunnery. Those desired aspects were minimum
required lead angle and maximum exposure of the target to the line of fire.
This preference for a low angle off attack had a direct impact on fighter tactics. The concept
of Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM) was developed, and the primary purpose of offensive BFM
was to maneuver to the target’s six o’clock…or prevent the bandit from getting in your six
o’clock in the case of defensive BFM. If you have ever wondered why traditional BFM
references all seem to be oriented to maneuvering behind the target, this desire for a low
angle off gun attack is the reason why. In today’s world of beyond visual range (BVR) all
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aspect missile employment, we tend to reduce the emphasis on traditional BFM, but in the
days of the fixed sight, this was certainly not the case.
The next point in general agreement was that the fixed sight became increasingly less useful
as range increased regardless of the angle off. The solution was to emphasize short firing
ranges. The gunsights were designed to allow the pilot to estimate range using the size of
the gunsight reticle (stadiametric ranging), and the guns were installed in the aircraft to focus
their lines of fire in a concentrated manner at a desired short range (harmonization).
The result was that the desired attack was a low angle off, one G firing situation. This worked
very well against a target that didn’t see you coming, and, historically, most kills were of this
type. But, once the target started maneuvering, then all bets were off. The next figure shows
a Me-110 at relatively high angle off. This situation will require a fair amount of lead…called
‘deflection shooting’ during WW2. It took a skilled pilot to use a fixed sight effectively in gun
attacks of this type.
For the pilot to use the fixed sight against a turning target required a fair amount of pilot
‘guess-timation.’ Not many fighter pilots were very good at this. What was needed was an
aiming reference that took into account target motion. This need happened to coincide with
WW2, and the demands of the war soon resulted in improved sight systems on both sides of
the conflict. The first improvement came in the form of the gyro-assisted lead computing
sight…the first of several designs all falling under the category of Lead Computing Optical
Sight Systems (LCOSS). The term includes the word ‘system’ because the concept is made
up of a sight display (HUD), several computers, and, in later models, a ranging device (radar
or laser).
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In the introduction, I said that I was going to discuss each gunsight type with reference to the
degree of target info the sight had available for use. Clearly, the fixed sight, since it receives
no input on the target, does not take the target’s position into consideration. Instead, you, the
shooter, have to do this all by yourself. With the ring and bead sight, the shooter was
provided only an indication of the one G gun line. Through the use of a specifically sized
reticle, the pilot could estimate range using the stadiametric principle…but that was about it.
Against a turning target, the lead angle computation and correction for gravity drop were
strictly a function of individual pilot expertise…or as often was the case, the lack thereof.
Lead Computing Optical Sight Systems (LCOSS)
Understanding how LCOSS came about is to understand gun ballistics. So that is where we
will start. Up to now, our discussion of the basics has pretty much dealt with the behavior of a
single round. Now, we will move on to investigating to what happens when we fire a burst of
rounds…specifically what happens when we fire a burst of rounds when we are
turning…because that is where the concept of a LCOSS was born.
For the purpose of this article…teaching you how to use the gunsights in today’s sims…there
are two classes or types of LCOSS…disturbed reticle and director. The following discussion
will emphasize the traditional ‘gyro’ or displaced reticle sight. Most of our sims use this type of
LCOSS. A few do not. They use the director type of LCOSS. Flanker 2 and Janes F/A-18
are good examples of the director type of sight system. Specific operational details of these
two types of LCOSS will be covered in Part Three. For now, let’s just concern ourselves with
the basic operating principles of each type of sight.
As with the fixed sight, we’ll keep in mind that the key to understanding how these sights
function lies in how much that sight type ‘knows’ about the target. This issue of target info
underlies the difference between the two sight types. These two sight types are as different
as night and day. Here is this difference in a nutshell:
The disturbed reticle sight uses the movement of the pilot’s own aircraft to predict where
the rounds fired are going to go. If available, the only info on target behavior that the
disturbed reticle sight uses is target range.
The director sight uses movement of the target to predict a course for the pilot to fly to get
the rounds fired to hit the target. A director sight requires a very large amount of target info to
operate properly.
Basic operating principle – disturbed reticle LCOSS

Back in WW2, as fighter speeds continued to increase, it was becoming more and more
difficult to get hits with a fixed sight. In particular, the fixed sight was a poor aiming device for
the high speed, high G turning engagements that were common once the battle was joined.
The question was raised, "How can we show the pilot what his rounds are doing while he is
turning?" The reasoning was that if the pilot knew where his gunfire was going, he then could
maneuver to get the target to the same place. In our sims, tracers are used to show the bullet
stream, as this next screenshot illustrates.
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So good minds went to work. They began with the idea that the gun line and the nose of the
aircraft were relatively close together. Since the nose of the aircraft can be seen as moving
across the sky as the aircraft turns, it then became clear that the gun line must also be
moving across the sky. In fact, practical experience in firing long bursts of tracers had long
since demonstrated this. The problem boiled down to how to show this ‘tracer path’ to the
pilot in a usable form.
The answer was found in the unique properties of gyroscopes…once spun up, they tend to
want to stay in place. If a force is applied to move them, they respond by precessing in a
predictable manner. Someone asked, "‘What if this force is aircraft G? What will the gyro
do?" And the answer was that the gyro would precess in a predictable manner and to a
predictable degree. Voila’. All they had to do was to wire up the gyro so that it would send
electrical signals that described its position. Now, when a force was applied to the gyro, it
would precess and that precession could be measured. The precession had a direction and a
magnitude…the greater the force, the larger the precession.
Now, the good minds turned their thoughts to how to display this info to the pilot. Someone
thought, "Combining glass….pipper…what if we made the fixed reflector sight reticle move!!"
Another Voila’! The gizmo that made the sight image was hooked up to the gyro. Now, when
the gyro precessed under G, the gizmo made the sight image move on the combining glass.
The neat part of this is that the gyro precessed opposite the direction of turn…exactly
opposite. It was recognized that this precession was in fact in the plane of motion of the
fighter. They already knew the tracer path was in the same plane of motion. Bingo!! The
precessing gyro produced a movable sight image that mimicked the behavior of the bullet
path in a turn.
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Boy, they were hot on the track of a reliable gunsight at this point. The gyro precession gave
them a way to, in effect, draw an imaginary tracer path on the combining glass. The only
problem was that the tracer path went off into the boonies somewhere…it was hard to know
how far away the rounds were at any point along the precession path.
The answer to this problem lay in determining the time of flight (TOF) of the rounds. Since
radar was in its infancy and was not very reliable at close ranges, the initial answer was to
assume a certain range. Once that was agreed to, then it was a relatively simple matter to
compute the TOF. This TOF number was now entered into the precession computation. The
result was a precession path that had a finite length…for a given G and a given TOF, the
precession path on the combining glass was a given amount. The sight gizmo was now
designed to draw a reticle at the end of the precession path. When the aircraft was at one G,
the reticle was located at the gun line, but, as G increased, the reticle moved away from the
gun line …the greater the G, the further away from the gun line. Voila’ again!! The next
figures show an F-86 sight, first at one G with the reticle on the gun line, and then in a right
hand turn, with the reticle precessed left away from the gun line.
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The result was a sighting reference that demonstrated bullet behavior under G at a given
range. All the pilot had to do was to get the target to fly under the pipper when the bullets
were there also and, BOOM!!, he had a kill!! But, as you may suspect, it wasn’t quite that
easy. There were some gotcha’s to be overcome. We’ll call these the inherent LCOSS
errors.
Inherent problems in early disturbed reticle LCOSS

There were immediate problems when the first LCOSS gunsights were introduced in WW2.
The first problem area was the acceptance of the system by pilots and aircraft maintenance
personnel. The system was mechanically complicated and required careful and exact
maintenance by trained technicians. This was not often available. The system was delicate
and easily damaged resulting in a LCOSS calculation that was inaccurate. Lastly, the system
was challenging to use and demanded a relatively high level of pilot training...and this was
often not the case in the war. As a result, the sight got mixed reviews from its pilots, with
many refusing to use it...they went back to the fixed sight mode that they were familiar with.
The second problem area had to do with the estimation of target range. The sights were
calibrated for a selected range. If the pilot was not at that range, then the sight was ‘lying’ to
him, and the firing solution would again be inaccurate. Hand in hand with target range was
the issue of closure speeds. T he first LCOSS sights were built with the assumption that the
attacker and target were co-speed, in other words, no closure. This was often not the case.
If the attacker had considerable closure, then that changed the bullet TOF which then made
the LCOSS calculation be in error. The result was again a pipper that did not represent actual
bullet position for the assumed range.
The third problem has to do with how long it takes a LCOSS computer to crank the numbers
and arrive at a solution. This problem is inherent in all LCOSS regardless of their level of
technology. As the pilot turns and the G’s increase, the LCOSS computer is busy generating
the sight image position along the path of gyro precession. But this takes time…typically up
to about one half second or more. The pilot must take this time…known as ‘settling
time’…into account. This means that the pilot must give the sight a chance to ‘settle’
(stabilize) before he can count on the display being reliable. Picture the pilot pulling the
pipper up to a target. Just as the pipper reaches the target, let’s freeze the picture. What do
we see? We see the pipper on the target. But…and it’s a big but…the picture is not yet
reliable. T he pilot must now hold the pipper on the target for the duration of the settling time.
Then, and only then, is the sight picture reliable. Remember…the sight responds to aircraft
G. Change the G, and you must reset the settling time clock. This is a hard and fast rule and
one that has led to more missed firing opportunities than God has little green apples! The
next figure is a cartoon taken from the USAF P-51 operating manual advising pilots to
remember settling time.
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But what if your favorite sim is Flanker 2? It has a director gunsight. Is it different than the
disturbed reticle type sight…and, if so, how and why?
Basic operating principle – director sight LCOSS

Let’s get right to the heart of the matter. A director sight needs much more info on target
behavior than does the disturbed reticle sight. So much so, that the director gunsight must
have a radar lock on the target in order to function properly. When it comes to target
info, the disturbed reticle sight is content with knowing target range. Not so for the director
sight. This sight needs to know where the target is now and where is it going.
Both types of sights compute bullet ballistics the same. The disturbed reticle sight takes the
ballistic data, combines it with aircraft pitch and roll inputs, and then computes a picture of
what the bullet path looks like. Essentially, the disturbed reticle sight says to the pilot, "Here’s
what the bullets are doing…now it is up to you to get the target to fly into this area."
The director sight also uses the ballistics data to predict the bullet path. But this is where the
similarity stops. The director sight collects target info…range, closure, target direction of
flight…and combines that with the ballistics data. Then the director sight says to the pilot,
"See this pipper? If you maneuver to fly this pipper to the target and then pull the trigger, you
will hit the target." The director pipper is not meant to show bullet position. It is only meant to
be a steering cue. When the pilot places the pipper over the target and the sight computers
agree that the ballistic solution is ‘within limits,’ then…and only then…is the sight predicting
properly. The Flanker 2 simulation uses a director sight. This next screenshot shows the
display.
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When it comes to gunsights, the director sight is about as ‘magic’ as it gets. In theory, the
sight does all the lead and gravity drop computations that the pilot needs. All the pilot has to
do is to get the pipper over the target to kill it.
Well, not really. The director sight is just a machine, and like all machines, it can make a
mistake. The director sight is just as prone to mechanical and settling errors as is the
disturbed reticle sight. And then, because of its reliance on radar, we have to include radar
tracking errors as well. These tracking errors tend to produce a slight ‘jitter’ or instability to
the pipper. A director sight is sort of like the little girl in the nursery rhyme…’When its good,
it’s very, very good…but when it’s bad, it is horrid!!' We’ll talk more about the director sight in
Part Three. Let’s finish up this part with a look at sight implementation.
LCOSS Implementation
This section pertains to both types of LCOSS sights. This section could be subtitled, "What
do I need to make the sight work?"
When it comes to implementation, I want you to remember ‘The Big Three’…in plane…in
range…and in time. Get these right, and you stand a good chance of downing your target.
Get one or more wrong, and you might as well take up knitting!
OK…so how do we use this thing to get a hit? We’ll get to the specifics later. For now, we
just need to know that the sight is most effective if we accomplish the three items above.
First, you want to get in plane with the target. That is where BFM comes into the equation.
As we approach our target, we maneuver in three dimensions to reduce our aspect and angle
off to end up behind the target. In doing so, we get into its plane of motion. The importance of
the ‘plane of motion’ will be explained in the next section.
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Now, having gotten into the target’s plane of motion, we want to get into range. By this point
in our discussion, I think we’ve said enough about the significance of range, so I’ll move on to
the last of the ‘big three’…the idea of ‘time’.
The ‘time’ that I am referring to, of course, is the settling time that the sight needs to arrive at
a correct aiming solution. You must maintain a steady platform so that the LCOSS computer
can do its job. You maneuver so that you can maintain the target under the pipper for the
duration of the settling time and the required TOF. Do that, and the predicted bullet position
(pipper) and the target should occupy the same space. But if you don’t allow the sight to
settle and you don’t maintain a constant G while the sight is computing the numbers, then you
are going to miss. Guaranteed.
So much for the basic LCOSS theory. As you may suspect, there are some ‘what ifs’ and
‘yeah buts’ to what I’ve said…but the meat of the matter has been covered. Our typical sim
LCOSS will work just fine if you follow the guidelines above. It’s time to wrap up Part Two
and move on to Part Three. Next time, we’ll take our three types of sights and suggest ways
of using them in our sims.
Until
then…
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Application, Part Three
INTRODUCTION
Congratulations for having made it so far!! After countless words and diagrams, we finally are
at the point where the ‘rubber meets the road’…or should I say where the ‘bullets meet the
target’?!!
In this last section, we are going to look at each type of sight ‘up close and personal.' Our
objective is to describe the operation of these sights in such a manner that you can take the
info and apply it directly to your favorite sim. All the little bits and pieces of info in Parts One
and Two are going to be important in helping you understand how to get the gun on the
target, so if you haven’t had a chance to look over those sections, it might be a good idea to
do so before you start this one.
We’ll begin with a quick review of the bullet stream concept. The single most important thing
for you to get out of this is an appreciation for the three dimensional aspect of that bullet
stream. If you can ‘see’ this concept in your mind, then understanding what is or is not a valid
firing solution is a whole bunch easier.
Plane of Symmetry
The plane of symmetry is another one of those terms that we use when we try to explain what
we’re looking at when we use a gunsight. 99% of understanding and using a gunsight is in
the understanding of what the gunsight display means with reference to the bullet stream.
We have to establish a common frame of reference to do this. The plane of symmetry is a
good place to start. The plane of symmetry is the vertical plane extending along the
longitudinal axis and perpendicular to the rudder. It looks like this.
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A common way of visualizing the plane of symmetry is to use a line coming out of the top of
our canopy that is perpendicular to the wings and fuselage. You can also think of the plane of
symmetry as your lift line. Some like to use the vertical stabilizer to represent the lift
line…that’s OK as long as the thing is vertical, and not canted off to one side or the other as
in the F-18! The significance of this concept to gun employment is that the gun line lies in this
plane, and that the bullet stream begins in this plane.
Plane of Motion
The plane of motion is the direction our aircraft is going. You may ask if the plane of motion
and the plane of symmetry are the same. The answer can be yes…or no. The issue is
gravity. Anytime that gravity is exactly in alignment with the plane of symmetry (wings level,
inverted or upright), the two planes are the same. But add a little bank, and gravity now
becomes a force that takes the plane of motion away from the plane of symmetry. Why?
Because our aircraft is affected by gravity, and the gravity force (or vector) has to be added to
our lift line to get our actual plane of motion. It looks like this.
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Let’s shift our attention to the gun line. As we turn our aircraft, our gun line follows our nose
across the sky. If our gun line was a pen, it would draw a line that would represent our actual
plane of motion. As seen through the HUD, it would look like this.
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Now let’s bring gravity drop back into the discussion…this time we’ll apply it to the bullet
stream. Gravity starts acting upon the round as soon as it comes out of the barrel…the
further the round flies, the further it drops. Looking at Figure 4 again, I’ll add a nominal gravity
drop value to the end of the bullet stream. By connecting the two lines, we get a simplified
representation of the bullet stream.
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This is what it would look like from the cockpit. But this is a two dimensional view of the
situation. To get a three dimensional view, we need to take a ‘God’s eye’ view from above.
The next figure is a very exaggerated view of the situation. For the sake of illustration, we’ll
say our gun fires five rounds as we turn. We open fire at position A and cease fire at position
B. The five lines represent the paths of rounds 1 through 5. Please note the lines are
straight. Rounds fired in a turn DO NOT curve or bend because we are in a turn. They fly
straight and true as this figure shows
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But gravity does alter their flight path. That is why the HUD view shows a slight ‘drop’ if we
could visually see the bullet stream. And we can. Our sims always show the bullet stream as
a tracer path…by firing a long burst in a hard turn, you can easily see the effect of gravity on
the bullet stream. Just keep in mind that the HUD view can be misleading since it is a two-
dimensional picture. Take Figure 6 and file it away for safekeeping. You’ll need it as we get
into the next section.
As a final comment, please recognize that the ‘spread out’ nature of the bullet stream is
caused by the shooter’s turn rate, ie G load. As turn rate increases, the bullet stream ‘thins
out.'
Why do I need to know this?

First, we talked about the plane of symmetry…then we went on to mention the plane of
motion…and we finished up with words about the bullet stream. What’s the big deal? Here
is the very simple answer. You can fire at a target and know that you have a good probability
that many of your rounds will hit the target…or you can fire knowing that only a small number
of rounds have a probability of doing so. To get yourself into the first group, you need to
maneuver to get your bullet stream plane of motion into the target’s plane of motion. We call
this a ‘tracking’ shot.
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If you are in the second group, and your bullet stream plane of motion intersects but does not
lay in the plane of motion of the target (and sometimes, this is the only shot that you get), then
your probability of getting a hit is much less. This is called a ‘snap’ shot.
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The Big Three
In Part Two, we discussed the three main components of a successful gun attack. These
were getting in range, flying in the plane of motion of the target, and allowing for sight settling
time. We’ll keep these in mind as we cover the types of sights and how to use them. The
questions you want answers to are:
• How do I know when I am in range?

• How do I know when I am in plane?
• How am I sure that the sight has ‘settled
• When do I open fire?
And, before we go, here’s one last reminder that much of the effectiveness of a particular
sight type lies in how much info it is getting about target behavior.
THE FIXED SIGHT AND HOW TO USE IT
Fixed sights come in many forms. We are all familiar with the typical WW1 and WW2 sights.
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But, the fact is that, as long as a sight has a gun line (cross) symbol, it can be used as a fixed
sight. Look at these later model sights
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Why would a pilot want to go back to this type of aiming device when he has the option of
using a LCOSS? Very simply because there are certain gun shot situations where the
relationship between the shooter and target is changing so rapidly that the LCOSS setting
time cannot be achieved. There are those times when a ‘point and shoot’ firing opportunity
presents itself. Knowing how to do this can be your ‘ace card’…you can play it any time you
want.
How so, you may ask? Two ways…a tracking shot and a non-tracking or snap shot. Both of
these attack types require a good understanding of the relationship between the gun line
symbol, the bullet stream, and the target’s plane of motion. In either case, you want to
minimize the lead angle solution variables by getting in close...short range means minimum
projectile TOF which results in minimum lead for target motion and minimum gravity drop.
Also, as long as you can get in close, target angle off will have minimum negative effect.
Fixed Sight Tracking Shot
Determining Target Range

We’ve hit the concept of stadiametric ranging pretty hard so far. This will be your method of
determining range in your sim, but there is one little problem. Few, if any, of our sims will tell
us what the reticle or ring diameter is in mils, and if we do not know this, then computing
target range is going to inexact at best. As a substitute, try this. For a fighter sized target, do
not open fire until the target is at least one half the size of the reticle diameter. Cease fire
when the target wingspan exceeds the reticle diameter.
There are two main problems to solve in this type of gun attack…getting into the target’s
plane of motion and predicting the correct lead angle (the open fire point).
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Determining Target Plane Of Motion
We do this by first considering the amount of G that we are going to use to track the
target…low G or high G. In either case, there are target, HUD, and gunsight cues to help
you.
Look first at the target. Imagine a line extending from the target’s tail, through his nose, and
out to the front. Think of this line as the target’s flight path…his plane of motion. You want to
get your bullet stream on this line. Now visualize a line extending through the target’s wing.
Call this the target’s wingline. We’ll use this line to represent target bank angle.
Pulling your pipper out in front of the target is not all that hard. Keeping it there is another
matter. Here are the cockpit cues to make this a little easier. The key to success lies in your
ability to match the target’s angle of bank. We do that by aligning our wingline with the target
wingline.
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For low G situations, use your cockpit structure to define your wingline. Some gunsights have
a tab at the 3 and 9 o’clock position on the sight reticle. You can also use the top of the HUD
to approximate your wingline. You want to align these references with the target’s wingline. It
looks like this.
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For high G situations, use the 6/12 o’clock tabs if available. If not, other usable visual cues
include having the top of the HUD perpendicular to the target’s fuselage line or using the
sides of the HUD to line up with the target’s fuselage.
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Determining Sight Settling Time
Not applicable! Since the sight is a ‘fixed’ reference, ie non-moving, there is no settling time.
Determining The Open Fire Point

The major difficulty in tracking with a fixed sight is getting the lead for target motion right.
Since the primary variables of range, closure, and angle off are infinite in number, all we can
do is employ an educated guess. By this time it is clear that the amount of required lead is
reduced if we can minimize range and angle off. We should try to do that.
We can also get a feel for the lead required by looking at other sim’s sight displays that offer a
LCOSS. Use these sim’s reticle position or funnel display to gain an appreciation of open fire
points for various turn rates and G loads. You will find that the displacement of the reticle or
funnel reference varies directly with G load (turn rate). Here are a couple of screenshots that
show the lead points necessary for typical angle off situations.
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These pictures give you a feel for where the open fire point is. We then take that ‘mental
picture’ and translate it to our fixed sight HUD. Here are two views of typical fixed sight firing
points showing the reticle/pipper in similar lead positions.
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We place the gun line in front of the target and vary our G to allow the target to move towards
the approximate lead point. One technique is to start out with a little more lead than
necessary…then relax G slightly to move the target ‘forward’ towards the gun line. As the
target nears your lead point, squeeze and hold the trigger down. Maintain your attitude
steady and allow the target to continue to move forward slightly. By letting your aim point drift
to the target, you are allowing for small errors in your lead estimation.
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Fixed Sight Snap Shot
A ‘snap shot’ is when the shooter fires without attempting to track the target. It is similar to
skeet shooting in that the shooter fires a burst across the target’s flight path. This results in
fewer rounds having a chance to hit the target. Because of this, the snap shot has a lower
probability of kill than a tracking shot. But a snap shot is better than no shot at all…and in an
intense, swirling knife fight, it may be the only shot you get.

The dynamic nature of the snap shot situation means that the target will not be in the HUD
area prior to your pulling the trigger. Consequently, you will not be able to use the reticle to
range with. Instead, you will have to estimate target relative size, always keeping in mind that
the objective is to take a close range shot.
To achieve this close range, you will have to pull your nose out well in front of the target. If
you underestimate this lead point, then the target will cross your nose too far away. While no
two situations are the same, we can suggest a ‘window’ that will put you in the ballpark. From
then on, practice and experimentation will lead you to good results. Here is a forward view
with a ‘window’ drawn that shows the approximate area that you would want to place the
target as you pull your nose out in lead. Think of the edge of the monitor as the beginning of
the window. The end of the window is about one half the distance between the monitor edge
and the reticle.
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By using this much lead, you should be able to arrive at a firing point that meets our close
range goal.

Our next objective is to get our gun line into the target’s plane of motion. The gun line
reference, however, is in the HUD. The target, when it is in the ‘window’ is no where near the
HUD. So, how do we get into the target’s plane of motion? We use cockpit references.
Here is one technique. Go to the forward view in your sim. Fly wings level. Locate the gun
line. Now, look to the sides of the HUD area for cockpit or HUD structure that are in
approximate alignment with the gun line. The further away from the gun line, the better.
What we want to do is to draw a line from this reference to the gun line. This line will be our
target flight path reference when our wings are level with the target’s flight path.
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After we have pulled our nose out in lead, we will level our wings with respect to the target’s
flight path. Visualize this flight path as an extension of the target’s fuselage line. In your mind,
try to see the ‘big picture’ by projecting this flight path line across your nose.
Now, with our wings level with this line, we pull our nose up to raise the gun line up (or lower
our nose to move the gun line down) to superimpose our gun line with the target flight path
line. Use the snap shot gun line references in Figure 29 to help get your gun line in the
proper position.

Again, not applicable for fixed sight gun employment.

We used the idea of a ‘window’ to represent the lead point when pulling the nose out for a
snap shot. We’ll now return to that concept and give you a ball park visual picture of the open
fire point. First, one additional point regarding fixed sight technique.
The gun does not know your angle of bank relative to the target. I have suggested the idea of
using cockpit references to line up the gun line with the target flight path as a matter of
simplicity and convenience. There is absolutely no requirement for you to be wings level
relative to the target’s flight path.
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We drew the roll out window using the wings level HUD as a reference. This resulted in two
‘windows’…one on the right and one on the left of the HUD gun line. If we take our bank
angle out of the picture, we can draw the lead window as a circle or ‘band around the gun
line. The next figure shows this. For a good lead angle, position the target no closer to the
HUD than the red circle.
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The only thing the shooter has to do is roll out with his gun line in the target’s future flight
path. This same concept can be applied to the open fire point. The open fire point then
becomes a circle or ‘band’ around the gun line. Regardless of his bank angle, when the
target enters the open fire circle, the shooter pulls the trigger.
And now the foot-stomper. This is a one G technique. You want to get the gun line in the
target plane of motion and then hold it there. As the target approaches the open fire point,
you want to make sure you are at one G. Why? To concentrate your bullet stream. You are
literally ‘strafing’ a point in the sky that the target will fly through. The open fire point is a band
to account for variances in the rate of target motion across your nose (LOS rate). The outer
edge is for a high LOS rate, the inner for slower LOS rates.
So here’s the technique. Pull your nose out in front of the target using canopy references to
get into the target’s flight path. Raise or lower your nose to get the gun line on the target flight
path. Relax G. Is the gun line still in the target’s flight path? If not, make an adjustment.
Relax G again. Hold the gun line in the target flight path, and as the target enters the open
fire window, double check you are at one G and then pull the trigger.
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OK…so much for the fixed sight…it’s on to the two LCOSS sight types.
THE DISTURBED RETICLE SIGHT AND HOW TO USE IT
I guess the place to start is to explain what ‘disturbed reticle’ means! Let’s take the ‘reticle’
part first. The reticle (or reticule, as some texts spell it) is the name of the circle that many
sight images look like.
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In the center of the reticle is a small dot known as the ‘pipper.' When a fighter pilot uses the
term pipper, he usually is referring to the reticle as a whole with specific emphasis on the
center dot. Some reticle sight images have a smaller circle within the outside reticle, usually
at the one half radius point.
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Early reticles were not circles at all, but instead were a series of small diamonds arranged in a
geometric pattern around the pipper. WW2 and Korean War sights were often of this type.
Some referred to this display as a ‘circle of diamonds.'
In some sights, this circle of diamonds was adjustable in size. The gizmo that made the sight
image had controls that the pilot could adjust. He could set aircraft wingspan as well as
desired range. The result was a reticle or circle of diamonds whose diameter represented
how big the target’s wingspan should be for a desired range.
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Some fighters had a twist grip on the throttle that was linked to the sight image gizmo. The
pilot would set the target wingspan into the sight control panel. Then, once the pilot was
behind a similar target, he would twist the throttle shaft to either open up or close the reticle
diameter until it matched the wingspan of the target. The gunsight computer used the relative
size of the reticle, in conjunction with the target wingspan, to compute a range, so once the
pilot superimposed the reticle over the target, the gunsight ballistics computer had a range to
then use to compute a TOF. The TOF value was then used to compute gravity drop.
So much for the description of the reticle. Now let’s talk about this term ‘disturbed.' What is
this word referring to? Let’s go back to where we were talking about gyroscopes. We said
that a gyroscope would react if a force was applied to it. This reaction (precession) is the
gyro being ‘disturbed’ from its static position. In gunsight terms, the word ‘disturbed’ refers to
reticle precession behavior of gyro-based sights. So…a disturbed reticle sight is any sight
using gyro precession as the means of determining reticle position.
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Next question. What forces cause the gyro to precess? Two forces…pitch and yaw. Pitch
means G…pushing or pulling on the pole. Yaw means rudder…pushing the rudder pedals
one way or the other. In a one G condition, the reticle will be close to the fixed gun line.
Pulling back on the stick causes the reticle to move towards the bottom of the HUD or
combining glass. If the pilot then relaxes G, the pipper will move back up towards the gun line
position. If the pilot pushes negative G, the reticle will move above the gun line position.
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If the pilot pushes the rudder while maintaining one G, the nose will yaw in the direction of the
rudder application. The reticle will move opposite this movement away from the gun line
position. Right rudder…the reticle moves left, and vice versa.
In this manner, we see that reticle movement is strictly a function of aircraft pitch or yaw
inputs. The reticle movement has nothing at all to do with the presence or absence of a
target. As we explained before, the magnitude of the reticle movement can be controlled by a
range input to the gunsight computer (TOF again) but the movement itself is only due to
aircraft pitch and yaw forces.
In earlier paragraphs, we covered the theory of how the LCOSS represents an aiming
solution. Rather than repeat that, let’s take the idea one step further and talk for a bit about
what this disturbed reticle position means to you as the pilot. In doing so, we’ll get a better
understanding of some of the limitations of the system.
Let’s recall again what the sight is doing. We are moving our nose…the gun line follows this
movement. We use a gyro to display this movement on the combining glass in the form of a
pipper that is displaced away from the fixed gun line position (the nose of the airplane) in a
direction opposite our plane of motion. The pipper is positioned on the imaginary precession
line as a function of range (TOF).
OK. Now pay real close attention to this next part, because it’s the meat of the subject.
Let’s go into a turn and hold a constant airspeed and G. What happens to the sight? It
depresses opposite our plane of motion. Where’s the pipper? It’s at the desired range
position. Where’s the target? I don’t know…who said anything about a target? With the
basic LCOSS, you don’t need a target. The LCOSS computer is not getting any target info
because we are not giving it any (other than an assumed range). The LCOSS doesn’t need
target info other than a range input. WHY? Because all it is doing is displaying bullet position
based upon your plane of motion.
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The sight is saying something to you, and here it is:
If you maintain a constant plane of motion and hold your G steady for the required
settling time, the pipper will represent where the bullets are NOW that were fired one
TOF ago.
Pound the table, people…that statement is the principle of a disturbed reticle LCOSS
wrapped up in a neat little ball. The LCOSS is showing you the past, not the future. It’s not
telling you that if you fire NOW that you will hit the target…nope, it’s telling you only one
thing. If you had fired one TOF ago, you would be now seeing a hit.
Is that 100%, absolutely clear? Don’t go any further if it is not. Re-read this section until you
have it down cold.
Disturbed Reticle Tracking Shot

All disturbed reticle LCOSS have a range input. For aircraft that do not have a radar (such as
WW2 sims), the range input to the ballistics computer is a fixed value. The same is true of
modern aircraft when the radar is not operating or the pilot does not have a radar lock on.
Similarly, if the disturbed reticle LCOSS is a funnel display, the sight not only assumes a fixed
wingspan, but may also display additional symbology to indicate target range. The Janes
USAF ‘Bullet At Target Range’ (BATR) symbol is a good example of this. The following chart
shows typical assumed wingspans found in today’s sims
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Consequently, it is the shooter’s responsibility to be at the proper range when using the sight.
The easiest way to do this is to use the funnel or reticle match using stadiametric principles.
If the shooter has a radar lock on, then the problem gets much simpler. Now, the LCOSS is
getting a range input that it can use to correctly compute the lead angle and gravity drop
components. Depending on the sight type, the other assumptions (constant range, no
overtake, etc) may still apply. The next two pictures show typical LCOSS reticle displays.
The Janes USAF reticle includes the range analog bar. The Falcon 4 picture shows the
reticle display for a no radar lock situation. In this example, the reticle indicates a range of
1500 feet. The Falcon 4 LCOSS reticle with a radar lock looks exactly the same…however
the reticle will now represent a firing solution for the exact target range
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Determining Target Plane of Motion
The visual references for getting into the target’s plane of motion are the same as they were
for the fixed sight. In addition, with the disturbed reticle LCOSS, you may use the displaced
pipper or funnel axis as an indication of your plane of motion. The line from the gun cross to
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the pipper, or the axis of the funnel, represents your flight path. Use this as a guide in bank
control to match the target’s flight path.
The problem of getting into the target’s plane of motion uncovers another one of those ‘great
truths’ of A2A gun employment. Here it is:
Do not try to ‘fly’ the pipper (or funnel) to the target. Instead, use traditional BFM to get
the target positioned in the approximate center of the HUD with your closure under
control and your fuselage aligned with the target. During this time, ‘ignore’ the pipper
or funnel. In your mind’s eye, ‘turn off’ the sight display. Once the target is in a stable
position in the HUD, then (and only then) compare the pipper or funnel to the target.
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Once you have the target stabilized, then you can compare the pipper or funnel to the target.
Determine what kind of correction you need to make. Then, again ‘turn off’ the sight while
you reposition the target in the HUD.
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Sight settling time varies between sight types…anywhere from less than one half a second to
a full second. The secret to satisfying sight settling time requirements lies in the concept of
BFM’ing the target into the HUD before you bring the pipper or funnel into the picture. By
stabilizing the target, you are automatically settling the sight. After making the final
corrections to pipper or funnel position, then stabilize momentarily before firing. Here’s a tip.
Count to yourself, "One potato, two potato…", then pull the trigger!! That should do the trick!

If we have accomplished the first three items above…gotten in range, then in plane and lastly,
allowed enough settling time, then we pretty well have the open fire point under control.
The techniques to get to this point are much the same as they were for the fixed sight tracking
shot. The main difference lies in the fact that the lead angle computation is now more
accurate, and as such, the shooter does not have to allow for as much error in the open fire
point.
In the final stage of positioning the pipper or funnel, the shooter makes a last correction to his
back pressure to move the pipper to the target. Once the sight aiming point is superimposed
over the target, the shooter waits for the necessary settling time and then fires. A technique
that works well is the ‘track - shoot – track’ concept. Remember that the sight picture is
essentially a ‘picture of the past’…it’s telling you that what you are seeing is a picture of bullet
position one TOF ago. The ‘track - shoot – track’ concept takes this into consideration in the
following manner
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Maintain a constant G and attitude as you hold the pipper over the target. Squeeze - don’t
jerk – the trigger as you continue to hold your G and bank attitude constant. Release the
trigger and continue to track the target for a moment. Then be ready to get out of the way of
the target debris!
This technique is similar to the ‘follow through’ emphasis common in skeet shooting. It
encourages good pipper discipline.
Disturbed Reticle Snap Shot
The disturbed reticle LCOSS can be used for a snap shot attack, but the technique is a bit
more complicated than what it was for the fixed sight. In the discussion of the fixed sight, we
advocated a one G technique for the snap shot. You can do the same for the disturbed reticle
sight, but if you do, then you are essentially using the LCOSS as a fixed sight. There is
nothing wrong with this, and, in fact, this remains a very good technique, but the LCOSS also
offers you the chance to snap shoot with G on your aircraft.
The basis for this technique rests again on the idea that the reticle position is an indicator of
bullet position fired one TOF ago. If we can maneuver such that the target will fly into the
pipper one TOF after we pulled the trigger, then we have a good chance of getting a hit.
As always with a disturbed reticle sight system, the controlling factor is maintaining a constant
G and steady firing platform as you position the pipper. I am using the term ‘pipper’ in this
paragraph because the funnel display is more difficult to snap shoot with. The funnel can be
used, but, because of the difficulty in estimating range, the actual display is harder to interpret
in an out-of-plane shooting position.

The LCOSS will have either a fixed range or radar range input. Because of the highly
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dynamic nature of the snap shot geometry, ranging errors are to be expected. You can
reduce their significance by reducing the firing range.
The next figure shows a specialized snap shooting sight from Falcon 4. The tracer line is
your bullet path. The position of the reticle is determined by radar ranging, or in the absence
of a lock on, the reticle is fixed at a range of 1500 feet. The tick marks are TOF markers for
.5, 1.0, and 1.5 seconds.

In the fixed sight discussion of the snap shot, we used a one G technique that used cockpit
and HUD references to align the target’s flight path with our gun line. But the advantage of a
disturbed reticle system is that it attempts to show bullet position at any G. Can the disturbed
reticle sight be used for a snap shot when you are pulling more than one G?
The answer is yes. But, the level of difficulty goes up quite a bit. Instead of flying the target
through the gun line position, you are now going to have to fly the target through the
displaced pipper position. The trick is how to get the target to fly through the pipper.
Remember, you and the target are flying two different flight paths! The LCOSS snap shot
when you are pulling G is an out-of-plane maneuver! Here’s how to do it.
Begin with a substantial amount of lead. Get your nose out in front of the target…outside the
edge of the forward canopy bow in most cases. The picture that you want to visualize is that
you are going to drag your pipper across the target’s flight path. Your objective is to have the
pipper cross that flight path the same time as the target.

With your nose in lead, try to stabilize your G load as you position the pipper in the projected
target flight path. The steadier you are with your G control, the less settling time you will
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require. Remember that the sight responds to your G inputs, so any last second pitch
movement may result in an invalid pipper position.

This is not called a snap shot for nothing! The open fire point comes and goes in a
heartbeat! Think of yourself as a one-handed juggler…you have two balls up in the air…the
pipper and the target. You are going to try and catch them both at the same time. Can it be
done? Yes, but not easily!! The next figure shows the situation.
Your objective is to fire as the target flies into the pipper. Increase your chances by raking
your bullet stream across the target flight path. Don’t try to fire the magic single
bullet…instead account for lead errors and out-of-plane errors by firing as you pull your pipper
through the target flight path.
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OK!! It’s now time to move on to the Director LCOSS. In many respects, the director sight is
similar in employment to the disturbed reticle sight.
THE DIRECTOR SIGHT AND HOW TO USE IT
Well…if that is the case, then I had better tell you what those similarities are…right??
OK!! Fair enough!! The most obvious similarity is that the director aiming symbol is displaced
away from the gun line. The next similarity is that the director system uses a range
input…usually radar…some, like Flanker 2, may also use a Laser/IR tracking system. And
last…the director system needs settling time to minimize radar tracking errors.
End of story. Past this point, everything is different. Really different.
Here it is again in a nutshell. Disturbed sight systems attempt to show you the past…bullet
behavior one TOF ago. Director systems attempt to show you the future…bullet behavior
one TOF from now.
As you can easily recognize, this is not insignificant.
Let’s expand the explanation of a director system some more. Director systems display a
sight picture that says this, "If you pull the trigger now, you will hit the target". This means the
bullet fired now will hit the target after one TOF. Inquiring minds might ask…"Just how does
the director system know what’s going to happen in the future?"
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The answer lays in one major assumption…the target is going to keep on doing what it is
doing for the next few moments.
To explain this, let’s use the following example. We’ll start with a situation where we are
tracking a target. We are in plane with the gun line at the correct lead point. Here is a
drawing of the basic gunnery solution.
Let’s return to our initial discussion of gun ballistics. This drawing represents the
solution…the ONLY solution. Any additional aiming references that we include in the basic
HUD picture only serve to simplify the aiming problem. Regardless of what type aiming
references these are, they do NOT change the basic ballistics. The point that I am trying to
make is this. The disturbed reticle sight is not ‘better’ than the fixed sight, and the director
sight is not ‘better’ than the disturbed reticle sight. The fixed, disturbed reticle, and director
symbology are just different ways of showing the pilot what the basic gunnery solution
LOOKS like. Advanced sight types may be easier to use, but they are not more accurate.
Let’s redraw Figure 57 and now include a pipper over the target. This new picture can be
either a disturbed reticle sight or director sight display.
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If it is seen as a disturbed reticle sight display, then the picture is saying, "If you had fired one
TOF ago, the rounds would be impacting the target now." What does this display say about
what will happen if you fire now? Not much. The disturbed reticle theory predicts that if your
flight path does not change, you will hit the target if you fire now…assuming the target is still
under the pipper. But, since the disturbed reticle sight is not computing target position, it has
no way of knowing where the target will be. So, this display is a nice picture of what might
have been, but as far as what may happen if you fire now, it’s a pure guess.
What is the director display saying to you? Simply, that if you fire now, the target will be hit
one TOF from now. Does this sound like the director sight is trying to predict the future?
Yes. That is exactly what it is trying to do. It does this by taking advantage of its radar lock
on. The sight computer gets target flight path data…speed, direction, turn rate, closure…and
puts all of this together to predict a future target position. How far into the future? One TOF.
It then generates a pipper display that is a steering command to get you to point the gun at
this predicted point in space.
The bottom line is that regardless of the sight type, the gun is still pointed at the same point in
the sky to hit the target.
As far as the director sight goes, what does all this mean? To put it bluntly, it means, ‘What
you see is what you get.' Put the pipper on the target, fire, and you’re a hero. That’s how it is
supposed to work. Could we be so lucky? Probably. Especially as long as the following
conditions apply.
• The target does not change its flight path after we pull the trigger. (If it does, all bets
are off.)
• The sight has enough settling time to reliably compute a valid solution.
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Fortunately, given typically short TOFs, these conditions are not unrealistic. Director sights
are very lethal. You want yours to be equally lethal in your sim. Let’s talk about how to do
that.
Director Sight Tracking Shot

Not a biggie!! We already know that the director system relies on a radar or IR/laser lock on.
Accurate ranging is a given in this sight system. The next two figures show how range is
displayed in the Flanker 2 and Janes F/A-18 sims. Both use a reticle analog bar, but the bar
is interpreted differently. The Flanker range bar moves counter-clockwise and is an indicator
of relative range. The range bar starts at the 12 o’clock position and indicates ‘maximum
range.' It then moves around the reticle to reach a ‘minimum range’ position between the one
o’clock and 12 o’clock positions.
The Janes F/A-18 range bar is more specific. The bar also moves counter-clockwise starting
from the 12 o’clock position. Tick marks representing thousands of feet range are around the
circumference of the reticle. In addition, the HUD has a range readout.
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Determining Target Plane of Motion
Use the very same techniques to get into the target’s plane of motion that you used with the
two previous sight systems.
Use BFM to get the pipper and the target into the same general area of the HUD. Then,
smoothly use aileron and pitch to ‘fly’ the pipper to the target. The pipper indicates the
direction to fly to get the gun line on the target. The next figure shows this.
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Allow for the same amount of settling time that you do with a disturbed reticle sight.
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Determine The Open Fire Point
This one’s a no-brainer. Assuming you have done all of the above, when the pipper display
indicates a firing solution, then blast away. If all is well, the sight is like a ‘death
dot’…anything it touches is hit.
One might ask, "How do I know that I have a firing solution?" This is a good question. The
pipper does not always indicate bullet position. Remember the pipper is a steering
command…it is telling you which way to steer to get the gun line on the target. Fortunately,
most director systems will include a ‘shoot’ cue that tells you that you have a valid firing
solution. So, fly the pipper to the target and double check that you have the shoot cue before
you fire.
The Flanker director sight uses two shoot cues. First, the ‘in range’ "LA" cue will appear. The
target will have an aiming circle around it. Your second ‘shoot cue’ will be anytime you
superimpose the reticle over the aiming circle once the ‘LA’ range advisory is in view.
The F/A-18 director sight uses the word "SHOOT" to indicate to the pilot that the sight has a
valid solution. This "SHOOT" cue will not appear until you get the pipper on the target.
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Pretty neat, eh?!!
And it is. But the director sight is very dependent on a number of variables and assumptions
that sometimes are not too compliant. Future target behavior is number one on this list.
Fortunately, if we fire at close range, the short TOF makes it improbable that the target will be
able to maneuver away from our bullet path.
Great!! So, how about using the director sight in a snap shot situation?
Director Sight Snap Shot
Let’s dispense with the rocket science, and just say that the director sight is designed for a
tracking solution. Its reliance on a radar or IR/laser lock on and predictable target behavior all
conspire to make snap shots difficult. Remember, the pipper is not an indication of bullet
position…it is a direction steering symbol only. It is saying that if the shooter can place the
pipper over the target and fire, then he will get a hit. That’s just fine…for a disturbed reticle
LCOSS where the pipper indicates bullet position. But for a director sight, in a snap shot
situation, the position of the pipper becomes very unpredictable. And, because the target is in
the gun line for such a small amount of time, settling time and tracking errors are common
place. This is not to say that a snap shot cannot be done using the director sight…it’s just
much, much harder! Here are some tips for how to do this with the Flanker and F/A-18
director sights.
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Flanker 2 Snap Shot
Pull the nose out in lead as you would with any sight. If possible, try to level your wings with
the target’s flight path…this makes the solution easier to see. Select a view that will allow you
to see in the direction of the target. Padlock will work well. You can also use the forward
view and slew your look angle towards the target.
In your view, you will have three items to work with…the target, the aiming circle and the
reticle. Initially, the reticle may not be in view until you reduce your range. Project the
target’s flight path forward across your HUD. Raise or lower your nose to line up the reticle
with the aiming circle.
Adjust your heading to close your range. Be ready to see the target move rapidly across your
nose. Fine tune your nose position to align the target flight path, aiming circle, and reticle.
Open fire as the target approaches the aiming circle and continue to fire until the target flies
through the reticle.
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Janes F/A-18 Snap Shot
Pull your nose out and fine tune your nose position as described in the Flanker section. You
will again have three references…the target, the reticle, and the approximate gun line. The ^
symbol immediately above the gun cross symbol is the approximate gun line.
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Open fire as the target approaches the reticle.
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You do have an alternative. Disregard the LCOSS symbols and use a fixed sight technique.
For Flanker 2, return your sight to the funnel display by breaking your radar lock. For F/A-18,
use the ^ symbol as your gun line.
CONCLUSION
This has been long and involved, but I hope you understand gunsights better now than you
did before. Nothing has changed since the Red Baron took to the air. Get in close, steady
your aim, and fire a good burst
Air To Air Gunnery Revisited - Guns,

Gunsights, and Convergence
by Andy Bush
Well, it’s been a few months since I covered this subject...and in the time that has
passed, I’ve noticed a continued interest in A2A gunnery and gunsights. So much so, in
fact, that I’ve decided a return visit might help some to better understand what’s going on
when we try to blow the wily bandit away!
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A2A gunnery is one of the most difficult of all fighter related flying skills, and one thing is
for certain. Luck only goes so far! ‘Spray and pray,' as some would have it, has a chance
for success, but only a small one. The simple fact is that proficiency in A2A gunnery is
founded on a bedrock of academic theory followed by the fine art of practice, practice,
and more practice! While some folks have a better ‘eye’ for this than others, all of us can
better our hit percentage if we understand what factors are in play as we close in on our
target. So, without further ado, let’s get right to those factors.
One note...I’m going to limit this article to fixed sight systems. Right now, WW2 sims are
sprouting up all over the place, and most of that era’s fighters used a fixed sight. Lately,
I’ve been having great fun with the on-line WW2 sim, Aces High, and also have been
enjoying the lively discussions on the AH forums. Hats off to the many enthusiastic and
imaginative simmers there...it’s your questions and comments that are the reason for this
article.
And another note...a successful gunnery attack is like any job you might take on. You
need the correct tool to do it right. In A2A gunnery, that tool is your gunsight. In this
article, I’m going to use the gunsight as a way of discussing the mysteries of the gun
attack.
Lastly, this article contains two kinds of info...academic stuff for those of you having an
interest in such things...and practical tips on how to design a gunsight to better
understand the gunnery problem. Take your pick on what is your cup of tea! That being
said, let’s move on!
The Three Components Of A Successful A2A Gunnery Attack
So, here we are...we’ve BFM’ed the bandit until we have him right where we want him.
He’s in front and we’re behind and all we have to do is drill him good. ‘Ahhh,' we all say,
‘Easier said than done!’ Some might say, ‘What’s the big deal?...just point the gun at him
and make him go Boom!’ More often than not, this gets us nothing but a smaller number
on the ammo counter. OK...so what’s the problem?
There is a relatively simple answer to that question. There are three problems, actually.
These are:
1. You must get in range.
2. You must get your gun line in the plane of motion of the target.
3. And you must fire with the correct lead for target motion.
Let’s take a look at each one.
Range and Its Effect On the Gunnery Problem

I remember well my first A2A engagements in real life. I’d chase my target around and
deliver what I thought was a lethal blow...simulated, of course, since this was a training
sortie. Then it was back to the squadron for the debriefing. We’d send our gun film in for
quick processing...I couldn’t wait to get mine back so I could show the world what a real
‘kill’ looked like. So pretty soon, it was show time...but wait, there’s something terribly
wrong! First of all, there were the snickers coming from the other guys...and then there
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was the film itself. Where was the bandit? ‘Right there,' one of the other pilots said...’If
you squint real hard you can see it!’
Alas, there was the bandit...but he was so small! He was much larger than that when I
pulled the trigger! What could have happened? Well, what happened is that inexperience
and excitement overcame good sense. I had the pipper on the bandit...no argument
there...but it was way out of range. In my rush for the kill, I had been blind to the actual
relative target size. And my experience was not unique...out of range gun attacks have
been with us ever since the first fighter took to the air.
I’m sure you all would agree that out of range is a bad thing. OK...why? Sure, there is the
no-brainer answer that if the bullet won’t get there, you don’t have much of a chance for a
kill. But there are other things at work here...and they all have a significant effect on how
well we do. Two of the more important of these are convergence and dispersion. Let’s
take a brief look at these two terms.
Convergence
For purposes of this article, I’ll define convergence as the process of adjusting the gun
mounts so that the gun lines come together at some specified distance in front of the
fighter. The intent is to concentrate the firepower of multiple guns into a small area,
thereby improving the chances of mortally damaging the target. Another name for
convergence is harmonization. This term, not convergence, is more often used
today...but, in this article, we’re dealing with primarily the WW2 era, and so we’ll stick
with convergence.
There are two parts to the convergence process. The first is the horizontal adjustment
that brings the gun lines together in azimuth at the desired range. This type of
convergence normally applies only wing mounted guns...not to guns mounted on the
fuselage centerline.
The second part of the convergence process is the vertical adjustment of the guns. This
gun aiming procedure adjusts the aim point of the gun so that the rounds fired are
corrected for gravity drop at the desired convergence range. This is done to ensure that
the projectile flight paths cross the sight line at the convergence range. Since gravity acts
on the rounds after they are fired, the guns are typically angled slightly up to raise the
gun line(s) up to the sight line. Depending on the range specified, this may result in the
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bullet stream initially going above the sight line until gravity brings it back down to the
sight line.
In Aces High, we can set our own convergence values...a typical setting is 300 yards. At
the start of WW2, this would have been an accepted value. In fact, the Royal Air Force
standard for convergence in 1939 was 400 yards...despite hard evidence from
intelligence coming from the Spanish Civil War that the Luftwaffe was using a value of
half that. Let’s stop here and understand why the RAF arrived at that 400 yard
convergence figure. Simply put, they believed this to be the proper range to gain the
maximum number of hits on a target...but you must realize that the ‘target’ in the mind of
the RAF leadership in 1939 was not a Me-109. Instead, it was a He-111 or Do-17. Prior
to the Battle of Britain, the RAF made the near-fatal error of thinking that any air war with
Germany would be against a Luftwaffe operating from German bases. The mission of the
RAF would be to intercept bomber attacks over England...and because of the distances
involved, that tended to rule out the bombers being escorted by fighters. Few imagined
that the Luftwaffe might operate from bases in France and the Low Countries, thereby
permitting the use of fighters over England.
The RAF’s narrow victory in 1940 may not have immediately changed the ‘official’ view of
convergence, but it certainly changed many a pilot’s mind. There, and for the remainder
of the war, regardless of nationality, the mantra of ‘get in close’ was universally
acknowledged. While no one established exactly what that meant in specific numbers,
most pilots understood the advantages of point blank firing ranges!
I suggest then that you use 300 yard as a max convergence range. This value or less will
pay off in smaller lead angles. In addition, if you use a mixed armament of machine guns
and cannon, you may find the weapons have less of a problem with differing ballistics at
shorter convergence ranges.
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Dispersion
Dispersion is the ever-widening pattern that the projectile path experiences as range
increases. This effect is linear...meaning that the bullet stream spreads out at a fixed
angle...dispersion at max range is a serious consideration. Why? Because the widening
pattern results in fewer rounds in a given amount of airspace. As range increases,
dispersion expands, and target relative size decreases, resulting in this situation. Clearly
closer is better!
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boresighting
Here’s one more term you may run across. Boresighting is one way to adjust the guns for
convergence. The term comes from the concept of looking down the barrel (the bore)
with an optical device (the sight). A board with calibrated markings is placed in front of
the aircraft at a specified distance (1000 inches is typical). The board is aligned with the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft and is set to coincide with the gunsight in the fixed
position. The markings on the board are where the gun line(s) intersect the board for a
given convergence range. The technician uses the optical sight to look down the barrel.
He then adjusts the gun mount until his sight is pointed exactly at the marking on the
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board. Then the gun is tightened down as it is now aimed properly for the desired
convergence range.
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OK...fine. We’ve established that we would like a relatively short range as our desired
firing range. That’s nice...but how do we determine when we are at that range? You don’t
want to be like me and think you are in range when you are not! In some sims (AH is a
good example), we have range icons to help us out. But, I find that concentrating on
reading the icon interferes with my maneuvering. I’d like a way to estimate range without
using the icon. Our gunsight offers a way to do exactly that. Here’s how:
Using the Gunsight To Determine Range

Regardless of the design of the sight that you like to use, it has lines or curves that you
can use to estimate range. In its most simple form, this consists of flying behind a target
and comparing the size of the target to markings on the sight. These markings represent
how large a target of a known size will appear at various ranges. Can we do this with our
simulation gunsights? In most cases where the sim has range cues, the answer is yes.
Here’s how.
In AH, we can go to the off-line area and fly behind one of the drones at our desired
convergence range. Film this using the recorder function (Alt+R). Then play back the film
and stop the film when at your convergence range. Observe the relationship of the
wingspan of the drone to your sight. We will compare the size of the sight features to the
target wingspan.
You have two ways to do this. One way is to use the standard forward view (F1) and then
use the zoom (Z ) feature to expand the view. Note the relative size of your sight feature
to the drone wingspan. Here is what the default gunsight looks like:
With the default sight, you can see that the P-51 drone wingspan appears to be about
half again as wide as the gap between the horizontal bars of the sight when we are at
the 300 yard point. The wingspan of the P-51 is representative of a typical WW2
fighter wingspan. If you use this relative target size as an example of what a 300 yard
range looks like when compared to the default sight, you won’t be far off regardless
of whatever type of target you have. And, no matter what sim you fly, this technique
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remains valid...as long as you can determine range by some means, you can use the
sight as a range indicator
A second method is a bit more complicated...but easier to use. The idea is to customize
the sight such that markings on the sight match the target size at your convergence
range. The design of the markings should be chosen to make this size matching as easy
as possible. The actual procedures for this technique will be discussed at the end of this
article. Here is a typical example:
In either case, you have a sight that tells you what the target should look like at your
convergence range. This type of ranging is known as stadiametric ranging, and while the
procedure is a bit more complicated in real life, this technique works well in Aces High.
Good! Now we have found a way to solve the first problem of range. Now we move on to
the second problem...how do we get our gun into the target’s plane of motion?
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The Target’s Plane of Motion and Its Effect On the Gunnery Problem
A2A gunnery instructors often stress the need for the student to ‘get into the plane of
motion of the target’. All well and good...but what they really mean is that they want the
student to get his projectile path into the target’s plane of motion (POM). Big deal, you
might say...what’s the difference
Well...depending on range, it might be significant. Here’s why. Picture the target in a turn.
The plane of that turn will be determined by its bank angle and G load. The only time that
gravity is in alignment with the target POM is when the target’s POM is perpendicular to
the horizon...any other time, gravity and the target POM will be misaligned.
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Now, when we shoot at this target, our rounds are going to be affected by gravity. If the
target POM is not perpendicular to the horizon, then we will have to add a gravity drop
correction to our aiming solution. We do that by aiming above the target’s POM (relative
to the horizon) in order that our rounds ‘fall down’ to coincide with its POM.
Our objective is to get our rounds into the target POM. We can do this two ways. We
can fly with our POM paralleling the target and our sight placed at the correct position
‘above’ the target POM. If we match the target’s turn rate, this is called ‘tracking’.
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Ideally, all rounds fired would hit the target.
The second way is to fly our aircraft such our flight path intersects the target POM. We
fire early enough to allow our rounds to intersect the target POM...and the target flys
through our rounds. This is called a ‘snapshot’.
While I’m here, how about another tidbit of terminology! One term popular in WW2 was
the idea of ‘deflection’ shooting. Let’s define that term. Deflection refers to the angle off
relationship between the shooter and target. A deflection shot was any firing attempt
made with angle off greater than zero. While a deflection shot may be a tracking shot or a
snapshot, it is most often thought of as a non-tracking snapshot. As angle off increases,
so does the ‘deflection angle’...and the amount of lead required.
Using the Gunsight To Estimate the Target’s Plane of Motion

All right! Let’s get back to our sight. Can it help us estimate the target POM? Yes and
no...depends on the design of the sight. Let’s imagine ourselves tracking a turning target.
Wouldn’t it be nice to have a line on our sight that matched the target POM? Indeed! But
seldom is that the case. Some sight designs try to help us out by including lines at
various angles. The idea is to use these lines to help stabilize the sight in the target
POM. Here’s a typical example:
Unfortunately, since the target could fly in any POM relative to our flight path, it is
impossible to have a fixed sight that could have enough lines to cover all possibilities.
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The ones with a vertical line and a line at 45 degrees can be useful. Even though these
lines may not exactly match the target POM, they may be helpful in stabilizing your
sight in that plane
Aside from lines on the sight, if you intend to track the target, a good way to stabilize
your sight in the target POM is to match its bank angle with your own. Position
yourself with the sight firing reference (the pipper) slightly above the target POM and
level your wings relative to the target. As long as your G load is approximately the
same as the target’s, you should have similar bank angles.
One other POM cue is available from most forward views. This is the cockpit structure in
the HUD area. For low G tracking situations, use the line of the glare shield (or
windshield line) as a rough approximation of the bandit flight path. For high G situations,
use the vertical HUD supports. As you bring your nose to the target, you can use cockpit
references such as these to stabilize in the bandit’s POM.
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So far, so good! We have now solved for target range and target POM. Now comes
the ‘biggie’...the bane of all deflection shooters...the problem of getting the lead right
The Lead Angle and Its Effect On the Gunnery Problem
First of all, what’s the lead angle? In simple terms, since the rounds that we fire take
some small amount of time to reach the target, whenever we have any deflection at all,
we must aim in front of the target. The angle between our nose and our line of sight to
the target is the lead angle, and the major components of that angle are lead for target
motion and gravity drop.
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can’t resist throwing in a formula to drive you all nuts! Here it is. This is the formula for
what is referred to as "kinematic lead"...another way of saying "lead for target motion".
I’m mentioning it so that you can appreciate the variables that go into the lead angle
problem. Kinematic lead only deals with the target movement across our flight path...it is
just one part of the total lead angle solution. But it is usually the largest part of that angle,
and taking a look at how it is computed allows us to better understand how angle off
figures into the "big picture".
L = Vt x 1000 x Sin@ / Vm
L is the lead for target motion (in mils).
@ is the deflection angle (angle off in degrees).
Vt is the velocity of the target (feet/sec).
Vm is the average velocity of the round from firing to impact in feet/sec (this includes your
velocity).
Several things become obvious when looking at this equation. Lead becomes greater as
airspeeds increase. Lead increases as angle off increases. Lead increases as range
increases (because of reduced average muzzle velocity).
It is possible to assume some variables and compute this value. The formula produces a
lead angle measured in mils. When I was a student in F-4 training, we flew the F-4C
which did not have a lead computing sight. Our sight could be manually depressed from
its fixed position. When we flew our A2A gunnery missions against a towed target, we
computed a mil setting based upon the expected parameters. We then dialed that setting
into the sight. The idea was to track the target with the pipper elevated for gravity drop.
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Did this technique work? Not unless you were really lucky!! I much preferred to put the
sight at its fixed position and estimate the lead...just as we do in AH...or any sim that
uses a fixed sight.
Using the Gunsight To Estimate the Correct Lead Angle

Let’s now think of what we would need in a gunsight to help us measure the lead angle.
Two big things come to mind. We need a set of visual references on the sight located at
some distance from the pipper. And we need some way of scaling these references so
that we are measuring the lead angle accurately.
To keep this as simple as possible, I’ll focus in on angle off as the primary variable in this
discussion. Certainly, range, relative speeds, and type of ammo all contribute to the
problem, but if we try to include these, we end up with a situation where nothing can be
approximated with any clarity. My objective is to give you some easily recognized visual
cues to help you estimate the required lead angle as a function of angle off.
Let’s look at three situations...low, medium, and high angle off...and the approximate lead
required.
Anytime we start crunching numbers, we need to identify our parameters...so here are
mine. I’ll use a P-51 with its .50 caliber machine guns. Both it and the target are co-
speed. I’ll assume an average range of 1000 feet...but note that range itself is not in the
lead equation. But it is still there...in the form of reduced average muzzle velocity (the
round slows down as range increases). For our purposes, I’ll subtract an arbitrary amount
for this decrease in muzzle velocity. Here are some typical values for two sets of speeds
So much for the rocket science! All of this mumbo-jumbo about mils doesn’t mean
anything unless we can put it to use in the heat of battle. How do we do that? We begin
by finding a way to estimate angle off. We decided to break angle off down into three
types (low, medium, and high). Now we need a way to recognize these positions in our
sim. Do I have a recommendation? Of course! That’s what this article is all about!
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Here it is! We’ll use the relationship of the target rudder to the target’s fuselage and wing.
Picture yourself looking at the target from the rear. The target rudder will intersect some
other part of the target fuselage/wing as you view it.
If you see the rudder lined up with the target’s nose (or there abouts), I’ll call this "low
angle off". If the rudder is superimposed about half way out the target wing, I’ll call that
"medium angle off". And if the rudder is all the way out to the wing tip...well, that’s "high
angle off". Here’s what it looks like:
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Once we can recognize angle off, we then need a way to estimate the approximate lead
angle that corresponds to that angle off. NOTE: I say "approximate" because of the
highly variable nature of these computations. I cannot give you a reference for each and
every tracking position! But, if you begin with these approximations and then fine tune
your solution through practice, you should do OK. These recommendations are only a
starting point, not the final answer!
Let’s begin with the values shown in Figure 18. We want to find a way of measuring and
then displaying these mil lead points on our fixed sight. And to do that, we go back to the
concept of what a mil is.
A mil (short for milliradian) is a small angle...about 1/17 of a degree. Since we don’t take
protractors into the cockpit, we need another way of visualizing the magnitude of the mil
unit of measurement. A very convenient way of doing this is to use the approximation that
one mil equals one foot at 1000 feet. Since this is a linear angular relationship, we then
use this concept to relate wingspan in feet to mils. For example, let’s assume a wingspan
value of 35 feet...then this wingspan of 35 feet would equal 35 mils at a range of 1000
feet...and at 2000 feet range, the wingspan would equal about 17 mils. The next figure
shows this.
This mil versus range measuring technique can be used to estimate lead angles. We
begin by agreeing to a standard size of target...we can do this since WW2 fighters were
all fairly similar in size...at least close enough for the lead angle approximations that we
are going to come up with. We may use either wingspan or fuselage length as they are
nearly equal in most WW2 fighters. Wingspan is most commonly used because, in a
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typical gun attack from the aft quarter, this is the one aircraft dimension most easily seen.
In certain angle off situations, fuselage length is a good substitute.
Having selected a standard (I’ll use 35 feet for mine), we then use that standard along
with our mil/feet relationship to come up with a technique to estimate lead angles. To do
this, we make one big assumption...and that is that the lead angle in mils does not
change significantly for the typical firing ranges that we are going to be dealing with...for
the speeds and ranges we will encounter, this assumption is "close enough for
government work"! Now, we take this, add some typical angle off situations, throw it all
into a bag and give it a good shake! Out of it comes this chart that shows how aircraft
size can be used to estimate lead angle requirements:
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Note - In arriving at these numbers, I rounded off quite a bit in the interest of simplicity.
Changes in speeds and muzzle velocities can effect these calculations. I used the .50
caliber machine gun as a reference...other guns with lower muzzle velocities will result in
greater lead angles. No matter. Use these techniques as a starting point, then fine tune
your own sighting solution.
In the case described, a 15 degree angle off lead equals a little less than two wingspans.
It’s important to note that most rear aspect gun attacks are taken at angles off of 10
degrees or less...so we could visualize a lead of one to two wingspans in this situation. In
our previous discussion, we mentioned three angle off situations (low, medium, and
high). This is what the lead would look like for these situations.
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Air To Ground Basics - Bombing
by Andy Bush
September 21, 1999
"Fighter pilots kill them one at a time...attack pilots kill them by the hundreds.."
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INTRODUCTION
"Two’s in hot," you say as you roll into the dive. Pulling your nose to the target, you aim
the pipper at the target, mash the ‘pickle’ button, and go on your merry way, confident
that you have blown the target to smithereens...if only it were that easy!!
Air combat is a two-sided coin. While we all enjoy a good turn and burn, the air-to-mud flip
side can be just as exciting, if not more so. Our sims continue to become more and more
realistic in their scenario development and portrayal of weapons delivery. Perhaps it’s time
for us to add to our understanding of the finer points of air to ground weapons delivery.
When it comes to this aspect of air combat simulation, there’s a whole new world out
there...little has been said regarding this area. Few sim manuals get into the basics...most
manuals will describe air to air maneuvers in considerable, if somewhat repetitive, detail...few,
however have tried to explain the basics of bombing, rocketry, and strafing. Not surprisingly,
these disciplines are just as demanding as air to air concepts...in fact, air to ground
maneuvers have often been referred to as ‘BFM’ing the ground.’ The objective of any fighter
maneuver is for the pilot to fly his aircraft to a specific point in the sky and to get there at a
desired speed, heading, and altitude. Air to air...air to mud...it’s all the same. This series of
articles will discuss the method of doing just that...getting your aircraft into a weapons delivery
position...this time with your nose pointed at the ground!!
This article could be sub-titled "What You See Is Not What You Necessarily Get!!" While
Figure 2 may look like a picture of a perfect dive bomb pass, reality is often far different. In
this article, we will see how different aspects of a weapons delivery attack affect our ability to
hit a target. The point will be to separate fact from fiction...when it comes to realistic weapons
delivery, many of our sims are closer to the latter than the former. If you were not interested
in simulation accuracy, you would not be reading this in the first place, so my objective is to
make you a little bit smarter about the subject of air to ground weapons delivery. Let’s get
started!
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First, let me clarify one piece of terminology. Figure 2 is a typical screenshot of an air to
ground attack. What we see is an aiming reference...in this case a circle of diamonds from a
Korean War era fighter, but it could just as easily be the more common HUD circle known as
a reticle or ‘pipper.' For this article, I’ll generalize and refer to all gunsight aiming references
as ‘pippers.' Strictly speaking, of course, the pipper is actually the dot in the center of the
circle. In the figure, the pilot has established himself in a dive and is aiming the pipper directly
at the target. At some unspecified point (usually as soon as the pilot manages to fly the
pipper exactly over the target), he’ll release or fire his weapon and pull out of the dive,
confident that he has wrought death and destruction to the bad guys! In this article, I will give
you a simplified explanation of why the delivery of air to ground munitions is a tad more
complicated than what is typically seen in today’s sims.
Oh...one other minor point! In this discussion, I am not going to consider the effect of wind.
I’ll talk about that in a future article.
We’ll begin by looking at a number of factors that govern the delivery of air to ground
weapons. This material is, for the most part, real world academics. Not all of it is pertinent to
our sims simply because the sims are not yet programmed to take into account these
principles. For you ‘hard core’ types out there, you may find the material instructive. I’ll try to
cover the material in enough detail to hold your interest. For the rest of us, you should find
the discussions interesting and challenging. Regardless of the depth of your involvement, the
end result will be an enhanced appreciation of what it takes to put the bomb, rocket, or
cannon shell right where you want it...parked in the lap of the bad guys!
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
Despite what we usually see in today’s sims, the ability to put our weapon on target is not
quite the ‘piece of cake’ that it appears to be. If sim AI realism continues to improve (and
there is no reason to expect that it will not), you may well have to take the following factors
into consideration. While sim air to ground is still pretty much at the ‘no brainer’ level of
development, you can take the upcoming material ‘to the bank.' When we begin a bomb,
rocket, or strafe pass, the success of that attack, and potentially our subsequent survival, will
depend on whether or not we satisfy these factors. Let’s get to it!
Frag Envelope
When it detonates, each air to ground weapon has a unique explosive pattern. The larger the
weapon, the bigger the pattern. The ‘frag’ that we are referring to is the scattering of the bits
and pieces of the weapon body. Not surprisingly, bombs have a much larger frag pattern
than rockets or strafe. For example, after a 500 lb. bomb explodes, there are several hundred
pounds of shredded metal flying through the airspace above and around the explosion. You
do not want to occupy the same airspace as this frag!
Consequently, we make an input in our weapon release planning to take this pattern into
account. The following diagram shows a typical frag pattern, and the accompanying table
sets out frag parameter values. Please note that the pattern is bounded vertically and
laterally in feet, and by duration in seconds.
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In our weapon delivery attack, we honor these frag values by overflying the target above the
highest altitude or by turning to miss the lateral boundary. In certain cases we can also fly a
flight path that is timed so as to not enter the frag pattern area until the frag has all fallen back
to the ground.
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Several factors directly impact how the frag pattern affects our flight path. These are weapon
time of flight (TOF), release airspeed, release dive angle, fuse functioning time, and whether
or not the release is single or ripple.
Time Of Flight
The significance of the weapon TOF lies in the separation needed between the pilot and the
weapon when it goes off. The more time that a pilot has to put some distance between
himself and the weapon explosion, the better. The shorter the TOF, the more aggressive the
pilot must be in his post-release maneuvering. This is usually implemented as a high-g
pullout to gain as much altitude as possible before the weapon goes off.
Release Airspeed
This factor goes hand in hand with TOF. High release speeds in dive deliveries result in
shorter TOF. Since high threat target area defenses mandate high attack speeds, short TOF
are much more the rule than the exception. Increasing airspeed affects the danger of the frag
pattern in one other way...as airspeed goes up, so does the aircraft’s turn radius for a given
amount of G. Typically this results in more altitude lost in the recovery than is desired. To
offset this problem, the pilot increases his release altitude.
Release Dive Angle

Further complicating the need to avoid the frag pattern is the dive angle of the attack flight
path. A diving flight path at release reduces weapon TOF and adds to the altitude lost in the
pullout. A diving attack is often desired in attack planning...it improves target acquisition and
reduces aiming errors, but pilots must always be aware of its drawbacks with regard to frag
pattern deconfliction.
Fuse Functioning Time

It would ruin your day to have your bomb explode right after you dropped it! For that reason,
the bomb fuse has a setting that lets you determine the time that it takes after release before
the weapon is ‘hot.' Since this period of time may add to the TOF, it must also be taken into
consideration.
Single or Ripple Weapon Release

During a multiple weapon (ripple) release, the aircraft continues along its flight path as the
weapons are coming off. As such, the pilot is delayed in beginning his pull out maneuver.
Because of this delay, ripple releases require higher release altitudes to give the pilot the
chance to avoid the frag of the first weapon to detonate.
OK!! That pretty much covers the main factors that affect our choice of release point. Please
note that the only release parameter that we have mentioned so far has been altitude. That is
because it is by far the most common parameter...but it is not the only one. In the simulation
from which Figure 2 came from, the only release parameter is getting the pipper on the
target. In fact, this is the primary parameter in many simulations. In the following discussion,
we’ll see why that may not be the case after all.
WEAPON BALLISTICS EFFECTS DUE TO GRAVITY

Well folks...remember Sir Isaac Newton? He’s the guy that had the apple fall on his head, or
something like that. He didn’t know it, but Sir Isaac has been making life miserable for us air
to mud pukes ever since.
Here’s the problem in a nutshell. Picture yourself motoring along (level or in a dive...it makes
no difference). You pickle off your weapon and begin your pull out. The big question
becomes...where is that puppy going to land? Figure 5 depicts the bomb fall line of a weapon
as it falls to earth.
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Let’s stop for a second and cover some more terminology. We use clock positions to
describe where a weapon lands. We orient the clock so that our flight path extends from six
o’clock to the twelve o’clock position. The 3/9 line of the clock defines whether the bomb
lands ‘short’ (before the 3/9 line) or ‘long’ (past the 3/9 line). Dare I say it...the 6/12 line
determines the right or left of the impact point!!
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OK! So, now we can label a weapon impact point as being short/long or right/left of the
intended target. This obvious fact leads directly to a not-so-obvious next question. What
made the weapon miss? Easy!! Flight path and release point errors!!
Flight path errors are the easiest to explain and correct. When I say ‘flight path’ in this
context, I’m talking about your ground track as you fly over the target. When we release the
weapon, our aircraft has a particular vector. At the moment of release, we can project that
vector forward along the ground. If we did not turn, that line on the ground can be thought of
as our future flight path. For our purposes, I’ll assume the weapon drops directly under our
aircraft and is not affected by any forces during its fall. Our projected flight path line then
becomes the line that the weapon will land on...somewhere. At the moment of release, then,
we ask ourselves...is that line going through the target? Or is it passing the target off to one
side or the other? If it isn’t going dead center through the intended target, then we have a
flight path error! In Figure 7, let’s say you intend to bomb the first truck in the convoy, but for
whatever reason, you end up with a flight path to the right of what you need.
Guess who the guilty party is? You are!! In the real world, we teach new fighter pilots that
lesson number one is fly your behind over the target!! Fortunately, most of us are fairly
decent at getting this parameter down, so flight path (right/left) error are the lesser of the two
types of errors.
That leaves us with the subject of release point errors...and, incidentally, the underlying
subject of this article. First, a quick explanation of why these errors are the larger of the two.
Think of it this way...as you approach your target, you bank left or right to get lined up with it.
You may not nail it perfectly, but you get pretty close. If your heading is off by a degree or
two, the resulting ground track error will be small...and by small, I mean on the order of less
than 100 feet. Now, we consider the actual release point...the point at which you mash the
pickle button. Errors here are one of two kinds...either you pickle too soon or too late. These
are timing errors rather than heading errors, and it’s the issue of time that causes the
problem. What if you are one second late in your decision to release the weapon? That
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weapon is going to land a distance equal to one second’s flight time past the target...and that
can be a long way!! For example, let’s say we were doing 500 knots at release. That bomb is
going to hit as much as 700 feet or so past the target. Whoa!! Now that’s a miss!!
Fortunately, most release errors are not that large, but the point remains that release errors
tend to be much larger than flight path errors.
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Before I move on, let me restate what we just covered. If you miss your target, most likely it
will be due to a release point error. Flight path errors are relatively easy to recognize and
correct. Not so with release point errors. They are not easy to see or correct, and they may
result in large miss distances. In the next section, we are going to look at the relationship of
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where your aircraft is aimed to where the weapon will land. We’ll conclude with a discussion
of how to deal with the situation where we do not meet our desired delivery parameters.
HOW GRAVITY MAKES LIFE HARD FOR THE ATTACK PILOT!

The next part of our discussion centers on weapon ballistics and is the heart and soul of
weapon delivery. Please take the time to make sure you understand this material cold. The
following figure shows us what happens to a weapon’s trajectory during its TOF. We will
illustrate the situation with a dive delivery for simplicity. Picture yourself in a dive. Your
projected flight path intersects the ground at what we will refer to as your ‘crash point.'
At some distance above the ground (release altitude), you pickle off your bomb. Sir Isaac
takes over from here. The weapon continues along the flight path that your aircraft was on at
release. But, because of gravity, it also picks up a downward vector. This downward vector
changes the weapon’s ballistics, and when the weapon impacts the ground, it does so at a
point behind your aircraft. This effect is magnified by the height of the release point. For a
free falling weapon, your ‘crash point’ and the weapon impact point are never the same.
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What does this mean? It’s simple. For a free fall weapon, if you aim right at the target, you
will miss short. The only exception is if you are in a 90 degree dive...and that’s probably not
going to be the case! You must aim your aircraft PAST the target...at the target’s 12
o’clock...to take into account the effect of gravity. The following diagram illustrates this point.
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The diagram shows our aircraft at release, the point at which its flight path intersects the
ground, and the point of impact of the weapon. Here’s where we stop to make one thing
absolutely clear. For the given dive angle, airspeed, and release altitude, the bomb is always
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going to hit the same spot...always. OK...so much for the physics...after all we’re pilots, not
rocket scientists...so we’ll move along to what all of this means to us as we sit in our cockpit.
Speaking of cockpits, let’s look at a cockpit view. The following screenshot illustrates this
concept. In this picture, the aircraft is in a dive...in this case, a 15 degree dive.
Please note the flight path marker (the ‘tadpole’ or velocity vector) on the 15 degree line. The
target is located at the crossroads. The pilot has aimed his aircraft long. He does this by
initially pointing the gun cross to the target’s 12 o’clock as he establishes himself in the
dive...this gets his flight path in the approximate position long of the target. He then fine tunes
this by flying the tadpole to exactly where he wants it. And where, you say, is that? Good
question. The answer is coming up in a moment. But first, we need to talk for a bit about the
visual tool we use for aiming our weapon...our gunsight or ‘pipper.'
We have learned that we cannot aim right at the target...we have to aim past it. That means
that we need a HUD symbol to aim the aircraft with (the tadpole or flight path reference) and
then we need a HUD symbol to use as a release point indicator...the pipper. Clearly, these
two HUD symbols are not the same and are not co-located. Usually, the pipper is below the
tadpole. The following info explains why.
WEAPON IMPACT POINT AND THE SIGHT PICTURE

We’ll begin by imagining our aircraft at the correct release point in our dive. Our flight path is
correctly aimed to the target’s 12 o’clock. We’ll redraw Figure 11. We’ll let our imagination go
a bit further and visualize a gunsight pipper superimposed over the target. We call this the
‘release sight picture'..the pipper is on the target and the aircraft is at the exact release
parameters.
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This is where we have to stop and observe one very important fact. The pipper is not co-
located with the crash point...the pipper is not pointed at where the aircraft is pointed...in fact,
as the next figure shows, the pipper is actually lower down in the gunsight. This lower
position is called a ‘depressed’ position.
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In pilot terminology, the angular difference between the longitudinal axis (the ‘nose’ of the
aircraft) and this depressed position is known as the sight depression angle.
For the typical weapons delivery, this angle is relatively small...no more than ten degrees or
so. Because of this small value in degrees, another unit of angular measurement is used.
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This unit is the milliradian, or ‘mil’ for short (for you scientific types, one degree is about 18
mils!). Gun sights are usually calibrated in mils.
Let’s refer to Figure 2 again. This picture depicts the situation we see in many of today’s
sims...one in which the gunsight is on or close to the roll or longitudinal axis of the aircraft. At
the usual attack speeds, this axis and the flight path marker are essentially the same. Now,
this is not technically correct in many cases (because of the effect that angle of attack has on
the position of the roll axis as compared to the flight path)...but, for most of our sims, this is
how the gunsight / HUDs are portrayed.
Moreover, in today’s sims, the gunsight is fixed in this position...meaning that the gunsight is
not adjustable (capable of being depressed) by the pilot. Note: This discussion is about the
basics of manual weapons delivery...this info is not intended to be used with reference to
CCIP (Continuously Computed Impact Point) delivery systems where the pipper is free to
move about the HUD.
Let’s go back now to Figure 15. There are math formulas that are used to compute the
angular difference between the flight path marker and the pipper position. That value is
expressed in mils...for example, let’s say the value is 150 mils. The real world pilot has a
knob on his gunsight that he turns clockwise to increase the pipper depression. The pipper
originates at the ‘zero’ position (for simplicity, we’ll say this is the longitudinal axis...we often
think of this as the ‘nose’ of the aircraft...also known as the fuselage reference line or FRL).
When the pilot turns the depression knob, the pipper moves down from the FRL. This called
‘cranking mils.' The pilot refers to his gunnery tables for the mil depression value for a given
dive angle, airspeed, and release altitude. These tables are different for each type of
weapon. He then ‘cranks’ that number into his gunsight using his mil depression knob...now
he’s ready to go to war!!
Well...maybe!! Let’s just stop for a moment and reconsider what we have just covered.
Essentially, what we have learned is that the actual sight picture for the proper release point
is not with the pipper in the position that we typically see in many of our sims. The pipper
should not be on the ‘nose’ as it is depicted in sims that do not display a CCIP...as in most
WW1, WW2, and Korean War sims. Instead, the pipper is actually depressed somewhere
below that point. And we learned this depression value varies with weapon type and release
parameters. So far, so good. This has been the easy part...from now on, the plot thickens!!
WEAPON IMPACT POINT AND THE SIGHT PICTURE, PART TWO

Once again let’s refer back to Figure11. Now, we’ll put our interest on the ‘crash point.'..that
point on the ground where our flight path is aimed. We now know that point is somewhere at
the target’s 12 o’clock. But where, exactly? And how do we determine where this is? Is this
value expressed in feet, mils, or what?
Actually, if you were to do the computations, the answer is ‘all of the above’, for, in fact, you
can define the crash point in both feet and mils. For right now, this is not a big deal for what
we are trying to understand. Instead, let’s focus for a moment on that crash point. That
expression is a tad unscientific, so I’ll come up with another one. The point at which the
aircraft flight path intersects the ground will be known forever more as the ‘aim off point’
(AOP). The words literally mean that point at which the pilot aims away or ‘off’ from the
target...in this case somewhere at the 12 o’clock of the target. When expressed in feet,
amazingly enough, that distance is known as the aim off distance (AOD)!!
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This is written in stone. The AOP never changes from the time you initially roll out in your
dive until you release your weapon. Once you have established yourself in your dive, you
have committed yourself to an aim off point. The significance of the AOP position is critical.
The placement of the AOP determines the magnitude of the dive angle...wrong AOP, wrong
dive angle. The placement of the AOP affects the distance that the bomb falls (bomb range)
relative to the target...wrong AOP and the bomb lands short or long of the target.
All right!! I know this has been a bunch to digest...let me explain how it all ties together. To
do that, I’m going to ask Sir Isaac to once again join in the discussion. He’ll begin by showing
how ballistic theory defines bomb range. Then I’ll step in and relate that to what we see in our
HUD. I’ll also cover briefly the importance of delivery parameters since that subject is the
closing part of this article. Here we go...
Unlike the apple that fell on Newton’s head, our weapons have a forward velocity when they
are released...a bomb has the aircraft’s velocity while rockets and gunfire add to that velocity
with their own propellant. We remember from our science courses that velocity has both a
magnitude and a direction. Therefore, a bomb is released with the aircraft’s speed and flight
path vector. In addition, the bomb has a height above ground value. Figure 19 is a diagram
intended to show a free-fall weapon immediately after release with the emphasis on the
release parameters.
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Our example assumes the release vector is directed at the ground at a shallow angle, as it
would be for an aircraft in a dive. The next figure shows the weapon impact on the ground.
The distance from the point of release to the impact is called bomb range.
Now, we remove the bomb flight path and create a triangle using the release point (air),
release point (ground), and impact point. We also include the original release
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vector
We now have everything we need to present a simplified explanation of how a mil setting is
computed. Your understanding of this math process is a major step in understanding manual
bombing. By knowing the theory that goes into a mil setting, you are much better equipped to
put the bomb on target.
Let’s go back to our earlier discussion where we referred to sight depression angle. If we
take Figure 21 and overlay it with our aircraft, a target, and an extended flight path, all
becomes clear. The angle between the flight path and the bomb line is the sight depression
angle. This angle, when converted to mils, becomes our gunsight mil setting.
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That, folks, in a basic sense is what dive bombing is all about. But before we move on, we
need to make sure we understand the significance of what we have just covered. The
situation in Figure 22 is unique to its release parameters. The mil setting is correct only for
those parameters. If we change the dive angle or release airspeed, we change the bomb’s
velocity vector. If we change the release altitude, we change the bomb range. Any changes
will result in a new mil setting. An attempt to use the old mil setting with any or all of the new
parameters will result in a long or short weapon impact point.
Since we humans are seldom perfect, attaining perfect dive bombing parameters will probably
be the exception rather than the rule. We usually will have to make some sort of correction to
our weapon release point due to airspeed, flight path (AOP), or other errors. This correction
is known as error analysis.
ERROR ANALYSIS...WHAT’S ERROR ANALYSIS?

Before we answer this question, let’s have a quick review of what we’ve learned:
1. Weapon frag pattern deconfliction determines minimum release altitude.

2. A free fall weapon always impacts the ground behind the aircraft and along the flight
path the aircraft was on at release.
3. The aim off point and target are not co-located.
4. The aim off point is always at the target’s 12 o’clock and never moves.
5. Because of this, the pipper is usually depressed below the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft.
6. The end result is that the aircraft begins its dive attack with the aim off point at the
target’s 12 o’clock and the pipper at the target’s 6 o’clock.
So, it’s clear that all we have to do is aim the nose of the aircraft past the target and, when the
pipper gets to the target, we pickle the weapon off for a bullseye.
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Don’t believe this for one, single moment. It ain’t that easy.
Pilots don’t always get the aim off point right. They don’t always have the desired dive angle.
They don’t always get the right airspeed. The pipper doesn’t always get to the target at
release altitude. So...what’s a guy or gal to do?
Error analysis...that’s what they do. This is such a broad subject that there is no way I can
cover it here...and for our sims, it’s not important anyway. But, just so that you have an
appreciation of real world fighter pilot skills, I’ll mention it briefly. Earlier in this article, we
learned about flight path and release point errors. Error analysis applies only to release point
errors and is the process by which the pilot recognizes that his dive angle, airspeed, altitude,
or aim off point is not right. In the pilot’s weapons release manual, there are tables that
display exact impact miss distances due to these release errors.
The pilot
memorizes rules of thumb to apply to these errors. For example, if he is slow, he knows the
bomb will probably land short...so he delays the release slightly to make up for that error. Or
he may push up his throttle to add some knots to his release speed to increase the bomb
range.
When the pilot makes a change, he is not just making a wild guess. He knows that if he is X
knots too slow, then he should delay the pickle point by Y feet on the altimeter. In our other
example, he will add Z knots to his speed at release. It is not unusual for a pilot to have to
deal with more than one error at a time. Sometimes they are additive, meaning they add to
each other...other times they are not. The combinations are almost endless...making error
analysis a very dicey situation. Throw in the fact that the pilot only has a couple of seconds to
first, recognize the error, and then, decide on the needed correction, and you can appreciate
the level of difficulty involved in manual weapons delivery. Fighter pilots are not
superhuman. The ability to do error analysis takes hours and hours of practice. Some pilots
learn quickly...others never get it right.
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So, here’s the bottom line. When the pilot rolls out with his nose on the AOP, he is expected
to deal with a complex three-dimensional ballistics problem that is further complicated by the
few seconds of time that he has to make any necessary corrections. Sir Isaac will win out in
the long run...the weapon is going to hit the ground. Just where...in the bad guy’s chili or off
in the boondocks somewhere is strictly a function of the pilot’s competence.
CONCLUSION
So, you ask, what’s the point? Is this going to make you a better dive bomber in your sim?
Maybe, maybe not. But it will give you a better insight into real world fighter aviation. Next
time you roll in on the bad guys, feel confident that even though you may not have to worry
about these concepts in your sim, you have the background knowledge to better appreciate
the challenges of the maneuver.
In subsequent articles, I am going to walk you through a variety of air to ground profiles and
maneuvers, some of which you may see in your favorite sim...others you may not. No
matter. I’m looking forward to that day when we all can get our hands on a sim that faithfully
replicates air to mud. When that happens, you’ll be ready!!
Air To Ground Basics – Bombing 2

Introduction
I know, I know...in Part One of this article, I told you that I was going to tell you how to determine
where the aim off point (AOP) was at...from the cockpit viewpoint, I mean. And I really didn’t...oh
yes, I told you it (the AOP) could be measured in mils or it could be measured in feet, but I was a bit
amiss in that I didn’t give you any more concrete info than that. Especially after I made a big deal
about how important the AOP was. I’m guilty...I did tell you that the AOP determined the accuracy of
your dive attack. Your dive attack depends on certain parameters being met (dive angle, for
example)...and I was very emphatic about how the AOP figured into that situation. I am ready to make
good on my promises!! In this second article on A2G, I’m going to explain how the real world pilot
manages to get aimed at the correct AOP...but I won’t stop there. Part Two will finish off the look that
we are taking at the basic delivery pattern. My basic contention remains that the more you understand
real world maneuvers and concepts, the more satisfaction and fun you get from your simulation.
In the first article, we pretty much concerned ourselves with what it looked like at the pickle point, and
that’s all well and good. That’s where your check gets cashed...but at some point, you had to put the
bucks into the bank to begin with...and that’s where this article leaps off from. So, let’s leap!!
I’ll start by outlining the flow of the discussion. As in Part One, you will find the upcoming info to be
based on mathematics...well, this is a fact of life in real world fighter maneuvers. From the landing
pattern to the gunnery pattern, fighters are flown ‘by the numbers’...I’ll do my best to stick to the KISS
principle (Keep It Simple, Stupid!!). Here are the main ideas to be advanced:
1. The Components of the Basic Gunnery Pattern from Roll In to the Release Point.
o The Base Leg...definition and recognition.
o The Roll Out Point...the concept of the track point.
o Time On Final...definition and relationship to the base leg.
2. How To Determine The Roll Out Sight Picture.
o Depiction of the relevant flight path and pipper angles.
o Visualization and recognition of the AOP.
3. Tracking the Target.
4. Putting It All Together...A Typical Dive Bomb Pass
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As in the first article, I excuse myself from any discussion of computer aided deliveries such as
CCIP...we’ll get to those after we get the basics out of the way.
THE COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL DIVE BOMB PASS
There are a number of different dive bomb attack profiles...box pattern, wheel, curvilinear, pop up...it
doesn’t matter...regardless of the profile, we begin the maneuver with a turn towards the target.
Usually, this is a descending turn, and when this turn is complete, we end up with our nose pointed in
the direction of the target. At this point, we roll wings level, accelerate, if needed, to our release
airspeed, and release our weapon when the pipper gets to our aim point (the release point). The initial
wings level point is known as the roll out point, and the distance from the roll out point to the release
point is the final. The descending turn is referred to as the roll in. This discussion will be based on the
most basic of the gunnery patterns, the conventional box pattern. In the box pattern, the roll in is begun
from the base leg. Here’s what these components look like:
Our basic task is to roll in, point the nose, roll out, and then fly down our desired dive angle to our
release point. Sounds simple in theory...it’s the execution that is the problem! Let’s take each step,
one at a time.
We’ll begin by explaining that the dive bomb pass is a sum of several parts. To understand the whole,
we need to break the pass down into its components. Let’s start by reversing the order of the items to
be discussed. We’ll start with the release point and then move backwards from there, showing how
each new part of the dive bomb pass builds upon the last. The next figure shows the components of the
pass as individual triangles...the release triangle was already covered in Part One. Now we add the
final and the roll in triangles. I’m showing them to you as triangles so that you can see that each
triangle has a ground distance leg and an altitude leg. It is these legs that we are going to be concerned
with. By summing them up, we work our way back to the roll in point...in doing so, we will see that
the roll in point is a specific distance and altitude from the target.
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With this in mind, we must now shift our emphasis from the target to the aim off point. From now on,
when we talk distances, we are referring to the distance from the AOP, not the target. This is because
our triangles are based on the AOP...our target will often be ‘in the picture’ in the following discussion,
but when it comes to doing the math, we keep our focus on the AOP.
OK!! Let’s begin with the release picture
The Release Point

Figure 4 shows the relationship of release altitude, pipper position, and AOP. The release point is the
basis for the remaining dive bomb parameters. Since our dive angle remains constant, it is projected
from the release point back up the flight path. By using the dive angle and the release altitude, we can
use simple trigonometry to compute the ground leg of this triangle. We now have the first of several
distance and height values that we will use in this discussion.
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The Final
There is a period of time from the pilot’s roll out until his release point. During this time, the pilot will
be aimed at his AOP and will be established on his dive angle. This part of the bombing pattern is
called the final and the amount of time taken to fly it is called the time on final. We need to know the
dimensions of the final to understand how it fits into the overall picture. We can mathematically
compute the length of the final. This time we reference our final triangle.
We start by deciding on how much time on final we want. In the real world, this time is short, usually
no more than five seconds...in fact, USAF qualification standards limit the time on final to that
figure...if the pilot exceeds five seconds on final, his score is thrown out.
The computation begins with the pilot determining what his speed will be during the time on final.
Usually it is an average of his roll out speed and his release speed. The pilot then changes his airspeed
in knots to speed in feet/second (a quick technique is to multiply your airspeed by 1.7 to get
feet/second...for example, 500 knots equals approximately 850 feet/sec). Next, the pilot decides on
how much time he wants on final. Let’s say he wants five seconds. He then multiplies 5 seconds times
the feet/second number. The result is the length of his flight path during his time on final...in our
example, 5 seconds times 850 feet/second gives us a distance of around 4250 feet.
Remember...that distance is the length of the flight path. Now the pilot has to use a little trigonometry
to determine what that distance is along the ground. At this time, we also note the vertical leg of this
triangle...this is the amount of altitude used in the time on final. The next figure shows these
components of the final.
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By adding the final to the release point, we now have a larger chunk of the dive bomb pass to look at.
Of particular interest is the end of the final. This point is the roll out or track point. By adding the
horizontal and vertical components of the final to the release point, we can easily see how far the roll
out point is from the AOP and how high it is above the ground. Now, we turn our attention to the
maneuvering that the pilot does to arrive at the roll out point. We refer to this as the roll in.
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Figure 6 is a side view of a dive bomb attack. The flight path line is extended upwards from the release
point to the roll in point. The significance of this figure is that the roll in point is mathematically
defined. This point is planned to be both a specific distance from the target and a specific altitude
above the ground. This allows the pilot to begin the roll in at or near his planned dive angle. If the
pilot begins the roll in and is not at this point, he will most likely end up with the wrong dive angle...as
a result, he will have to make an error correction to get the bomb to the target.
In addition to range and altitude parameters, the pilot has to be concerned with his desired attack
heading. Often times, there will be target restrictions that require the pilot to attack on a specific
heading.
Airspeed on base leg is also important. Not only does it figure in to how much g you can pull in the
roll in...but it also is a factor in attaining your desired release speed. If you are too slow when rolling
in, you may not have enough time in the dive to accelerate to your release speed.
All of this raises the question of how a pilot determines his roll in point. From his cockpit perspective,
he has four variables to control. First, he needs to be at the desired roll in altitude. Then, he needs to
be at his desired speed. So, his first two objectives are basic aircraft control items...airspeed and
altitude. His remaining two variables are position parameters...he must be a the desired distance from
the AOP, and he must initiate his roll in at the proper point to meet his attack heading requirement.
OK...so how does the pilot determine the correct distance from the AOP? A little bit of technique and
a lot of ‘That looks about right!" When a new fighter pilot first goes to the bombing range, his
instructor will have shown him ground references to use for determining this distance. This position
prior to the roll in is called the base leg....and can be thought of as very similar to the base leg in the
traffic pattern back at your airfield. Sometimes ground references are not available or practical. In this
case, the pilot is going to have to look outside at the AOP/target area and estimate the correct dive
angle. The following figure shows how it looks when looking out of the side of your canopy at the
target area. The pilot uses the horizon as his level flight reference and then estimates angles below the
horizon. If necessary, the pilot will climb or descend on the base leg to get the desired look down
angle.
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I’ll stop for a second and re-emphasize that our dive angle intersects the ground at the AOP, not the
target. Therefore, we have to use the AOP as the reference for base leg distance...not the target. If I’m
repeating myself, it’s intentional! This can be confusing, and I want to avoid that at all costs! Think
of it this way. Right now, in this discussion, we don’t know exactly where the AOP is, other than it’s
somewhere past the target. Yes, we can compute the target to AOP distance in feet, but that won’t do
us much good in the cockpit. So, what I’m eventually going to lead you to is a way to identify the
AOP from the cockpit.
Let’s summarize where we are so far. We began with the distance from the AOP to the release point.
Then, we computed the distance from the release point to the roll out point. To get ourselves
established on a proper base leg, we need one more number, and that is the approximate turn radius of
our turn from the base to the final. This number varies widely with pilot technique...some folks fly a
lazy roll in, while others really honk it around. It’s a personal thing. I used to figure about 2,000-3,000
feet in the A-10...maybe a bit more in a F-16. Whatever the number you decide to use, this number is
added to the roll out point to get your base leg distance.
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But how do we visualize this roll in point? First of all, a diagram showing the top view of the roll in.
If we generalize about our roll in radius, we can approximate the roll in lead point by using clock
positions relative to our nose and wingline. Each pilot’s roll in technique will be different, but a good
starting point is to begin the turn as the target moves to your 10 or 2 o’clock position.
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Here’s a screenshot to show the technique. Notice the canopy rail and bow position. The pilot uses his
9 o’clock as his reference and then maintains his base leg position until the target moves back to his 10
o’clock. This is his roll in point.
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Lastly, since the roll in turn is a descending turn, we need to include a figure for the altitude lost in this
turn. Let’s visualize our roll in triangle. The ground distance leg is derived from our turn radius, and
we can use trig again to compute the altitude leg. But I want to simplify this a bit. Rather than go
through the math again, I’ll use a WAG for estimating the altitude portion of the roll in (WAG...a wild
a** guess!). For dive angles up to 30 degrees, I use about one half of the turn radius, and for dive
angles greater than 30 degrees, I use about three-quarters of the turn radius.
All right!! It’s time to put away our trig tables and calculators. We’ve done the hard work. We now
have a defined roll in point to begin our attack...a point in the sky that is a specific distance and altitude
from our AOP. Earlier, I mentioned putting some bucks into the bank...well, you are there! The roll in
point is your deposit box...what you put into it is how much you have to spend. Don’t short change the
roll in point...the result will be not what you want or expect. With that firmly in hand, let’s move on to
getting back into the cockpit.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE ROLL OUT SIGHT PICTURE
Here’s where we get back to what we wanted to talk about in the first place...aiming the aircraft at the
proper aim off point. The previous discussion only had one purpose...to show us how to get to the
correct roll in point. What happens next is what spells success or failure for the pilot. By the time the
pilot gets to the release point, our friend Mr. Newton (from the first article) will have pretty much
determined where the weapon will land.
The Roll Out or Track Point

The roll out point is sometimes called the track point. When the pilot rolls wings level with his nose on
the AOP, he begins a process known as tracking the target. Figure 11 shows the roll out point...the
AOP is past the target and the pipper is short of the target.
Why is the pipper short of the target? Remember, the pipper is depressed below the flight path (reread
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Part One in this series if this is not clear). Therefore, at roll out, the pipper will be pointing below your
flight path and will intersect the ground somewhere in front of the target.
This depressed position is measured in mils. The same math wizards that gave us the sight setting to
begin with, now step forward again with another nice little piece of info. They explain it this way. If
they know where you are at roll out, they can divide the sight setting into two parts...one part is the
angle between the flight path and the target, and the second is the angle between the target and the
depressed pipper. These angles will be in mils, therefore you will have a value of ‘x’ mils for the angle
between your flight path marker (tadpole or velocity vector in many aircraft) and the target, and ‘y’
mils for the angle between the target and the pipper. It looks like this:
The target-pipper value is of particular importance. At roll out, the pipper will be short of the target.
We can measure this distance in mils using our gunsight reticle. If we know the size of our gunsight
reticle in mils, we can use this as a guide in determining how far short of the target to place the pipper.
By knowing this target to pipper mil value, we can roll out with the pipper below the target at that
value without any reference to where the flight path is pointed. The next figure explains this.
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This concept is very important...so much so, that this mil value has its own special name. The position
of the pipper at roll out is known as the Initial Pipper Placement, or IPP for short. The concept of the
IPP is a tried and true instructional method...before HUDs that had flight path cues, the IPP was the
primary method of setting the nose at the roll out point.
We are now at the heart of the AOP matter. If those math wizards can compute the IPP at roll out, then
they can just as easily compute the angle between the target and the flight path (AOP). The problem in
the past was always how to know where the flight path was on the combining glass (the term for a
HUD in the old days). In the F-4, we used an approximation. We estimated that the flight path from
our point of view in the cockpit was at or near the top of the combining glass. In the roll in, we pulled
the top of the combining glass to a point past the target and then relaxed g and rolled out. This would
assure that our nose was aimed long of the target. Then, we would set the desired IPP and, presto, we
would have our roll out picture!!
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It’s a bit easier today with our modern HUDs. We have the velocity vector to aim long...no more
guessing or rough approximations. On the other hand, we still have the task of getting the velocity
vector pointed at the correct spot long of the target. So, what do we do?
Well, for one thing, we could try to position the velocity vector at the mil value that the math guys gave
us (similar to the IPP technique), but there is a simpler way...a ‘no brainer’ technique for fighter pilots.
Here’s how it works:
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We start with the total mil value from the AOP to the IPP. Then, we break that number down into its
two parts...AOP to target, and target to IPP. Next, we round those numbers off (to keep things simple),
and make a ratio out of them. For example, we may have a total mil depression value of 150 mils with
the AOP to target value as 70 mils, and the target to IPP value as 80 mils. Our resulting ratio is 70 over
80, which is pretty close to 50:50 or ‘half and half.' The technique is to roll out with the nose long and
as you roll wings level, you raise or lower your pitch to get the target about halfway between the
velocity vector and the IPP. The point of emphasis in this technique is the positioning of the target
between the flight path and the pipper in a predetermined ratio. Do this, and by definition, you have set
the AOP properly.
Whew!! Well, Bubba, if you are still with me, you just got your aircraft aimed at the AOP!!
Congratulations for hanging in there! Let’s finish this section with a few words about tracking the
target.
TRACKING THE TARGET
Tracking the target consists of the pilot checking his dive angle, setting his throttle to hold his desired
release speed, and then comparing how the pipper moves towards the target as he descends on his dive
angle. Tracking begins at the roll out point...that’s why we also refer to it as the track point. If the
pilot were to fly a perfect pass, the pipper would march right up to the target and reach it just as he
reached his desired release altitude.
So much for the perfect pass...but perfect passes are the exception rather than the rule. If this is the
case, then what do we do when we ‘track the target?' The answer is ‘error analysis’! "Ah yes", you
say, "You discussed that in Part One."
In fact, I did mention it! And now is the time to bring it into the picture. You will recall I said there
are two kinds of errors...flight path errors and release point errors. The ‘tracking the target’ phase of
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the dive bomb pass is where you look through the HUD or combining glass, identify any existing
errors, and then correct them as much as possible. I say ‘as much as possible’ because some errors are
so large that you will only be able to reduce rather than eliminate their effect.
Let’s start off with flight path errors since they are the easiest to recognize and the easiest to correct.
Here’s another look at a flight path error situation.
This is the most important thing to know about flight path errors. They are right/left errors, so
obviously you must correct your flight path one way or the other. Do not, under the pain of a thousand
lashes, even think of trying to correct your flight path by using the pipper as a reference. Remember,
the pipper is depressed below your flight path. If you try to correct your flight path by using the pipper
as a reference, you will fall victim to what is referred to as the ‘pendulum effect,' and the result is that
you will most likely weave back and forth trying to get yourself lined up. Instead, you want to use the
flight path marker (tadpole, velocity vector, top of the combining glass, etc). You are making a right/
left correction to the AOP, not a short/long correction. Do this by first noting how much lateral
correction you need, then bank in the desired direction to move the flight path marker the same amount
to the right or left of the original AOP. Next, roll wings level and check to see if you are now on the
proper flight path, meaning your projected flight path will run through the target. If not, repeat the
process.
Flight path errors are relatively easy to correct...not so with release point errors. Recalling Part One,
we remember that release point errors result in misses that are short or long of the target. And we
remember that release point errors are the result of dive angle, airspeed, altitude, and incorrect AOP
errors. Let’s try to visualize these errors.
We begin at the roll out point. As we fly down the final, we happily see that our projected flight path
runs right through the target. "No stinking flight path errors for me!," you say to yourself. But
something is amiss! A check of your dive angle shows that you are a couple of degrees steep. A
glance at your airspeed indicator and you realize you have forgotten to pull the throttle back...you are
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too fast! You look at your IPP and realize it is too close to the target. A quick look at your altimeter
and you realize you only have another second or two to come up with a correction. What do you do??
Well, it’s too late to call upon divine intervention. You gotta remember those error analysis charts we
saw in Part One. You quickly realize your dive angle, airspeed, and IPP errors will all result in the
bomb going long, so you decide that the only recourse you have is to pickle the bomb off early, in other
words above the planned release altitude. This will offset the long errors and hopefully save you a
round of drinks at the bar later on! This is the basic idea of how to correct for release point
errors...recognize what the error is and its effect, and then implement a corrective action to minimize
the error.
This was said earlier, and I’ll say it again. As a rule, never change the 6/12 o’clock position of the
AOP. You may move the AOP right or left to adjust your flight path, but avoid changing its position
long of the target. This mucks up your dive angle and makes the other errors that much harder to
correct. If your AOP is incorrect, then leave it alone and make a release point adjustment to correct the
problem.
That raises the question of what are these corrections? Since we’ve decided that we are not going to
alter our AOP (and therefore, dive angle), we are left with release altitude and release airspeed to play
with. Most often we end up making an adjustment in our release altitude; airspeed changes are tough
to make in the few seconds of tracking time that we have. So, we pickle slightly early or late, as
required, to essentially shorten or lengthen the bomb range to correct for our error(s).
Piece of cake, right!! No, I didn’t think you would think so. This dive bombing thing is a very
complicated skill to master. It makes BFM look like child’s play. I’ll finish this article by taking you
through an imaginary dive bomb pass.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER - A TYPICAL DIVE BOMB PASS
I’ll begin with the approach to the target. I’m flying my trusty F-4. I have already chosen my desired
release parameters, so in my approach I’ll fly to my roll in point. I’ve computed an IPP...to use the
IPP, I’ll have to hit an exact roll out point. This will mean that my roll in point will have to be ‘on the
numbers’ also. (NOTE: Please disregard any HUD info in the following screenshots other than the text
and items that I placed there. In particular, disregard velocity vector and dive angle indications)
As I approach the target, I climb to my planned roll in altitude. I want to get there with enough time to
stabilize at my desired roll in airspeed. At the same time, I’m identifying the target/AOP area and
looking for where my roll in distance from the AOP should be. In doing all of this, I’m establishing
myself on my base leg.
For this attack, run in heading is not critical, so as long as I get my base leg positioned with respect to
the target, I should be OK to roll in at any point. The next figure shows me approaching the target.
- 558 -
Once on my base leg, I check my switches one more time...proper mil setting in the sight, desired
weapon selected, and Master Arm on. I give the nose down trim button a couple of clicks to offset the
nose up trim change that occurs as the airspeed increases in the dive. If the aircraft is to be slightly out
of trim, I want it to be nose down, not up. I can hold the stick steadier if the stick is heavy rather than
light.
As I approach my roll in point, I concentrate on the angle from my aircraft to the target. I use the
horizon to visualize my desired dive angle.
- 559 -
Well, it’s time to quit chewing the fat. It’s showtime! I push the throttle up to full power and roll
unloaded into the target direction. I want to aim my lift vector just past the target. My approximate
bank angle will be my dive angle plus 90 degrees. With my bank established, I now increase my back
stick to start the nose towards the target. The g that I pull is more or less in line with my desired dive
angle...small dive angle, less g...steep dive angle, more g. My thumb moves to the mic button..."One’s
in hot"!!
- 560 -
"Cleared, One," I hear the range controller say. I finish my pull to my AOP by aiming the top of the
combining glass (my flight path reference).
- 561 -
Now I relax the g’s and roll unloaded to a wings level attitude. I have to set my AOP, and I have to do
it fast because I’m pointed downhill...my Rhino is accelerating and I don’t have any time to waste. I
remember the AOP/IPP target ratio. I recognize that my initial AOP estimate is not far enough past the
target, so I smoothly raise my nose slightly to set the desired ratio. Now my AOP is set as best I can. I
have just entered the tracking phase of my pass.
My next priority is to check my dive parameters...how close am I? I first check dive angle; it’s the
most critical parameter...all other corrections will be made with this in mind. I glance down to my
instrument panel and the attitude indicator (no HUD in a F-4). Durn...I see that I am a degree or two
shallow. That probably is the result of my initial error in AOP placement; when I raised my nose, I
shallowed out. "Think, mudhead," I say to myself as I try to remember my error analysis. Today, my
thinking is kinda slow...after all, I’m not sitting in some comfy classroom environment while I ponder
this weighty question. Oh no...I’m riding a 40,000 pound beast that’s going downhill fast, and right
now, I’m just a passenger!
"Airspeed", my instinct for self-preservation screams out!! I check inside for my airspeed
indicator...the needle is moving rapidly to my desired speed. Suddenly, a gift from God burrows its
way into my consciousness. Shallow dive angle equals short bomb...I can offset this with more
airspeed. I decide to add some knots to my release airspeed to correct my dive angle error. Another
quick check of my indicated airspeed shows me approaching the speed I want. As the airspeed needle
reaches that speed, I yank the throttle back to keep the speed from increasing any further.
By now my heart rate is enough to bring apoplexy to the folks in "ER", but I think I’m getting things
under control. My AOP is set...I won’t mess with it anymore. I’ve got my speed set with a correction
for my dive angle. Now I can move along to some minor questions, such as, where am I heading?!!
- 562 -
Heading? The word jars my thinking...heading...of course! My heading is my flight path! How is my
flight path? Is it going to run through the target or do I have a slight azimuth (right/left) error? "Oh
man," I say...too many sody pops last night! OK...I’m just a bit off to one side. I need a quick flight
path correction.
First I note how far my existing flight path is offset from the desired path. That distance is my lateral
error. I have to move my flight path right or left of the AOP just that amount. But, I don’t want to get
too aggressive...I won’t try to jerk the F-4 to the new heading. Instead, I smoothly roll into a medium
bank and then hold that bank angle to let the jet start to turn.
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As I do this, I look inside again and now look to the altimeter. I want to see how rapidly I am
descending towards my planned release altitude. (Time out!! - At this point in this story, I want to
emphasize that I have not yet said anything about the pipper except for the initial AOP/IPP ratio. My
attention has been on other things. What the pipper is doing is important, for sure, but up to now, not as
important as getting my F-4 on a predictable dive attitude and a set speed.)
OK, back to the altimeter...I’ve got a couple of thousand feet yet to go...plenty of time to consider how
my pipper is tracking to the target. Oops! Don’t forget about the flight path! I roll out of my turn with
my flight path now set to run right through the target. Now, the pipper is six o’clock to the target, and
it appears to be accelerating its rate of movement towards the target (It’s actually not...it’s the ground
details getting larger that makes this seem to be the case). In fact, the pipper looks like it is going to
get to the target before I get to my release altitude.
"Of course", I think...that’s because of my shallow angle. Another flash of insight and I realize that I
am going to have to delay my pickle slightly. If I pickle with the pipper on the target but at an altitude
above planned release, I’ll get a short bomb. Now, my increase in airspeed is going to help a bit, but I
better think also about a corrected pickle point.
At this point, it’s all over but for the shouting! I’ve got my AOP, speed, and flight path set. All I have
to do is to wait for my release picture. And here it is!
- 564 -
keep my AOP steady as the pipper runs up to and through the target. I’ve already decided how far past
the target to let it go... There!! Pickle!!
No time to pat myself on the back yet. I pull back on the stick until the g’s push me into the seat. As
the nose comes up through the horizon, I push the throttle up to full power. I continue to raise the nose
as I roll into a bank that will take me back to my base leg for another go at the target.
A few seconds later, the range controller gives me my score. "60 at 12, One." Sixty feet long...hmm...I
think I overdid the error analysis. Probably let the pipper go too far past the target before the pickle.
Oh well, that score may cost me a beer, but I’ll go to school on it now before my next pass.
On my next roll in, I’ll remember the correct AOP. I’ll make sure I get my nose over to that point in
the roll in. That way, no more dive angle problem...no more early sight picture...no more having to
make big corrections to my release point...no more having to buy somebody a beer. No more nuthin’!!
I’m getting a bull next time!!
- 565 -
Well, there you have it, folks. The basics of dive bombing. Hope you enjoyed it. In follow on articles,
I’ll introduce more advanced delivery techniques and procedures.
See you then.
Air To Ground Basics – Bombing 3

INTRODUCTION
In the first two parts of this series on the basics of air to ground (A2G) weapons delivery, we
concentrated on bombing. Now let’s move on to rocket and gun employment. Many of our
newer sims (MiG Alley is a good example) let us get down and dirty with rocket salvos and
low altitude strafing runs. These sims offer greatly improved graphics that accentuate the
feeling of ‘immersion’ in these attacks. As the popularity of these attack types have
increased, so have questions regarding the theory and practice of rocket and gun
employment. This article will provide some insight on this subject.
BACKGROUND
At the heart of rocket and gun employment is the understanding that the delivery of these
weapons is dependent on the same variables and academic principles that affected bomb
deliveries. With that in mind, here is the purpose of this article:
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This article will present a simplified explanation of manual rocket and gun employment
as it pertains to the typical air combat simulation. In this context, ‘manual’ means that
the delivery of these weapons is accomplished without the use of computer derived
aiming systems (for example, CCIP deliveries).
How am I going to do this? I’ll begin with a brief review of weapons delivery theory, and then
I’ll move on to discussing tips and techniques for use in our sims. I want to establish the
foundation of weapons delivery theory so that you understand how real world rocket and gun
attacks ‘work.’ Then we will cut to the sim world and explain how real world theory may or
may not play a part in sim play.
Does this imply that our sims may not replicate actual rocket and gun delivery principles?
The answer is ‘yes’...in most cases. How so? Simple answer...most rocket and some gun
delivery parameters require the use of a depressed gunsight reticle. We cannot depress the
gunsight in our sims. In our sims, we get a HUD that has a gunsight reference that is a ‘one
size fits all’ aiming reference. We might even call this HUD reference a ‘fixed’ sight. The next
section will use weapons delivery theory to explain why this ‘fixed’ sight may not replicate an
accurate aiming reference.
This will be a ‘quick and dirty’ walk through of the subject. If you want more specifics, please
see the first two articles in this series.
Weapon Ballistics
When we release a weapon from our aircraft, that weapon initially has our velocity vector for
its flight path...if we are pointed at the target, so is the weapon. But then gravity takes over
and changes the weapon’s flight path. The end result is that the weapon impacts the ground
along our flight path but at a point short of the target. The following figure shows this.
Understanding the A2G Sight Setting
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We know, from the last paragraph, that if we aim right at the target and then release our
weapon, that weapon will hit the ground short of the target. Therefore, to get the weapon to
hit the target, we have to actually aim past it...to the target’s 12 o’clock...until we arrive at the
weapon release point. We call this the Aim Off Point (AOP).
How do we know where the weapon release point is? As explained in the previous articles,
we first decide on a desired dive angle and airspeed. Then we compute our desired release
altitude. With these release parameters in hand, we then get a bomb range from our ballistics
manual. We can use this bomb range to draw a picture of the release point. Here it is.
All we need now is an aiming reference. We will use a reticle with a pipper as that aiming
reference. This next picture shows us at our desired weapon release point with the reticle
pipper on the target.
- 568 -
Now let’s consider the position of the reticle in the HUD. The preceding figure showed the
reticle below the flight path. The next two figures show what the roll out and release point
might look like when viewed through the HUD. Note the reticle point of origin. It is from this
position that the reticle is ‘lowered’ or depressed. This starting point is usually near the top of
the typical HUD and often approximates the location of the gun line. This position will vary
from aircraft to aircraft.
- 569 -
The reticle can only be moved vertically...up or down in the HUD. For almost all weapons
sight setting calculations, the movement is down, or ‘below’ the point of origin. Moving the
reticle down is called ‘depressing the sight.’ The sight is depressed by rotating a knob on the
sight control panel, and the amount of depression is measured in ‘mils.’ A ‘mil’ is a unit of
- 570 -
angular measurement...approximately 1/17 of one degree. The pilot ‘dials’ in this mil value in
his sight control panel. He calls this his ‘sight setting.’
Each weapon
type...each selection of weapons release point parameters...has its own sight setting. In the
previous articles, we discussed bombs. But what about rockets and guns? Are they
different? Absolutely not...and here is why.
ROCKET AND GUN EMPLOYMENT
These weapons are classed as ‘forward firing ordnance.' Let’s start by recognizing that we
are talking about A2G rockets...not A2G missiles! What’s the difference, you ask? Simple...a
missile is guided by some system (IR, laser, radar, etc)...a rocket is unguided. It goes more
or less where you point it. It’s the ‘pointing’ that is the tough part, and that is what this article
is really all about.
Forward Firing Ordnance Ballistics

When we release a bomb or shoot a rocket or fire the gun, these weapons share common
characteristics. They are all unguided, they freefall under the effect of gravity, and they have
a release vector.
The bomb has the release vector of the aircraft that dropped it. This release vector has two
components...velocity and direction.
Forward firing ordnance also has a release vector with a velocity and direction. Think of the
direction as the aircraft flight vector (that’s close enough for our purposes). Unlike the bomb
that has the velocity of the aircraft, the rocket and gun projectile gets an additional increase in
velocity when they are fired. How does this increase in release velocity change things?
- 571 -
By changing the ‘bomb range’ value...that’s all. The rocket and gun projectile is still affected
by gravity during its time of flight...not as much as a bomb (since the bomb time of flight is so
much greater), but gravity drop is still a factor. As a result, rocket and gun projectiles usually
impact the ground short of the AOP, just as in the case of a bomb delivery. In fact, when
looking at the ballistics of rockets and guns, it simplifies matters to think of them as 'high
speed bombs.' This figure explains this.
Note that the term ‘bomb range’ is universally used to depict the distance the weapons travels
from release to impact. This figure is essentially the same as the figure for bombs (Figure 3).
The main difference is that the target is much closer to the AOP since the rocket and gun
bomb range value is greater.
Forward Firing Ordnance Sight Depression

Since the AOP is still past the target, the reticle has to be depressed much as it was for a
bomb release. The only difference is that the mil value is smaller, often much smaller. The
next figure combines the bomb and forward firing ordnance bomb range figures to show this.
- 572 -
The result is a sight setting that is near the top of the HUD and is on or close to the gun line
for both rockets and guns...the sight setting for rockets tending to be the further down in the
HUD. Both rocket and gun projectiles tend to lose their velocity after being fired (the rocket
begins to slow after the motor has burned out...the gun projectile begins to slow almost
immediately). This loss of velocity has the greatest effect when the weapon is fired at longer
ranges. As the projectile slows, gravity drop begins to be more evident. Because of this, the
sight depression settings tend to increase. The next table shows representative sight settings
for a typical free fall bomb, rocket and gun attack using the same release
parameters
- 573 -
While it is not a completely correct analogy, you can think of the longer range rocket and gun
sight depression settings as being similar to the increased elevation needed when shooting a
rifle at a distant target.
Delivery Considerations Unique To Forward Firing Ordnance

We often think of these weapons as ‘point and shoot’ types. This ain’t necessarily so, as we
will now see!!
The first consideration is a phenomenon known as ‘tip off.' Tip off applies only to rockets and
is the result of the misalignment of the rocket launch line and the aircraft relative wind. Think
of this misalignment as the angle of attack of the rocket when it comes out of the launcher. If
the rocket is not pointed directly into the relative wind at launch, it will attempt to align itself
with that wind as it is launched. This will happen because of the natural tendency of the
rocket to streamline itself with the air flow of the relative wind. For this reason, fighter
launcher rails are often designed to line up with the relative wind. This figure of an F-4 shows
this
- 574 -
Rockets are meant to be fired at or near one G conditions. Any G load (positive or negative)
more than this one G firing condition will change the aircraft angle of attack, resulting in a
rocket flight path that bends towards the relative wind. This ‘bending’ or change in the rocket
flight path is the ‘tip off.' As the G load increases, so does the magnitude of the tip off. Here
is a picture of tip off.
- 575 -
The only way to avoid
tip off is to make very sure you are at approximately one G when firing your rockets. One
final point...yawing your aircraft will produce a lateral or ‘sideways’ tip off. Do not use the
rudder to correct your aim when shooting rockets!
- 576 -
The second consideration has to do with firing the gun while in a yaw (rudder deflected).
While tip off is not a significant factor when firing the gun, the application of rudder to correct
your aim point is. The gun is a wonderful thing but it is not a laser beam! The gun projectile
still has to obey the laws of physics. One of these laws has to do with the resultant velocity
vector of the projectile when it is fired.
The resultant velocity vector is a combination of the vector of the projectile and the velocity
vector of the aircraft. The next figure shows the effect on the resultant bullet trajectory when
the aircraft is yawed:
Getting into the math of this subject is beyond the scope of this article. It should be sufficient
just to point out that the actual bullet impact point is always going to be somewhere between
the velocity vector of the aircraft and the aiming reference (pipper). The inability to predict
where this impact point will be is enough reason to not use the rudder to yaw the nose in an
attempt to get the gun line on to a target. The next screenshot illustrates this effect:
- 577 -
One final note on the use of rudder during a gun attack. Often times, we hear a technique
being proposed that describes ‘kicking the rudder’ to somehow improve strafing
effectiveness. Let me say categorically, that in almost any instance that I can think of, that
this technique is hogwash. I have tried this in real life and the results were spectacularly
unimpressive, to say the least! Rudder control in most, if not all, fighters is too imprecise for
the surgical finesse needed to make this technique ‘work.' The fly in the ointment here is the
definition of the term ‘work.' The usual reason for ‘kicking the rudder’ is to spread out the
volume of fire in order to cover a larger area of ground. It is conceivable that there may be a
specific target type that may benefit from such a plan, but my suggestion to you is that you
not attempt this technique. The usual result is an overcontrol of the rudder that results in an
exaggerated yaw that ends up throwing bullets everywhere but where you want. This makes
a great bar story, but in real life it leaves a lot to be desired.
The last consideration that I want to mention is the tendency of the aiming reference (pipper)
to track across the ground in a manner similar to how the bombing pipper tracks as it
approaches the target in a dive delivery. The reason for this ‘pipper track’ is that the pipper is
often depressed below the velocity vector (flight path symbol). When the pipper is depressed
below the velocity vector, it will move across the ground as the attacking aircraft dives
towards the target. This movement will be from below the target (or in front of, depending on
how you visualize the situation), and will move through the target, eventually going past it.
- 578 -
For a rocket attack, the pilot should maintain about one G as the pipper approaches the
target. He should fire as the pipper reaches the target and should not try to stop the pipper
movement. If the pilot is firing a ripple release (sequenced over time), he should squeeze the
trigger just before the pipper reaches the target. This will allow the ripple of rockets to ‘walk’
through the target. (Note: In real life the sight setting is adjusted to account for the ripple time
interval. In this case, the pilot fires when the pipper reaches the target.).
In a strafing attack, however, the pilot can concentrate his fire by gently applying forward stick
pressure to ‘stop’ the pipper as it reaches the target. A note of caution is in order. This
technique of ‘stopping’ the pipper track in a gun attack will only ‘work’ for a second or two at
most. The technique will tend to concentrate your fire around your aiming point, but it
requires a deft control of forward stick to prevent a bobble that may spoil your entire aim.
Let’s finish this article by suggesting some techniques appropriate to our sims that may help
improve your rocket and gunnery effectiveness.
Tips and Techniques For Rocket and Gun Employment
Roll in technique
We’ll begin with the roll in towards the target. Rocket attacks and strafing are generally low
altitude events as we typically fly them in our sims. Dive angles vary from about 5 to 30
degrees, and release altitudes vary from less than one hundred feet in a gun attack to as
much as several thousand feet for a rocket or high angle strafe attack.
Let’s assume that you would like about 5 seconds of tracking time while in your dive. Use the
following rough rules of thumb to assure that you achieve your tracking time and also fire
within acceptable release parameters:
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Low Angle Deliveries (5 - 15 degrees dive angle)
Place your base leg roll in point about 2-3 nm from the target. Fly at 3000-5000 feet above
ground level. Here’s a visual reference that you can use...when the target is about 1/3 of the
way up from the bottom of the monitor is a good approximation of the roll in point from 2-3 nm
away. If you begin your roll in with the target much higher up the screen, you will probably get
too low. In our sims, depth perception can be a problem...at low dive angles, this often results
in the very real possibility that we may run into the ground. Low angles also make it tougher
to see the target until close in...steeper angles allow you to clearly see the target area from
greater distance. Greater target acquisition distance = more tracking time = easier pipper
placement = better accuracy!
High Angle Deliveries (15 - 30 degrees dive angle)

Place your base leg roll in point about 2-3 nm from the target. Start your roll in from about
5000-9000 feet above ground level. For a visual reference, place the target about ¼ of the
way up from the bottom of the screen. The target should be just a little above the canopy rail
or top of the glare shield for most sim views.
- 580 -
Tracking the target
As a technique, roll out with your pipper slightly below the target. Use the top of the reticle as
a guide. Once wings level, set your power and double check that your flight path is going
through the target.
- 581 -
As you descend towards the target, make small roll inputs to correct your ground track. Keep
the pipper slightly below the target. Avoid becoming focused only on the target. Look at the
entire monitor screen to get a ‘big picture’ view of your attack. Use this ‘big picture’ to avoid
becoming fixated on the target. Use peripheral items such as the horizon line and rising
terrain or other vertical development (trees, buildings, etc) to maintain your sense of altitude.
When HUD data is available, crosscheck your altitude.
- 582 -
As you near the target, bring the reticle up to the target and begin final aiming adjustments.
When possible, use reticle matching to estimate proper open fire range. Remember...do not
use rudder to correct your pipper position! Use small bank angles to ‘drift’ the pipper right or
left
- 583 -
The release point
Use a combination of HUD altitude and monitor ‘big picture’ to determine your release point.
As you see the release point approaching, smoothly raise the nose to place the pipper on the
target and then stabilize your
One big question in our sims is, "How do I recognize my release point?" In real life, the pilot
is going to have a predetermined release altitude for a rocket attack. In addition, his real
world peripheral view will give him a much better sense of depth perception and range.
Unfortunately, we don’t compute weapons release parameters for use in our sims, and the
monitor viewing area fails to provide adequate peripheral vision and depth perception in most
cases. At best, we can ‘guess-timate’ a release altitude, but ultimately, your best results will
come from trial and error.
In a rocket attack, most misses will come from firing out of range...too far away from the
target. Rocket ranges are quite short in reality, and our sims are pretty good at replicating
this. One mile is about right for a max range shot...and one mile looks pretty close at times!
Rules of thumb are hard to come by, but use the size of the reticle or pipper as a guide. For
truck sized targets, don’t fire until the truck is at least 1/2 the size of a reticle diamond (MiG
Alley) or 3-4 times the size of a typical pipper.
- 584 -
Here’s one more tip for learning the right release range for rockets...look to see if the rocket
motor burns out. You will recognize this when the rocket trajectory noticeably steepens
towards the ground. Ideally, you would like the rocket trajectory to be as flat as possible.
This is the case when the rocket motor is still accelerating the rocket. Once the motor burns
out, the rocket slows considerably, and the trajectory bends towards the ground. As you
watch your rocket heading at the target, if you see it ‘nose over’ and head for the dirt, you
have fired too far out!
The next figures show the result of shooting at too great a range in a rocket attack. The
building is the target. In the second screenshot, the rocket hits well short.
- 585 -
Take one final look at the target to use its relative size to help you judge release range.
Stabilize the pipper on the target and maintain about one G. This is important to avoid rocket
‘tip off.' To release the weapon, squeeze, not jerk, the trigger (or depress the release button
- 586 -
as the case may be). Release the trigger or button and continue to hold the pipper on the
target for a moment. This pause is a form of ‘follow through’ known as the ‘Track – Shoot –
Track’ technique that helps assure good pipper discipline and control.
CONCLUSION
Well, folks...that’s pretty much all I can say about forward firing ordnance. The primary thing
to keep in mind is that these are short range weapons. Your primary aid in determining the
release point is going to be a sense of proper range based upon experience in your particular
sim.
Remember to stay off the rudder if you have to correct your aim point. Keep in mind the
adverse effect of G on rocket trajectory. And always ‘track – shoot – track’ for best results!!
Good hunting!
Brevity Code
by Vince "Beer Camel" Putze
Fighter pilot "slang" has invaded the vocabulary of everyday folk. Prior to the movie Top
Gun, I can’t recall ANYBODY outside of the tactical flying community using the word
"ballistic." I hear it often now. Most folk that use this term cannot define it, nor explain its
origin. I guess slang is "cool" to use, but "Fighter Pilot Slang" was very serious business
to those warriors that first developed it. It’s a protocol that met a wartime requirement for
effective tactical command and control of a "Flight." In combat, good R/T discipline could
mean the difference between life and death. The official term is "Brevity Code".
The objective is to communicate the maximum amount of information with minimum

words. The requirement for concise, timely, and understood information in air combat has
been present ever since man first took to the air to kill his fellow human being. It all
began in World War 1 with visual hand and aircraft signals (still in use today, although not
as tactically important as then).
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Between the World Wars, air combat technology evolved to include the radio. The early
radios were notoriously unreliable. This was probably the most likely reason for the
development of official brevity code terminology. A second impetus was only realized
after the great WWII air battles had begun… mass confusion. As soon as a fight began,
everybody talked on the radio at the same time. Factor in fear, low situational awareness,
inexperience, possible radio jamming, and you can easily imagine a scene of total chaos.
So much for post merge mutual support! The solution, although only a partial one, was
official "brief" radio terminology…Brevity Code.
Brevity Code, when used properly, can be a very powerful tool in air combat. There are a
few caveats, though. The first is; everybody must understand all of the terminology.
Secondly, it must specifically describe an event, observation, action, or status. The radio
call "Bandits," is worthless unless accompanied by who it applies to and a relative
position call. Third, it must be structured to insure that it’s understood by whom it’s
intended for. Conversely, it mustn’t be misinterpreted by other flights on the same
frequency. An example would be the typical "bad bandit call." Imagine you’re escorting a
flight of strikers, and out of the blue you hear "BANDITS! BREAK LEFT!!" What do you
think EVERYONE on that frequency is going to do?
By now I can almost hear everybody thinking…yeah, yeah, very interesting, but… how
does this apply to PC flight simulations? WELL…today’s multiplayer flight simulations are
rapidly reaching the realism level where effective "Comm" is an advantage. The addition
of tools like BattleComm and other voice programs make effective Brevity Code
desirable, if not essential. The best "Comm" scenario would be at a LAN meet where
everybody can talk to each other. Imagine a 4v4 guns only furball. All the same
requirements of the real thing are present, along with some additional limitations imposed
by the single dimension monitor we view the fight through. Online multiplayer scenarios
impose even more factors that require effective communication. "Good R/T discipline"
can be a force multiplier that improves your performance, hence your satisfaction, in the
modern PC flight simulation.
Now that we’ve established a need... exactly how do we implement a logical solution? My
answer: Mimic the protocols and structure of the US fighter force - why reinvent the
wheel? The USAF considers this so important that it’s a graded item on pilot "TAC
Checks" and combat readiness inspections. Later in this article there’s a summary of the
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"Code words," but a few general concepts must be understood in order to ensure
effective use.
There are two distinctive types of Tactical R/T. They’re Directive, and Descriptive. Each
has their own unique function and structure. The Directive radio call is just what it sounds
like, you tell someone (like your wingie) to do something. The Descriptive call is used to
describe an event, status, or object. Here are examples of how each of these calls are
"built":
Directive: (Call Sign of whom you are talking to) + (Brevity Code words)
Example: "Numb Skull one two, Break left!"
Descriptive: (Your Call Sign) + (Brevity Code words)
Example: "Studly one one, Tally two left eleven, one mile, slightly high!"
Directive calls, once the action is initiated, are generally followed by a Descriptive call. If,
for some reason, the Directive call is not complied with, it should be issued again until it
is. Only then should the accompanying Descriptive call be issued. In other words, get
your wingman turning to negate the threat before you describe the situation to him. This
would be a textbook example of a "combo" Directive / Descriptive radio call:
Directive / Descriptive: (Call Sign of whom you are talking to) + (Brevity Code words) +
(Your Call Sign if required for clarity) + (Brevity Code words)
Example 1: "Numb Skull one two, BREAK left! (He begins his break turn) Bandit YOUR
left seven, one mile, level."
Example 2: "Numb Skull one two, hard right! Numb skull one one tally two right three,
one mile, level."
Sound confusing? It can be! But that is exactly why this stuff needs to be so structured
and organized. Remember, our objective is to convey our exact meaning in as few words
as possible. The next consideration is R/T technique.
The first and most important technique is to Think before you Talk. It is much more
expeditious to pause a second, think about what you are going to say…Then key the mic
and talk. The most common error I see is holding the mic button while the individual is
thinking. This is what it sounds like : "ahh…um..ah Numb Skull…..ah em… one two…..
um…. Ah… is Bingo plus three." A three second Descriptive R/T call just took three times
as long as it should have! In a time critical environment this is UNSAT! Besides, It doesn’t
even sound cool!! I even see it in the airline industry. I occasionally have a First Officer at
FedEx that stumbles on the radio in this manner. I make it a point to SPECIFICALLY
debrief him / her on it. Chicago O’Hare is no place to "Comm Jam" the radio with
stupidity!
Technique two is simple! Know your brevity code! That means the terminology and
definitions! This also applies to civilian pilots. The Airman’s Information Manual (AIM) has
a chapter on standard aviation terminology. It serves the same, and in fact overlapping,
function as USAF 3-1 brevity code.
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Ok, we now understand the basics of R/T discipline and Brevity Code. Let's take a look at
a few examples; the good, the bad, and the ugly!
Example 1: "Stab one two is engaged offensive with two Bogies, right two, one mile, low!"
There are a few big mistakes in this one! First is the basic structure. Too many
unnecessary words. Brevity code’s primary function is to reduce the amount of talk it
takes to convey an idea. The major error is improper Brevity Code terminology. A "Bogie"
is an UNKNOWN radar or visual contact. Why is he "Offensive" on a possible friendly
and / or neutral? Accidentally whack a friendly and you’ll find yourself with a one-way
ticket to "The Big House on the Prairie" at Fort Leavenworth. If "Stab 12" really means
"Bogie," they may indeed be "Bandits," and you need to be cautious until you know, but
the term "Offensive" indicates he is maneuvering to employ ordnance. If I actually heard
this, I’d assume he’d identified the contacts as adversary. A more correct version would
be:
"Stab one two engaged offensive! Two bandits right two, one mile, low! "
Or...
"Stab one two engaged offensive! Tally two, right two, one mile, low!"
The word "Tally" is short for "Tally Ho!" … meaning you see "Bandits"…not an unknown
"Bogie." "Tally Ho Bandits"is redundant.
Example 2: "Stab one two visual Two, left two, 1 mile, low"
Huh? What does he mean by "left two"? Well, he most likely means "left ten" and has
confused his "clock" position. This is exactly the reason USAF fighter units generally
preface "clock" position with a "left" or "right" prefix. Studies have determined that most
folks will correctly identified relative position (Left or Right) with a much higher accuracy
rate than "clock" position. Misidentification of "clock" position increases aft of the 3-9 line.
If you hear a call with an incongruent relative position versus clock position, you can
almost always assume "clock" position is wrong. By the way, this radio call means that
your wingman has two contacts identified as friendly at left 10:00, 1 mi., lower than your
flight. Overall, it is actually a pretty good radio call, and most people would understand
the intent and meaning.
OK, here comes the final exam. Translate the following brevity code and determine what
is good or bad about it:
Example 3: "Stab one two tally, visual, press!"
This is a textbook example demonstrating how much can be said with very few words.
This simple line translates into: I have you in sight, I see the bandit, I am in a position to
support you, I am supporting you, your six is clear...continue your attack. This would
typically be used when the flight lead engages offensively on an unwary bandit and the
wingman’s sole responsibility is to support and protect his lead.
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Conclusion
You now know basically everything required to effectively communicate in the tactical
arena. Like all learned skills, practice will make you proficient. The next time you engage
in a multiplayer scenario, concentrate on the proper use of brevity code. I think you will
find the effort worthwhile. I have included a list of the most common words useful for PC
flight simulation. This list is by all means not a complete list; a lot of brevity code words
are not really useful in PC flight simulation. (Besides, I can’t remember all of them!!)
Check six... see you on the "radio."
Brevity Code - Terms and Definitions
ABORT: Directive commentary to terminate. Applicable to a specific attack maneuver or

entire mission.
ACTIVE: An onboard radar self-guidance mode of an advanced AAR like the AIM 120
ALPHA CHECK: A request for bearing and distance to a given point. Generally used to
confirm navigational accuracy
ANCHOR: 1.) Begin an orbit at a specific point or location. 2.) A refueling track flown by a
tanker aircraft.
ANGELS: Altitude expressed in thousands of feet. Angels 20 means 20,000 ft.
AS FRAGGED: Perform the event as briefed or planned.
BANDIT: Known enemy aircraft. Only used when the contact is confirmed hostile.
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BEAM/BEAMER: Descriptive terminology for an aircraft that maneuvered to stabilize
between 70 degrees 110 degrees aspect. Can be used to describe your own action.
Example: stab 11 beaming North.
BELLY CHECK: Directive commentary to instruct recipient to roll over and check for
bandits underneath him.
BENT: Inoperative or "bent" system. "Stab one one gadget bent"
BINGO / BINGO FUEL: A predetermined fuel quantity that is required to safely return to
base.
BLIND: Lost visual contact with appropriate friendly aircraft. Generally means that the
wingman lost sight of a flight lead. The opposite of this is VISUAL.
BOGEY: An unknown radar/visual contact.
BOGEY DOPE: A request for information about a specific target or threat. Generally
directed toward GCI/AWACS or other flight members.
BOX: Groups/contacts/formations in a square, as viewed on a radar display or from

above.
BRACKET: Indicates geometry where aircraft will maneuver to a position on opposing

sides of a given point / target, either laterally / vertically/ or a combination of both.
Basically, it is a relatively short-range pincer maneuver.
BREAK: (Up/Down/Right/Left) –Directive to perform an immediate maximum

performance turn. Assumes a defensive situation that requires immediate action.
BREVITY: Denotes radio frequency is becoming saturated/degraded/jammed and more

concise/less R/T transmissions should be used.
BUDDY SPIKE: Illumination by friendly AI RWR.
BUG OUT: Separate from the engagement and head for a safe area or home.
BULLSEYE: A pre-briefed reference point. It is used to describe your position or that of

the target.
CLEAN: 1.) No radar contacts, i.e. your radar scope is clean. 2.) An aircraft configuration
without any external stores or tanks.
CLEARED: Requested action is approved.
CLEARED HOT: Ordnance release is approved.
CLOSING: Bandit/bogey/target is decreasing its range.
COLD: 1.) Attack geometry that will result in a position behind the target. (lag pursuit) 2.)
Pointed away from the anticipated threats.
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COMMITTED/COMMIT: Intent to engage/intercept.
CONTACT: Radar/IR contact; should include bearing, range, altitude (BRA), Bull’s-eye,
or geographic position information.
CONTINUE: Continue present maneuver; does not imply clearance to engage or to

shoot.
COVER: Directive R/T to assume supporting role and responsibilities.
DEFENSIVE: (Spike/Missile/SAM/Mud/AAA) – Subject is in a defensive position and

maneuvering with reference to the threat. If not explicitly stated, threat is assumed to an
air/air threat.
DRAG/DRAGGING: (Direction) – Bogey/Bandit maneuvering to 60 degrees or less

aspect. Can also describe your own actions.
ENGAGED: Maneuvering with respect to a threat or target in order to kill or negate an

attack.
EXTEND: (Direction) – Directive to temporally depart the immediate "fight" location gain
energy, distance, time, situational awareness, or a combination of all. The intent is to
reengage as soon as desired parameter is achieved.
FADED: Radar contact is lost or has "faded" from your radar display.
FLEET WET/DRY: Transitioning from flying over water/land.
FENCE CHECK/FENCE IN/FENCE OUT: Set cockpit switches as appropriate to your

location. Generally means to arm up weapons as you enter enemy territory and safe
them as you proceed back to friendly airspace.
FLANK/FLANKING: Target with a stable aspect of 120 degrees to 150 degrees.
FLOAT: Expand the formation laterally within visual limits. Used to initiate a "bracket" or
to force a commit from a trailing bandit.
FOX ONE: Simulated/actual launch of semi-active radar guided missile. An AIM 7

Sparrow.
FOX TWO: Simulated/actual launch of an IR guided missile. An AIM 9.
FOX THREE: Simulated/actual launch of a fully active missile. AN AMRAAM/Phoenix.
GADGET: Radar or sensor equipment.
GIMBALL: (Direction) – Radar target of interest is approaching azimuth or elevation limits

of your radar and you are about to loose contact.
GORILLA: A large number of unknown contacts that appear to maneuver to a common

objective.
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GROUP: Radar Contacts that appear to operate together within approximately 3 Nm of
each other.
HARD LEFT/RIGHT: Directive call to initiate a High-G, energy sustaining turn. Generally
used when entering a fight offensively. A ‘break’ turn is used for a defensive situation.
HIGH: Target altitude at or above 30,000 feet MSL.
HIT: A Radar return on the Radar scope (A/A).
HOLDING HANDS: Aircraft together in a coordinated visual formation.
HOME PLATE: Home airfield.
HOT: 1.) For an AI intercept ‘hot’ describes geometry will result in roll out in front of target
2.) Pointing toward the anticipated threats in a CAP (A/A). 3.) Weapons employment
authorized.
IN PLACE: (Left/Right) – Simultaneously maneuvering the whole flight in the specified

direction.
JOKER: Has had several definitions 1.) Fuel state is such that the mission can continue
to the target via scheduled route and RTB, but with little or no reserve. 2.) Fuel state is
such that the entire mission can be flown and all the ordnance carried all the way back to
home plate. Generally used when the target is obscured by WX and Higher Headquarter
directives preclude jettisoning bombs prior to RTB.
KILL: Commit and kill specified target.
LADDER: Three or more groups in trail formations. It appears as a "ladder" on the radar
display
LINE ABREAST: A side-by-side formation.
LOCKED: (BRA/Direction) – Radar Lock on. DOES NOT ASSUME SORT OR

TARGETNING responsibilities are met unless specifically stated.
LOW: Target altitude below 10,000 feet MSL
MEDIUM: Target altitude between 10,000 and 30,00 feet MSL.
MERGE/ MERGED: 1.) Bandits and friendlies are in the visual arena. 2.) Radar returns
have come together.
MUSIC: Electronic radar jamming.
NO JOY: Lost or no visual contact with the target/bandit; opposite of TALLY.
NOTCH: (Direction) – Radar missile defensive maneuver to place threat radar/missile

near the beam.
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PADLOCKED: Aircrew cannot take eyes off target without risk of losing tally/visual.
PAINT: Friendly AAI/APX interrogation return.
PICTURE: Situation briefing given by AWACS or GCI that provides a general tactical
overview.
POSIT: Request for a position report.
PRESS: Continue the attack; mutual support will be maintained.
SEPARATE: Leaving a specific engagement.
SHACKLE: A weave or a single crossing of flight paths in order to regain formation

geometry.
SHOOTER: Aircraft that will employ ordnance or "shoot"
SLOW: speed of less than 300 knots.
SNAP: (object, destination, location.) – An immediate vector to the requested target or

geographic point.
SORTED: Pre-briefed criteria has been met insuring each flight member have separate
targets.
SPIKE: RWR indication of AI threat.
SPITTER: (Direction) – An Aircraft that has departed from the engagement.
STACK: Two or more groups with a high/low altitude separation.
STATUS: Request for an individual’s tactical situation; generally described as "offensive,"

"defensive," or "neutral."
STINGER: Formation with single Bogey/Bandit in trail.
SWITCH/SWITCHED: Indicates an attacker is changing from one aircraft to another.
TALLY: Bandit in sight; opposite of "NO JOY."
TARGET: Specific sort responsibility
TRAIL: Formation of two or more aircraft following one another.
TRAILER: The last aircraft in a formation.
TRASHED: Missile in flight has been defeated.
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TUMBLEWEED: Indicates limited situation awareness, no tally, no visual, a request for
information.
VEE/VIC: Vic formation, single aircraft in the lead and an element in trail.
VISUAL: Friendly aircraft in sight; opposite of "BLIND."
WALL: Three or more groups in line abreast/side-by-side formation.
WEDGE: Tactical formation of two or more aircraft with the single in front and two line
abreast behind: Same as a "Vee" formation.
WEEDS: Very low altitude.
WINCHESTER: No ordnance remaining.
Tips for On-line Tactical Formation

Flying
Introduction
This article is intended to amplify the material in the fourth article in the "Boom and
Zoom (BnZ)" series as well as the article "Brevity Code" in SimHQ’s Air Combat
Corner. Please read these articles before you begin this one. Much of the material in
these articles bear directly on this new article, and I do not want to duplicate the material.
The purpose of this article is to provide additional info that can help on-line simmers
effectively fight in a multi-plane environment. A recent SimHQ forum question revealed
that more tips and techniques were needed in this area...so here goes!!
Overview
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Here’s the problem. You and your buddy are hooking up for some on-line action...but you
are not too sure how to effectively fly and communicate. You do OK in a 1v1, but when it
comes to maneuvering as a two-ship or more, you feel at a loss. A number of questions
come to mind as you get ready for your next mission...here they are:
First of all, what formation do we fly in? Is there a "one size fits all" answer...or should we
tailor the formation to meet specific needs?
Choosing a formation is nice...but how do we fly the sim in order to remain in position?
What are the simulation limitations that we have to deal with?
NOTE: this article was written with WW2 era sims in mind. The suggested formation
spacing numbers are for this era. If you want to apply these techniques to jet age sims, I
suggest you multiply the recommended numbers by a factor of six...for example, if the
suggested WW2 line abreast spacing is 1000 feet, use 6000 feet when flying a jet sim.
Staying in position is obviously important...but so is looking out for the enemy. What tips
and techniques are there to help us improve our situational awareness (SA)?
Once we learn how to determine our formation position, how do we maneuver? What
techniques can the leader use to help keep the wingman in the proper position?
Staying in position is only half the battle. We must also be able to communicate between
ourselves. What communication aids and techniques are available to help out?
Lastly, what are some of the basic offensive and defensive maneuvers that we can use to
successfully meet the enemy?
OK...let’s get to the meat of this subject...we’ll begin with what kind of formation you
might want to choose. But before I go any further, let me throw in a disclaimer. I’m going
to talk in general terms for our sim audience. Not everything I suggest may meet the "real
world" rules of today’s air combat environment...not to worry. We’re not flying for real.
We’re flying for fun. That’s what I want to address...your fun.
Formation Types
We’ll begin by saying that there are two basic formation types...one where the
wingman/element is line abreast...and one where the wingman/element is angled back.
Lets define that. Line abreast means that the wingman/element is on the leader’s 3/9 line.
Let’s call this "Line". Is the "3/9 line" absolute? No...the wingman/element might be
forward of the 3/9 line slightly (about 15 degrees max), and be allowed to fall behind the
3/9 line to about 20 degrees...but the wingman/element should strive for the 3/9 line as
much as possible. Note: in this article. I use the term "wingman" to mean the #2
position...and the term "element" to mean the #3 and #4 positions when applicable.
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The other option is having the wingman/element angled back from the leader by some
number of degrees. We’ll call this "Wedge". How far back? 30-60 degrees, with 45
degrees as being the typical position.
We can make some generalizations about these two formations. Line is best suited for
minimum maneuvering situations, and, in Line, defensive lookout is maximized. Wedge is
a more maneuverable formation but sacrifices lookout for this maneuverability. Think of
Line as a "patrol" type of formation with good offensive and defensive lookout...and
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Wedge as essentially an "ingress" formation that is optimized for maneuverability when
lookout is a secondary consideration.
Wedge is more of a "follow me" type of formation from the leader’s perspective...the lead
is free to maneuver...the wingman’s contract is to maneuver behind the leader without
the leader having to signal his turns. In Line formation, the leader has more of a
responsibility to signal his intent to turn to the wingman/element...we’ll discuss this in
more detail later.
Wedge formation is also thought of as a formation best suited for low altitude flying while
Line is better suited for higher altitudes. I’ll make the assumption that on-line flying is
oriented towards the higher altitudes...therefore I’ll make Line as the formation of choice
for this article...we’ll sacrifice a little maneuverability for better offensive and defensive
lookout.
Formation Spacing
All right...we’ve settled on Line as being the formation of choice. The obvious next
question is how far do we separate the flight members. What ever feels right? Not hardly!
The spacing in Line is actually an important consideration. There are two primary factors
in determining this spacing...turn radius at the given altitude and cruise airspeed...and
maximum range of the enemy’s weapon, in this case, the gun. Let’s take them one at a
time.
Turn Radius. Turn radius is important because it affects how quickly a flight member can
bring his nose to bear on an enemy that is attacking the other flight member. For the
purpose of this discussion, I’ll assume that the defender is going to turn away from his
supporting flight member, and I’ll assume that the attacker is going to follow the defender.
The supporting flight member will want to turn into the attacker and attempt to "sandwich"
him. For this sandwich to work, two things must occur. The supporting flight member
must remain close enough to the attacker to be able to shoot him, and the supporting
flight member must be able to bring his gun to bear in minimum time...any time spent in
excess maneuvering on the part of the supporting flight member may result in the
defender getting killed!
The supporting flight member will have to turn at least 90 degrees before he can hope to
get a shot at the attacker. Assuming relatively equal turn performance, when the
supporting flight member completes this 90 degree turn, his distance behind the defender
will be approximately equal to his initial Line spacing.
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The expectation is that the attacker is somewhere in between the defender and the
supporting flight member...but where? This is the key point. If the initial line spacing is too
close, then the supporting flight member may roll out too close to the attacker to get a
stabilized shot,...and if the spacing was too great, then the supporting flight member will
roll out too far back from the attacker to be an immediate threat.
Just for the heck of it, let’s say that the typical turn radius is about 500’. This then defines
our minimum Line spacing...500’. But that will be a no-kidding minimum...it might be
better to open the spacing up a little to accommodate the sandwich. In this case, we
could widen the spacing to about 2000’ max. In this manner, the supporting flight
member would end up with a sandwich range of 1000’ +/- 500’.
Maximum Gun Range
What effect does gun range have on formation spacing? Well, for one thing, we are
talking about the enemy gun range, not yours. The real issue is not gun range
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though...it’s really lookout. Specifically lookback angle. In real life, most pilots could
comfortably look back to about 30 degrees off their tail. In our sims, the typical rear
quarter snap view does the same.
I cover this concept in detail in the BnZ article, so let me abbreviate this discussion and
just state that lookback angle and Line spacing determine how far back an attacker can
be seen. You want that distance to be greater than the attacker’s maximum weapon
range. If we assume that max gun range is about 2000’, then the spacing has to be about
1150’ to allow the attacker to be seen before closing inside the 2000’ max range. If the
Line spacing was less than 1000’, then the attacker could nominally get into gun range
before being seen...so 1000’ seems a good, average number.
If we now go back to our turn radius example and use 1000’ as the spacing, we end up
with the supporting flight member having a decent chance of sandwiching the attacker.
All of which is a long way of saying make your Line spacing a minimum of 500’ and a
maximum of about 2000’!!
Vertical Spacing
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One last item...should the line formation be "stacked" in the vertical...in other words,
should the wingman/element fly at a different altitude than the leader? In the real
world...yes. In the sim environment, particularly with relatively new sim pilots, I think not.
Why? Because I want to simplify the use of snap views to keep everyone in sight. Having
all flight members at the same altitude minimizes the number of snap views needed.
More experienced simmers might want to experiment with altitude splits.
OK so far? Good! Now let’s leave the theoretical for a minute and get back to flying! Let’s
take our nominal Line position of 1000’ spacing and talk for a while on how we can
maintain that position in our sims.
Maintaining Formation Position
For starters, I’ll tell you right up front that tactical formation flying is one heck of a lot
tougher in a sim that it is in real life. We need to accept that as a fact...
I know, I know! You want proof!! Why is it a fact? Two reasons...restricted monitor field of
view and poor monitor resolution that negatively impacts the sense of closure and the
ability to determine exact spacing.
The lack of the "big picture" and the difficulty in recognizing changes in closure and/or
spacing make holding your position tough. The need to cycle views to maintain SA
means that we are not looking at our wingman for a considerable period of time. The
limited resolution offered by our monitors means that changes in closure and spacing will
occur before we are aware of them...and these changes will likely go on for longer than is
desired before we finally pick up the visual cues on our screen. The typical result is that
the deviation gets appreciable before we see it...and then requires a relatively large flight
control or power correction. This correction has to be monitored carefully lest we over-
correct...the result being too much time spent on position maintenance and not enough
time on maintaining a good lookout.
Given these limitations that we can’t do much about...how can we make formation flying
a little easier? Here are a couple of ideas.
First, let’s look at maintaining position in Line with about 1000’ spacing. The problems are
two-fold...maintaining that 1000’ spacing and remaining line abreast. The 1000’ spacing
is an aircraft heading issue, and the 3/9 line position is an airspeed issue. Flight leaders!
You can help out here by telling your wingman/element your heading and airspeed...as
in, "Red Flight, fly 360 and 200 knots". Sounds corny, but now the wingman/element can
easily check their heading and speed to stay even with the leader.
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Some folks may have a problem with recognizing what 1000’ spacing looks like. Flight
leaders...take a screenshot and have your guys study it beforehand. Understand that the
spacing does not have to be exactly 1000’...but the guys should be able to recognize the
difference between 1000’ and 500’ or 2000’, for example.
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As I mentioned earlier, have everyone fly at the same altitude...it makes using the snap
views easier.
Lastly, what if the leader wants to bank a bit to navigate? No problem...as long as the
leader does not change his heading when he does this. Here’s a tip. Roll into the bank
and then apply opposite rudder to yaw the nose opposite the bank...avoid any back
pressure. Once back to wings level, double check the heading and correct if necessary.
This cross-controlling may bleed a knot or two, so crosscheck airspeed also.
OK...so much for recognizing and maintaining the proper position...now, what do we do if
we get out of position?
Correcting Formation Position
Getting back into position is both the leader’s and the wingman/element’s responsibility.
Sometimes, it’s as easy as the wingman adding power to move back into position. Other
times, it takes a little more effort.
We begin by stressing that correct formation spacing is mandatory...give it your

maximum attention and do not accept sloppy flying on anyone’s part. Getting out of
position is no big deal...staying out of position is! Don’t be the Tail End Charlie that gets
bagged!
Proper airspeed control is critical to maintaining that 3/9 line. Sometimes the wingmen
find that they just can’t seem to stay up with the leader....and this may be because the
leader is flying at max power. Solution...leaders, don’t fly at full power! Instead, set your
throttle to something less...say 90%...this will give the wingmen/element something to
play with.
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Now, there will be times when the leader just has to use full power...if the
wingman/element drops back, what do we do now? No problem. Instead of using the
throttle to adjust spacing, we now use geometry. We use things called check turns,
weaves, and shackles.
Check Turns
A check turn is a quick turn made either into or away from the wingman/element. The
magnitude of the turn is directly relative to the amount that the formation is out of position
in degrees. Let’s say the wingman/element is 15 degrees behind the 3/9 line.
If the leader will make a quick turn into the wingman/element of 15 degrees, this will
move them up to the leader’s 3/9 line. The wingman/element must make the check turn
at the same time and for the same amount. The leader accomplishes this with a radio
command, "Red Flight, check right 15". Everyone makes a simultaneous quick turn of 15
degrees and then rolls out, checks heading and airspeed as well as new position. Check
turns are easy and work well for small (0-30 degrees) errors in position.
But what if the leader does not want to change his heading...or the error is larger than 30
degrees? We then use a weave or a shackle.
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Weaves and Shackles
A weave is used by the flight member that is ahead of the 3/9 line...it could be either the
leader or the wingman/element. The weave is initiated by the leader’s command, "Red
Flight, weave". The weaver is obviously the person in front. The trailing flight member
maintains the original heading and airspeed. The weaver then executes an "S" type of
maneuver to get back into position. The weave works well when the 3/9 line error is
between 30 and 45 degrees. The weave also corrects spacing errors as well.
The shackle is a little more aggressive and is used when the positional error exceeds 45
degrees or the spacing error is large. The maneuver begins with the leader’s call..."Red
Flight, shackle". The two flight members turn hard into each other and vary their bank
angle and back pressure to cross flight paths. The idea is for both flight members to
change sides while adjusting both spacing and 3/9 line. Use the shackle as a last resort.
It requires a lot of attention and time and may not be suitable with threats close by.
Weaves and shackles are moderately aggressive maneuvers flown using steep banks
and about 3 Gs to minimize energy loss. Depending on the amount of turning needed, full
power may be necessary.
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Every now and then, the unthinkable happens! You lose sight of your buddy. Now
what??!! Here are some ideas.
Loss Of Sight Techniques
The first thing to do is "fess up"! Don’t continue to fly around hoping that luck will come
you way eventually. Make the call, "Red Flight, Two’s blind". Unless the leader has the
flight member in sight, he should immediately get everyone on the same heading and
speed, "Red Flight, turn 360, 200 knots". This keeps everyone in the same general piece
of sky. Then each pilot can use his snap or pan views to search for the wingman.
Let’s now have the leader get the wingman in sight. How does he get him back into
formation? If the lost wingman is close enough so that the leader can recognize aircraft
features, he can tell the wingman which view to use to regain sight...such as, "Red Two,
check your left 7, two miles, level". The wingman would then know to use his left rear
quarter view to look for the leader.
If the wingman is too far off to make out aircraft details (all the lead sees is a dot), then
the lead needs to provide steering directions to bring the wingman back into sight. The
leader should use his heading indicator to compute the heading for the wingman to fly.
- 607 -
The leader estimates the wingman's bearing (let's say 330 degrees) and then tells the
wingman to fly the reciprocal of that bearing ..."Red Two, fly 150". That should bring the
errant wingman back into the fold in short order!
So far, we’ve talked about getting into position and staying in position. Now, let’s move
on to what we are going to do once in position! We begin with lookout techniques.
Lookout Techniques
A good lookout is a function of three things...knowing where to look, knowing when to

look, and knowing how to look. We can call this "lookout doctrine". As before, please go
to the BnZ article for info...but here are the basics.
Where To Look
We begin by saying that the leader’s primary responsibility is to navigate and plan the
attack. The wingman/element’s responsibility is to clear the formation of threats. We
assume that we are in Line formation. The following is a simplified version of the BnZ
article.
The leader’s first responsibility is to clear the flight’s 12 o’clock...then he must clear the
wingman/element’s six...lastly, he looks to the outside of the formation.
- 608 -
The wingman/element’s first responsibility is to clear the leader’s six...then clear the 12
o’clock area...and last, clear the outside of the formation.
When To Look
What I’m talking about here is the manner in which the flight member implements the
"where to look" concept. There will be times when the flight can be comfortable with
knowing the approximate location of the enemy. This translates into prioritizing the
amount of time that the flight member takes in checking his three areas of lookout.
Enemy position will dictate how much time the flight member will devote to a specific
area. For example, if the flight suspects that the enemy is in their six, then both flight
members will accentuate their six o’clock cross-coverage.
How To Look
- 609 -
There are a variety of ways a sim can let us look around. This article will not attempt to
say which way is best. Those ways include snap views, pan views, padlock views, and
external views.
Snap or pan views are probably most common. The flight member should use the three
step technique above to orient his view into the applicable area. Each of the three areas
should be considered to have three sub-areas...level, high, and low. Search in that
order...level, high, and then low. When looking into an area, look for relative movement of
the target against the background. Of course, if icons are used, then the process is much
easier!!
Padlock could be used for searching for a target if the sim includes such a feature. Some
may find this feature lacking in realism.
Lastly, the external view can be used to good advantage, particularly if it can be panned
using the keyboard or mouse. As with the snap/pan views, look for relative movement.
When we fly, we can use three parts of our body...hands, eyes, and mouth! We’ve used
our hands to get into position and our eyes to provide good lookout. Now it’s time to add
a little spice to the brew...that spice is communication!
Communication Techniques
- 610 -
Let’s begin by reading the "Brevity Code" article in the Air Combat Corner. This article
contains the types of radio calls, their format, and a glossary of terms to use. Real world
pilots use these techniques to minimize transmissions and reduce confusion. You can do
the same with your sim. Flight leaders! Have all of your pilots read and understand this
article. There is a lot of info and terminology in the article and glossary. Feel free to use
only the info that you think is appropriate.
One technique that pays big rewards is to remember to use the "right/left" direction words
in your bogey call. This helps cue your flight member’s eyes immediately to the correct
area of sky, as in "Red Flight, bogey, left, 10 o’clock, level". Include range info if
available.
Next, go to the end of the Part Four to the BnZ article and read about how radio calls are
used in typical formation tactics. You will find that these calls do several
things...communicate intent, assign flight path deconfliction responsibilities, and provide a
means of changing attack roles.
These two articles may well be somewhat challenging. You might find yourself asking if
all this is necessary. Well...it is, unfortunately...unless you just want to go out and thrash
around willy-nilly! These techniques have been tested in combat over the years...there is
simply no other way to implement multi-plane operations without effective
communications. You may abbreviate this material if you want, but you will not be able to
eliminate it.
A read of these articles also makes one thing pretty obvious...the keyboard is a lousy
way to communicate! Use one of the communication programs such as Roger Wilco
whenever possible to take advantage of real time directive and descriptive calls.
At this point, we have nearly everything that we need to sally forth into the arena...
formation tips and techniques, a communication doctrine, a technique for lookout...the
only thing missing is how do we fly the dang thing??!!
Basic Offensive and Defensive Concepts
We begin with the idea that the two-ship is the formation around which everything else is
built...a four-ship, for example, is really nothing but two two-ships acting in concert. Every
now and then, someone will propose a three-ship option. I suggest the three-ship should
be left as a fall back option in the event that one flight member in a four ship should fall
out. We have already described the line and wedge positions for a two-ship. You can use
a similar arrangement when putting together a four-ship. Line is good for a mission such
as fighter sweep where the enemy is known to be in a given area. Wedge is a good
choice when you expect to need to maneuver...such as in a road reconnaissance
mission. In wedge, the element leader is free to maneuver within a + or – 60 degree cone
of the leader’s tail. Box is a trail formation useful for ground attack missions. In any of
these four-ship formations, please note that the #2 and #4 wingmen are on opposite
sides of the formation...this allows them maximum cross coverage of the four-ship’s six
o’clock.
What about four-ship spacing? Try this. Have your element fly at double the distance
between you and your wingman. With that separation, the element leader will have a little
maneuvering room to play with without having to be concerned about conflicting with the
- 611 -
first element. Again, for ease of view operation, I’ll have the four-ship all at the same
altitude. With experience, you can experiment with altitude splits.
There are various theories regarding tactical employment...among them are concepts
such as Double Attack, Loose Deuce, and Fluid Two. These tend to be somewhat
similar, the major difference being in the amount of autonomous control the
wingman/element has over its role in the engagement. Loose Deuce is the least
structured of these formations with Double Attack possibly being the most restrictive on
the wingman. In any case, the overall objective is for the two flight members to fly their
own best offensive or defensive BFM to counter the bandit(s). This is not a small
distinction. In any of these formations, the idea of the wingman/element being "welded" to
the leader is considered null and void. He wingman/element MUST maneuver to gain an
offensive position or deny the bandit the opportunity to gain an advantage. Past
formations such as Finger Four tend to restrict autonomous wingman/element activity
and are considered outdated today.
When you read the BnZ article, pay particular attention to the concept of the
Engaged/Supporting Fighter Contract. While it at first appears somewhat academic, it, in
fact, is the foundation for all tactical maneuvering. The flight leader and the
wingman/element must clearly understand what their mutual responsibilities are in the
context of the type of tactical formation they have chosen to fly. Remember, Double
Attack is not the same as Loose Deuce when it comes to flight member responsibilities.
Offensive Concepts
See the BnZ article for diagrams, screenshots, and text that describe in detail typical
offensive moves and the attendant radio calls that go along with these moves. As a sim
pilot, your major problem is this. You must use your views in a manner that allows you to
maneuver relative to the bandit while maintaining an awareness of the other flight
member’s position. This will not be easy, and there is no best answer. Remember, you
have three types of views...fixed views such as the snap or pan views, padlock views,
and external views. These will have to be used in combination to maintain the needed SA
on the engagement as it unfolds.
- 612 -
There is one other factor that needs to be stressed and re-stressed...and that is the
concept of split-plane maneuvering. Both the Engaged Fighter and the Supporting
Fighter must fly their own best BFM to counter the bandit(s)...this invariably will require
maneuvering out of the plane of motion of the bandit)s). Pure pursuit maneuvering is no
way to fly tactical formations. Flight leaders...ensure your flight members understand this
cold. Concepts such as turning room, counterflow, belly entries, and the radio calls to set
up such maneuvers are the bread and butter of air combat tactics.
Defensive Concepts
Again, we begin in Line formation. The most basic defensive response to an attack from
the rear quarter is the in-plane break with a follow-up sandwich. Unlike offensive tactical
concepts where split-plane maneuvering is emphasized, defensive concepts often tend to
consist of in-plane, pure pursuit maneuvering. Why? Because pure pursuit...putting the
lift vector on the attacker and pulling hard...is the quickest way to gain a firing position.
The Supporting Fighter has but one job when on defense...kill the bandit in the shortest
possible time. In most situations, the best way to do that is to maneuver in the attacker’s
plane of motion assuming that sufficient turning room exists.
Maneuvering against an attacker in the rear quarter involves three types of turns...kick
turns, hard turns, and break turns. Use a kick turn to maintain a tally on a distant bandit
while you attempt a separation. A typical check turn radio call might be something like,
"Red Flight, check 30 right, bandit, five o’clock, three miles." Perform a kick turn by rolling
into a steep bank. Then apply full power and use 3-5 Gs to turn the desired
amount...usually 30 degrees is sufficient to maintain a tally on the attacker. Do not use
the heading indicator for this turn...instead, prior to banking your plane, look to your 1
o’clock or 11 o’clock (30 degrees off your nose) for a visual reference, and then use it to
pull your nose to in the turn. Once the kick turn is complete, the wingman/Supporting
Fighter is responsible for getting back into formation since the leader or Engaged Fighter
will most likely be padlocked on the bandit.
- 613 -
Use a hard turn on a long range bandit when attempting to take away his turning room or
when attempting to increase aspect angle as much as possible...a good example of a
hard turn is the Cross Turn. In the hard turn, use full power and 3-5 Gs to turn rapidly
without losing excessive energy. Gs will vary with weight, altitude, and aircraft type.
In the Cross Turn, both fighters execute a 180 degree hard turn into each other. The
leader commands this with a directive/then descriptive call such as, "Red Flight, cross
turn now. Bandit, six o’clock, level, two miles". After rolling out and with the bandit now in
their front quarter, the flight leader can assess what the next move should be. The cross
turn is flown similar to the hard turn.
Sometimes, despite your best lookout, the wily bandit will sneak into your chili. At times
like these, all bets are off. The fighter under attack (or perceived to be under attack) must
break or be ordered to break to prevent its possible loss. The Engaged Fighter in this
situation has only one responsibility...survive. The Supporting Fighter’s job is to kill the
bandit. Either fighter initiates the break by making a directive call followed immediately by
- 614 -
a descriptive call, "Red Flight, break right. Bandit, five o’clock, 3000’, low." A break turn is
a maximum performance turn flown at max G without concern for airspeed loss.
Whenever possible, break out of the plane of the attacker...preferably "down" to use
gravity to help maintain energy. The supporting wingman will attempt to sandwich the
attacker.
What if there are multiple bandits? While it is not practical to try and script such a
situation, here is one approach. Use a defensive split to force the bandits to commit one
way or the other. A cross turn is one maneuver that may produce results. Other options
include any combination of hard turns and short extensions that provide initial flight path
separation between the two friendly fighters. Once the separation is obtained, the two
fighters should turn hard towards each other. At this point, the two fighters should attempt
to force one or more of the attackers to reposition.
How would you handle this situation with our viewing system? By using a combination of
snap views to monitor bandit and wingman position. Another technique might be to
padlock your bandit and then use snap views to keep track of the other flight member.
But remember, your primary responsibility is to defend yourself. Maneuvering in concert
with your wingman is going to be a luxury...if you can do it while keeping your bandit at
arm’s length, then fine...but never sacrifice your own best defensive move in an attempt
to pull off a "Gee Whiz" sandwich!
Well, folks...that pretty much covers the basics. I hope this has been of some help to you.
Good luck out there!
- 615 -
- 616 -

Air Combat Encylopedia

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Air Combat Encylopedia

These articles are taken from SimHQ,

Part One - The Rudder

Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder, Flaps, and Trim

Rudder Implementation In Flight Sims

Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder, Flaps, and Trim

Techniques For Using the Rudder

Countering Engine Effects on Takeoff

• Add power slowly and smoothly, particularly if flying a prop plane.

Secondary Flight Controls - Rudder, Flaps, and Trim

Countering Crosswinds On Takeoff and Landing

Maintaining Directional Stability.

Finally, we need to touch upon directional stability, or to put it a different way,

Countering Adverse Yaw

Using Rudder To Improve Lookout

A second specific use of rudder is in performing a maneuver known as a "hammerhead

1. OK. Here it is for a clockwise rotating engine and a left hammerhead:

Section One - High Lift Devices: Flaps, Slats, and Slots

What are the typical types of flaps?

What is a slot and what does it do?

Boundary Layer Control Devices . Before

Section Two - High Lift Devices in Simulations

Why Are Flaps Used?

MiG Alley : Not mentioned in the manual.

Secondary Flight Controls - Flaps

But you say, "Lift and G are the same, right"?

MiG Alley : No specific documentation on flap use.

Jane’s Attack Squadron : Minimal documentation in Training section. No discussion of

Secondary Flight Controls - Flaps

Takeoff Flap Tips

Landing Flap Tips

1. Remember the reason for landing flaps…slower speeds, steeper approaches,

Turn Performance Tips

Secondary Flight Controls - Part

Well, friends, we do! It’s called trim.

There it is. The article in a nutshell…trim is a tool.

Section One -Trim Aerodynamics

The issue of balance

Balance and trim

Section Two - Trim Systems

Vertical Axis (Yaw) Trim

And the answer to that is simple…the aircraft is flying "sideways", meaning in

Section Three - Trim In the Simulation

Making the Trim Input In the Simulation

How and When To Trim

Trimming During Weapons Delivery. Accurate weapons delivery depends on a stable

One secret to a well-flown approach and landing is an early configuration. When

Air-to-ground...now that's a whole different ball game. Mother Earth is very

BFM Lesson 1- What Are Your Objectives?

2. Know what your goal is...a quick kill or a knife fight.

BFM Lesson 2 - The Basics

BFM Lesson 3 - Configuring The Sim

2. For your mission parameters, select Situation=Advantage, Separation=1 nm, Standard

b. Turn Transitions off to speed up changing from one view to another.

An Introduction to Simulation BFM,

BFM Lesson 4 - BFM Concepts

3. Frame of Reference. THIS IS ABSOLUTELY CRITICAL. There are two frames of

BFM Lesson 5 - More Concepts

BFM Lesson 6 - Flying The Maneuver

3. Sidenotes. Think of this maneuver as a zoom emergency procedure, because that is

Combat Mission Planning

Target Identification / Photo Study

Anticipated Threat Level