152. What is constant volume cycle for gas turbine engines?

Ans: Atkinson cycle.

153. What is constant pressure cycle for gas turbine engines?

Ans: Joule or Brayton cycle.

154. What is constant volume regenerative cycle?

Ans: Stirling cycle.

155. What is constant pressure regenerative cycle?

Ans: Ericsson cycle.

156. What are the similarities in IC engine cycles?

Ans: The processes are common, namely isentropic compression, isentropic expansion and
constsnt
Volume heat rejection.

157. What are the similarities in gas turbine cycles?

Ans: Three processes are common, namely isentropic compression, isentropic expansion
and constat
Pressure heat rejection.

158. What are the similarities in regenerative cycles?

Ans: Two processes are common namely isothermal compression and isothermal expansion
taking place in
engine cylinder. Heat addition and rejection takes place in the regenerator.

159. What are the four processes in the Carnot cycle?

Ans: Two reversible isothermal processes and two reversible adiabatic processes.

160. What is the total contribution of nuclear power in world electrical power generation?
Ans: About 15%.

161. What are the methods by which electrical power can be obtained from nuclear fuels?
Describe them.
Ans: Energy may be obtained y nuclear fission – in which heavier molecule U235 splits into
fragments and releases
heat energy and by nuclear fusion – in which two lighter nuclei (deuterium and
tritium) with sufficiently
large energy combine causing liberation of heat energy. This has not yet become
popular.
The heat energy liberated by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion is used to generate
steam which in turn
generates electrical power using steam turbines.

162. Write notes on atomic structure.

Ans: All matter is composed of unit particles called atoms. An atom consists of a relatively
heavy positively charged nucleus and a number of much lighter negatively charged
electrons orbiting around the nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons which
together are known as nucleons. Protons are positively charged and neutrons are neutral.
The electric charge on the proton is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of an
electron. The atom as a whole is neutral as the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus is called atomic number and the total
number of nucleons is called mass number. The number of nucleons is called the mass
number. The number of neutrons need not be equal to the number of protons. If the
numbers are different they are called isotopes.
163. What is radio activity?
Ans: All isotopes of heavier elements starting with Polonium (atomic number 86) are not
stable (the inding energy per nucleon being small). They emit radiation till a more stable
nucleus is reached. This spontaneous disintegration is known as radio-activity. The resulting
nucleus is called daughter and the original nucleus is called the parent. The daughter may
be stable or radio active. Radioactivity is always accompanied by a decrease in mass or
liberation of energy.

164. How is the life of a radio-active substance expressed?

Ans : It is expressed in terms of half-life, which is the time during which one half of the
number of radio active species decays.

165. What are the different types of Radioactive decay?

Ans : Alpha decay, Beta decay, Gamma decay, Positron decay, Neutron emission etc.,

166. What is meant by K-Capture?

Ans : When a nucleus possesses an excess of protons but does not have the threshold
energy of 1.024 Mev to emit a positron is known as K-capture.

167. What are the fertile materials for nuclear fission?

Ans : Fertile materials are the raw materials from which fissile (fuel) material may be
obtained. They are U238 , Th 232

168. What are the fissile materials ?

Asn : These are the fuels namely PU 239

, U235 an U

169. What is percentage of PU 235

, in natural ?

Ans : It is about 0.71% U235, and 99.21% U238

170. What is enrichment ?

Ans : It is the increase of U235 percentage form 0.71 to about 2.5 to 3%.

171. Which type of fissionis most widely used ?

Ans : Bombarding with neutron is preferred as it requires less energy. Each collision may
liberate 2 to 3 (2.4) free electrons for subsequent collisions.
172. What are moderators ?

Ans : The atoms of lower mass number effectively reduce the speed of the neutrons with out
absorbing neutrons and are known as moderators. They are hydrogen, carbon. Heavy water,
light water, beryllium etc. However heavy water, light water and graphite are used as
moderators in practice.

173. What are control rods ?

Ans : These are made of cadmium alloy, boron, indium or silver which control the rate of
chain reaction and hence the power generation. The generation rate may be regulated by
lowering or raising the control rods. For starling the reaction the control rods are partly with
drawn.

174. Discuss the energy generation from U235

Ans : It is estimated that 1 to enriched (2%) fertile material consists of 34 kg of fissile

material, and gives about 220 GWh of electrical energy.

After running the reactor for 2 to 4 years the reactor must be reloaded. About 1/3 of the fuel
is changed every year.

175. What are the main components of a nuclear power plant ?

Ans : Reactor with coolant and shield heat exchanger in which coolant rejects heat to water
which generate stream, steam turbine, condenser, coolant pump, electrical generator etc.,

Normal reactor consists of fissile material, control rods, moderator, nuclear radiation shield
etc.,

176. What are the main types of reactors?

Ans : They are fast reactors – in which the number of neutrons liberated are more than
required and it is fuelled with 100% fissile material hence control is difficult and costly, and
slow or thermal reactors.

They are designated as

BWR - BOILING WALTER REACTOR

PWR - PRESSURISED WATER REACTOR

PHWR - PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTOR

LMFBR - LIQUID METAL FAST PREEDER REACTOR etc.

177. Write notes on nuclear waste management ?

Ans : Nuclear waste may be

a) Zero level activity – which can be stored with elaborate shields.

b) Medium level – Which is stored for about 5 years with shields and then disposed in
canisters.

c) High level – Which is stored under water for several months and then disposed in
canisters.

They can be stored above the earth surface are under the ground.

178. What is INSOLATION ?

Ans : It is incident solar radiation per unit area. It is considered as 1 to 1.2 kw.

179. What is available solar energy per year?

Ans : 300 x 1013 kwh.

180. What is the requirement of energy by 200

Ans : It is estimated that the world energy requisition by the year 2000 A.D . is 50 x 1012
kwh.

181. How India is situated geographically ?

Ans : It is northern hemisphere situated between 00 and 300 N. The standard longitude is
taken as 82.50 E.

182. Why solar energy appliances are not becoming popular ?

Ans : The cost of the equipment is very high. However solar water heaters and solar cookers
using flat plate collectors have become popular. Solar cells are very costly. However the cost
of the solar appliances can come down once they are manufactured on large scale.

More over solar energy is intermittent and dilute. It requires storage systems. They
can be operated successfully with stand by units.

183. What are the other applications ?

Ans : Solar energy is successfully used in solar stills for converting brackish or saline water
into pure water for drinking in sea coast where electric power may not be available.
 With the help of solar concentrators. i.e. focusing collectors steam can be generated
which runs steam turbines for electric power generation. Up to 200 MW solar power plants
can be used. These units makes use of solar central thermal receiver mounted on towers at
a height of 200 m with helio stats placed on solar farm focusing the sun rays on to the
receiver.

Solar energy may be used for drying of agricultural products in solar drier for quality.
Solar cells converts (PV cells) light energy into electrical (d.c) energy solar arrays are used in
solar water pumps. These pumps are operated by variable voltage d.c. motors.

184. What are the different types of storage systems for solar energy ?

Ans : It can be sotred in packed beds, storage batteries, electrolysis of water etc.,

185. How the winds are obtained and classified ?

Ans : Winds are obtained due to the uneven heating of the earth and ocean surface. Winds
are of two types. They are planetary winds caused due to the spinning of the earth around
its axis and local winds which are due to the uneven heating of water and earth surfaces.

186. What is the potential of wind power in India ?

Ans. Total generation can be 25000 MW

187. Which are the favourable spots for wind power generation ?

Ans : In India the wind speed varies between 4 m/s and 30 m/s. If the wind velocity is
greater than 7 m/s it is suitable for power generation as power is proportional to cubic
power of velocity.

It is found that some places in Tamilnadu and some places in Gujarat are most
suitable.

188.

Ans : About 750 to 1000 MW

189. What are the applications of wind energy ?

Ans : Since olden days wind mills have been in use for grinding of grains lifting of water etc.,
Now it is used to generate electric power.

190. What are the different types of wind turbines?

Ans : Horizontal axis wind mills having one, two or three blades. Three blade systems are
more successful.

Vertical axis wind turbines namely Darrius type rotors and Savorius type wind turbine
rotors.

191. What is the cut in velocity with respect to wind mills ?

Ans : The velocity of wind at which wind mill start generating power or the wind mill start
functioning is known as cut in velocity.

192. How tidal energy can be obtained ?

Ans : During a lunar day of 24.8 hours there will be two high tides (flood tides) and two low
tides (ebb tides) due to the gravitational force of the moon, sun on ocean water surface.
During flood tide the water level of the ocean increases 2 to 5m and in some places even
greater The gravitational effects are more near the shore and river mouths. The time
interval between one high tide and following low tide is 6.2 hours.

Near shores a basin is formed with the help of a dam. During high tide water from
ocean passes through a duct in which a turbine operates and fills the basin. During low tide
water from basin enters the ocean through the duct and turbine operates in reverse
direction. The turbines normally are of double effect type i.e. which can be operated in
forward and reverse direction.

193. What is the estimated energy available in oceans ?

Ans : It is estimated that the tidal energy available throughout the world is 3000 x 10 9 MW
out of which 2000 x 109 MW can be harnessed.

194. What is OTEC system ?

Ans : OTEC represents for Ocean Thermal Energy conversion system.

195. On what principle OTEC system operate ?

Ans : The ocean surface temperature will be around 27 0c in tropical countries. As one go
deep into the sea the temperature reduces or decreases. It is found that per every ‘km”
deep the temperature fall is around 6 to 7 0c but it is not a linear variation. A heat engine can
be operated with the temperature gradient.

196. What is the maximum efficiency that can be obtained ?

Ans : Maximum efficiency that can be obtained is of cannot engine efficiency.

Ncarnot = net work done / energy supplied = (Qh – QL) Qh

 = (TH - TL) / (TH i.e T/ TH

This is valid only for carnot engine. For actual engines the efficiency

N = net work done / energy supplied

Similarly for carnot refrigerator or for reversed carnot engine.

B Refrigerator (carnot ) = C.O.P. of refrigerator (carnot)

= QL / (QH – QL) = Refrigerator effect / energy supplied.

= TL / (TH – TL) Which is valid for carnot Refrigerator only.

If the objective is heating.

B carnot Heat Pump = QH / (QH – QL) = Heat pumped / Energy supplied.

= TH / (TH – TL)

The actual efficency of OTEC systems is around 2 %. It is a low grade energy but
available through out the year in large quantities which can be used for power generations.

197. What are different types of OTEC systems ?

Ans : Open system or claude system or steam cycle system and closed or Andreson
system. These systems use low boiling point fluids like NH3 Freons etc. Now OTEC systems
are used as co-generating systems to get potable water from saline water.

198. What is refrigeration ?

Ans : Refrigeration is the process of producing cold and maintaining the temperature,
less than of the surroundings.

199. What are the applications of Refrigeration ?

Ans : Water coolers, house-hold refrigerators, liqulifaction of gases, cold storages,

transport of perishable goods, production of electronic, aeroplane parts, comfort and
industrial air conditioning.

200. How refrigeration can be achieved ?

Asn : Refrigeration can be achieved using natural ice, using chemicals and by using
mechanical clycles.

201. What are the mechanical cycles used ?

Ans : Air refrigerating system, vapour compression refrigerating system. Vapour

absorption systems (two fluid and three fluid systems) etc.
 202. On what thermodynamic cycle air refrigerating system works ?

Ans : Bell – coleman cycle or Reversed Brayton or Reversed joule cycle.

203. What are the main components of air refrigerating system ?

Ans : Air compressor in which working fluid is compressed; Air cooler – in which high
pressure & high temperature air is cooled; Expander (air motor) – in which air is expanded to
a very low pressure and temperature and cooling cabinet – in which air extracts heat energy
from the object placed in the cold chamber or cooling cabinet.

204. In what form heat energy is extracted (Refrigerating effect) and rejected in air
cooler?

Ans : In the form of sensible heat. Hence more quantity of air to be circulated which
increases work tobe expended for compression. The system will be bulky.

205. What is an Air motor ?

Ans : Air motor or air engine is an expansion device in which high pressure air is expanded
there by reducing pressure and temperature and does positive work. Air motors finds
application in air-conditioning.

206. What are the disadvantages of air refrigerating system ?

Ans : Occupies more space, more capacity compressor is required. More energy to be
supplied and low c.o.p.

207. What are the main components of vapour compression refrigerating system ?

Ans : Compressor which may be reciprocating or rotary in which may be water cooled or air
cooled in which super heated vapour is condensed to saturated or sub-cooled liquid. Throttle
valve or thermostatic expansion valve (or capillary) in which liquid refrigerant is expanded at
constant enthalpy reducing the pressure to evaporator pressure and temperature of the
order of - 200 C; and evaporator in which liquid refrigerant extract heat energy from articles
placed in the cooling cabinet and becomes vapour.

208. What type of heat exchange takes place in vapour compression system ?

Ans : Heat exchange will be of the latent heat form. Hence working fluid to be circulated will
be less which further reduces size and energy supplied to the compressor.
209. What will be c.o.p of vapour compression system when compared to air refrigerating
system ?

Ans : High.

210. Why only throttle valve or capillary tube is used instead of an expander in vapour
compression system.

Ans : Expander (expanding engine) shall produce work, but the work done will not be able to
substantiate the cost of the equipment and the size it occupies. Hence the refrigerant will be
throttled (providing an obstruction in the passage.)

211. What type of compressor is used in house hold refrigerator, water coolers, air
conditioners etc.,?

Ans : Mostly reciprocating compressors (positive displacement compressors).

212. What are the refrigerants used in vapour compression refrigerating systems ?

Ans : In organic substances like Ammonia, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide etc., Azeotopes
like Freon 12, Freon 22 etc.,

213. How the refrigerants are coded?

Ans : Inorganic refrigerants are coded as R followed by digit 7 followed by its molecular
weight.

NH3 is coded as R 717

CO2 is coded as R 744 etc.,

The Fluorocarbons or Azeotopes are coded R followed by three digits. The last digit
for number of fluorine atoms, last but one digit number of hydrogen atoms plus one and the
first digit number of carbon atoms minus one.

Eg : Dichloro – Difluoro methane C Cl2 F2

R012 or R12 or F12

Monochloro – Difluoro Methane CH Cl F2

R022 or R22 or F22

214. Which refrigerant is better our of NH3 & R12 ?

Ans : NH3 is preferred if it is not used in public places as it requires less swept volume (70%
less) than that is required for R12.
215. Out of R12 & R12 which requires more swept volume for the same refrigerating
capacity ?

Ans : R12 requires about 60% more swept volume than that of R22

216. With R12 and R22 which materials are used for ducting ?

Ans : Copper and its alloys.

217. With NH3 which materials is normally used for ducting ?

Ans : Ferrcus materials are used.

218. Why R22 is not used for deep freezers ?

Ans : At very low temperature R22 gets separated from lubricating oil in the evaporator and
the discharge temperature is very high.

219. Which type of compression is preferred with NH3 refrigerant ?

Ans : Wet compression i.e. at the end of compression the working fluid will be in dry
saturated state.

220. What is ideal or standard vapour compresson cycle ?

Ans : The refrigerant at dry saturated state at inlet to the compressor and at saturated liquid
state at the outlet of the during evaporation process and condensation process pressure
remain constant.

221. What is the effect of sub-cooling ?

Ans : Refrigerating effect increases for the same work required for compressor and hence
c.o.p. increases.

222. What is the effect of reducing suction pressure ?

Ans : Refrigerating effect decreases, work required for compression increases. Hence c.o.p.
decreases by a larger extent.

223. What is the effect of increasing the delivery pressure ?

Ans : Refrigerating effect decreases, work required for compression increases and hence
c.o.p decreases.

224. What are the fluids used in vapour absorption system ?

Ans : NH3 – Water system in which NH3 is refrigerant and water as absorber.

NH3 – Water- H2 Munters system or Electrolux system.

NH3 is refrigerant, water is absorber. The system will be charged at 15 atm. And H2
maintains 12 atm. Lithium Bromide – Water system is the refrigerant.

225. In vapour compression system how the refrigerating effect can be varied ?

Ans : Using throttle valve.

226. How the refrigerating effect is varied in vapour absorption system?

Ans : By varying the rate of heat supplied in generator

227. What ae the advantages of vapour absorption system ?

Ans : These are quiet in operation suitable for high capacity units demand can be met with
without much imbalance in the operation. Very much suitable for central air conditioning,
cold storage plants etc.

228. What is D.B.T.?

Ans : It is Dry Bulb temperature which is the temperature given by any ordinary
thermometer.

229. What is W.B.T.?

Ans : Is is wet bulb temperature which is measured by a thermometer whose bulb is covered
by a wet cloth and placed in free circulated air. This thermometer indicate temperature
lower than or equivalent to DBT expanding on the moisture present in the air.

230. What is wet bulb depression ?

Ans : It is the difference between DBT & WBT. When air is fully saturated with water vapour,
the wet bulb depression is zero. If the air is completely dry the wet bulb depression is
maximum.
231. What is DPT ?

Ans : When air is cooled the air becomes saturated and water vapour present gets
condensed. When air is fully saturated with water vapour DBT = WBT = DPT.

232. What is psychrometry ?

Ans : It is the science dealing with properties of air.

233. Define specific humidity or humidity ratio ?

Ans : It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the water vapour present per kg of dry air.

W = 0.622 Pv / (P-Pv).

234. What is absolute humidity ?

Ans : It is defined as the mass of water vapour present per unit volume of air.

Mv = Pv V/ Rv Tv

235. Define degree of saturation ?

Ans : It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water / kg of dry air to the mass of water
vapour required to saturate 1 kg of dry air at the same temperature.

µ = (Pv/Pvs) x (P-Pvs)/(P-Pv)

Pvs is the saturation pressure corresponding to DBT Pv is the partial pressure of water

236. Define relative humidity.

Ans : It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour present per unit volume to the
mass of water vapour required to saturate unit volume at the same temperature.

ø = Pv /Pvs

237. Give the carrier quation which is most widely used for obtaining partial pressure of
water vapour.

Ans : Pv = Pvs 1– (P-Pvs) 1.8 (T DBT – T WBT)

2800 – 1.3 (1.8 T DBT + 32)

Pvs 1
– saturation pressure for the determination of enthalpy of moist air.

238. Give expression for the determination of enthalpy of moist air.

Ans : h = ha + hw

= CPa TDBT + W [cp1 x TDPT + LDPT+CPv (TDST-TDPT)]

C= 1.005 X T DBT + W (4.1868 x TDPT + 2500 + 1.88 (TDBT-TDPT)] kj/kg.

(or)

h = 1.005 TDBT +W 2500 + 1.88 TDPT) kj/kg.

239. What is a psychrometer ?

Ans : Psychrometer is one. Which gives both DBT and WBT simultaneously.

240. What is apparatus dew point temperature ?

Ans : It is the temperature of the evaporator coil which can bring down the temperature of
the air to DPT.A DPT will be less than DPT.

241. Define by – pass factor.

Ans : It is defined as the ratio of the temperature change achieved to the maximum
temperature change.

242.What are comfort conditions for summer ?

Ans : 240 C DBT and 60% RH. Wind velocity 9 to 10m/min..

244. What are the temperature ranges which are under comfortable zone ?

Ans : Winter 18 to 220 C DBT

Summer 10 to 240 C DBT with 60% RH.

245. What is the sensible heat factor ?

Ans : It is the ration of sensible heat load to the total load (sensible heat load plus the latent
heat load)
246. What is the composition of atmospheric air used for calculations ?

Ans : 23% 02 and 77% atmospheric nitrogen by mass.

21% 02 and 79% atmospheric nitrogen by volume.

247. What is the unit of refrigeration ?

Ans : Tonnes of refrigeration.

1 TR = 210 kj/min i.e extraction of 210 kj/min or 50 kcal / min or energy.

248. Which type of fuels are most suited for C.I angines ?

Ans : Straight chained Paraffins (Cn H2n+2)

249. Which type of fuels are most suited for S.I. Engines ?

Ans : Aromatic (Cn H2n-6)

250. How is octane, paraffin is considered as best fuel for S.I Engines ?

Ans : Iso Octane (C5 H18) is ans isomer of normal octane which is a branched chain paraffin.
This is also known as tri-methyl pentane. This is used as a standard reference fuel for s.i.
engines.

251. Which is the other standard reference fuel for S.I engines ?

Ans : Normal heptane (C7 H16). This is considered as the worst (or very poor) fuel s.i.
engines.

252. How the S.I engine fuels are rated ?

Ans : The S.I engine fuels are rated by octane number (O.N.)

Octane number is defined as the percentage by volume of iso octane in a mixture of

iso octane and normal heptane which exactly matches the knocking intensity of the test
fuel, when tested in a standard C.F.R. (Co-operative fuel research engine) under standard
operating conditions.

Iso octane is arbitrarily given an O.N. of 100

Where as normal Heptane is arbitrarily given an O.No. of ‘0’

253. How the fuels are rated if O.N. is greater than 100 ?
Ans : ON = 100 + (PN – 100)/3

And Triptane number (T.N).Triptane is iso heptane or trimethyl butane A.T.N. of 65.5
= 100 O.N. for aviation fuels, fuels having ON greater than hundred are used Hence they are
rated either by P.N. or T.N.

254. What are additives for S.I. engine fuels ?

Ans : Additives are the compounds, which shall increase the knock resistance of s.i. engine
fuels. They are tetra methyl lead (TML) and Tetra Ethyl lead (TEL) Now a days these
additives are banned as they cause lead poisoning.

255. What is the ranted of C.I. engine fuels ?

Ans : They are rated by cetane number C.N. Cetane numbers straight – chained paraffin,
which is the best fuel for C.I. engines and arbitrarily given a C.N. of 100. This is (cetane C16
H34 or Hexadecane) is used as one standard referene fuel. Another standard reference fuel
is a – Methyl naphathalene (C10 H2 CH3) It is arbitrarily given a C N of ‘0’

At present another reference fuel known as Heptamethyl nonane (C16 H34) is used
which is having a C.N. of 15 for poor quality fuel.

256. What is C.N?

Ans : C.N. is defined as the percentage by volume of certane in a mixture of cetane and
alphamethyl naphathalene (C0 H2n-12) which have the same ignition delay as that of test
fuel when tested in C.F.R. engine, under standard operating conditions.

257. What is the relationship between ON and CN?

Ans : The higher the OP the better it is suited for S.I. engines and has less C.N. which can not
be used in C.I. engines and vice-versa.

C.N. = 104 O.N.

2.75

258. What is the relation ship between calorific value and number of hydrogen atoms in the
fuel ?

Ans : The higher the nuber of hydrogen atoms the higher the heating value, however the
higher the ratio of hydrogen to carbon atoms in a fuel the higher the heating value.

Thus petrol C8 H18 is having large H/C ratio is having more heating or calorific value
than diesel oil C12 H26 (Dodecane). It is known that the calorivic value of hydrogen is
146540 kj/kg when compared to carbon calorific value of 33000 kj/kj. This is the reason why
paraffin’s which are having more number of hydrogen atoms are used as i.e. engine fuels.

259. What is detonation in S.I. engines ?

Ans : It is an abnormal combustion taking place in s.i. engines. It is also known as

autoignition, spontaneous ignition, spontaneous ignition, knocking and pinging..

When spark is introduced into the compressed charge before the piston reaches
cover dead centre position, there will be preparation period of the charge then oxidation
takes place. This period is known as reaction phase. It takes place near the spark plug. Once
reaction takes place the actual combustion will be initiated establishing a flame front which
actually transposes the surrounding layers. If the flame front travels at a aped such that the
flame front eats its way into the unburned portion. The combustion will be normal.

By the time the flame front reaches the last unburnt portion, if that charge attains
selfignition temperature, it burns along with the other portion with out the assistane of flame
front. This is known as auto ignition or spontaneous ignition. For detonation it is the last
unburnt portion which is responsible or detonation occurs in S.I. engines at the end of
combustion. Because more charge burns at the same time, the rate of pressure rise will be
high which may make the pressure wave to strike the cylinder walls giving an audible noise
similar to metallic knock and hence it is also known as knocking. The rate of pressure rise
should be 1.5 to 2 bar / C.A.

To avoid detonation the fuel should have high self ignition temperature. Branched
charge paraffins have high self ignition temperature.

260. What are the factors that influences detonation ?

Ans : The higher the charge temperature, pressure, density, compression ratio increases
detonation tendency. It is found that at approximately 85% of the theoretical air fuel ratio
(Richmixture) the detonation tendency is maximum. Increase of decrease from this air-fuel
ratio detonation tendency decreases. The higher the speed, valve overlap branching of fuel,
and addition of TEL or TML shall decrease knocking tendency.

In S.I. engines detonation is the limiting factor for compression ratio. It is known that
the higher the compression ratio, the higher the thermal efficiency. It should hav high – self
ignition temperature to reduce detonation or knocking tendency.

261. What are the other types of abnormal combustion in S.I. engines ?

Ans : They are surface ignition, run away, run on, wild ping etc.,

262. Explain surface ignition.

Ans : During operation cetain parts of an engine will be overheated. The parts are exhaust
valve, spark plug, red hot carbon deposit, cylinder head etc., They initiate ignition.
 If the ignition takes place prior to the normal spark ignition, this surface ignition is
known as pre-irnition. If the ignition takes place after normal spark ignition, the ignition is
known as post-ignition.

Pre-ignition precedes the spark where as detonation follows the spark.Sustained

detonation leads to pre-ignition , Pre-igntion tend to increase the temperatures and the peak
pressures also occur before the cover dead centre position. In succeeding cycles further
advancement takes place and peak pressures oppose the piston movement, this decreasing
the power output and leads to rough engine operation.

If the engine continues to run even if the ignition is cut-off is known as run – on
condition.

If the ignition is very much advanced in addition to the normal spark ignition, it may
result to disastrous results like seizure or melting of piston.