BASIC PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH WRITING

Know your Readers

One very important role to consider in setting one’s style is the target
readers. In writing for the ordinary layman, the average reader, or the
general public, the researcher or writer of research studies must strive to be
understood easily and painlessly.

To do so, he has to use plain, simple language. High-sounding words

and jargon must be avoided. (Jargon, as you may know, is the short-cut or
slang of technical language.) Except for highly specialized publications,
technical words must be made understandable to the average reader.

For example, Technology! , a PCARRD bulletin, is aimed at influencing

policy in support of research-based technology. It is, therefore, directed at
policy makers and administrators; but these are busy people and may not
have the technical background of the researcher.

So, the style of writing is simple and nontechnical in nature.

Paragraphs are short for ease in reading, and the whole persuasion is
presented in capsule form.

Write Simply and Clearly

In research writing, one must use simple and familiar words and the
writer must get to the point. Below are examples of unfamiliar words and
their simple equivalents:

repudiate - refuse monsoon season- rainy season

contemplate - think increment - increase

commence - begin inflorescence - flower

cluster
endeavour - effort
verbose - wordy
conflagration - fire
peruse - read
conceal - hide
pass away - die
aggregate - total
dwell - live
solar radiation - sunlight
utilize - use parasitoid - parasite

laceration - wound inundate - flood

initiate - begin pulchritude - beauty

precise - exact

Make Sentences and Paragraphs Short

Avoid putting too many ideas in a sentence. Break it up. Paragraphs

should also be shortened. Long paragraphs bore the readers and turn them
off. One glance at a text with kilometric paragraphs could easily discourage
even the reader with bulldog endurance.

Example:

It must be remembered, however, that the moisture content of a

given peanut seed is actually the average moisture content of all the
seeds in the sample but there may well be some seeds with high
moisture content in which fungal growth may progress to form pockets
of mouldy seeds with aflatoxin which is known to be carcinogenic and
dangerous to health and must therefore be avoided by seeing to it that
the seeds are well and uniformly dried during the drying period.

Reconstructed paragraph:

The moisture content (MC) of a given peanut-seed sample is the

average MC of the rest in the container. It is, possible, however, that
relatively dry peanuts may have portions of high-moisture seeds, in
these seeds fungus grows fast, form moulds, and secretes aflatoxin.

Aflatoxin is a highly potent poison which is carcinogenic (tending

to produce cancer). Peanut seeds must therefore be well and uniformly
dried.
Use Concrete Words

Concrete words are exact and definite. Abstract words are subjective
and liable to many interpretations. The researcher does his work carefully
and conscientiously. He cannot therefore afford to have his study
misunderstood with the careless use of words.

Abstract: Field experiments conducted in the north showed that inoculation

increased soybean yield significantly.

Concrete: Field experiments conducted in Batangas clay loam showed that

inoculation increased syben yield from 1,000 to 2,400 kg/ha.

Use the Active Voice

As much as possible, use the active voice. This is preferable in

scientific writing. The sentences are simpler, shorter, clearer and more
direct. In the active voice, the subject is the doer of the action
(predicate/verb). In the passive, the subject is acted upon and becomes the
subject of the preposition by.

The predicate in the passive voice composed of an auxiliary verb (is,

are, was, were, will be, have, had, has been, were being, etc.) and a past
participle (written, done, shown, lived, planted, etc.)

Examples:

Passive:

1. The report was written by him.

2. It has been shown by Cruz that organic matter improves soil

structure.

Active:

1. He wrote the report.

2. Cruz showed that organic matter improves soil structure.

To switch from passive to active voice, do the following:

 1. Make the subject or the doer of the action, not the object of the
preposition by.

Passive:

Expensive inorganic fertilizers must be changed to cheap organic

ones by the researchers.

Active:

The researchers must change expensive inorganic fertilizers to

cheap organic ones.

2. Give the sentence an active subject if it does not have any.

Passive:

a. The study was conducted in 1987.

b. It is expected...

c. It was felt...

d. It is thought...

Active:

a. The DA conducted the study in 1987.

b. The agency expected...

c. The participants felt...

d. Many people thought...

The passive voice, however, can be used if the subject is not

necessary, is clearly understood, or not known. If one wishes to emphasize
something or someone other than the agent/doer of the action, the passive
voice may also be used.

Examples:

1. The Director assigned the research to Juan Cruz. This study was
conducted in 1 ha of rice land. (The doer, Cruz, is already
mentioned in the first sentence and is not necessary in the second,
which is in the passive voice.).
 2. The field was plowed two times to eliminate the weeds. (if clearly
understood that the farmer/ labourer did the plowing).

3. Nitrogen supply is increased by rhizobia inoculation. (Emphasis is

placed on nitrogen supply rather than on rhizobia inoculation.)

Be Consistent

The research writer should stick to the format and style of his agency,
his university, or the publication he is writing for. Carelessness is often
shown in the use of punctuation, apelling and handling of numbers, among
others.

Punctuation. In a series, a comma is placed before the conjunctions

and and or. Other types of writing disregard this rule.

In research writing, this rule must be observed to avoid the mistake of taking
the last two words as a unit or combination.

Examples:

1. The infested tomato plants were sprayed, burned, or buried.

2. The incidence, effect on yield, and geographic distribution of viruses

need to be studied.

Without the comma, the last two phrases in the series will read: “effect
on yield and geographic distribution.” This means the effect on both
yield and geographic distribution.

Spelling. With words having two acceptable spellings, choose one

and use throughout. Between the British and American spelling, however, we
opt for the latter.

American British

1. traveller traveller

2. hemoglobin haemoglobin

3. honor honour

4. rationalize rationalise

5. center centre
 6. luster lustre

7. program programme

8. estrus aestrous

Most compound words with the prefixes non, post, anti, pre, re, and
semi are not hyphenated. There are exceptions, of course.

Examples:

1. nonessential

2. antismoking

3. prewar

4. postharvest

5. reopen

6. semiconcrete

Handling of numbers. Spell out all numbers below 11 and use

figures for 11 upward. However, when the numbers are used with measures
(which should be abbreviated), these are all in figures.

Examples:

one crop six weeks 11 sows

ten studies nine days 110 reports

but

1 km 11 ha 96t/ha

10t 120 g 50 kg/ha

Be Accurate
 Choose words with the exact meaning intended. Even in synonyms,
one must use the correct word. Do not use varying when you mean various.
Do not use appraise for apprise, adopt for adapt, etc. Do not mix nouns and
adjectives indiscriminately (fungus-fungous/fungal).

Example:

1. UPLB conducted the research to determine the extent of bud rot in

various (not “varying””) soil conditions.

Be Concise

Wordiness is a common fault in writing and must be avoided. It

confuses the reader who usually gets lost in the middle of a long-winded
sentence. Among the main course of wordiness are the following:

1. Use of common phrases which can be shortened

Examples:

Wordy Concise

a. At this point in time - at present, now

b. Due to the fact that - because

c. In the neighbourhood of - about

d. The poor quality of the soil poor soil

e. Take into consideration consider

2. Use of the passive voice

3. The phrase habit, the tendency to use a phrase instead of an

adjective or averb.

Examples:

Wordy Concise

a. in length long
 b. of great importance very important

c. the avoidance of avoiding, avoid

4. Overuse of which

Examples:

Wordy: a method which was known to be dangerous

Concise: dangerous method

5. Overuse of of

Wordy Concise

kernels of the peanut in storage stored peanut kernels

shelling pods of soybean shelling soybean pods

characteristics of this species of fish characteristics of

fish species

6. Overuse of the

Wordy: The planting of the trees took three months.

Concise: Tree planting took three months

7. Overuse of impersonal it

Wordy Concise

It is apparent that ... Apparently, ....

It is unfortunate that ... Unfortunately, ...

It is clear that ... Clearly, ...

Common Errors in Research Writing
Scientific and technical writing demands that the written word should
be simple, clear and concise. Wordiness is a common fault in writing and
often violates these three principles. Wrong sentence structure is another.

Discussed earlier are fundamental principles in research writing that

are often violated such as in the kind of writing that contributes to
wordiness, as in the use of the passive voice, long common phrases, the
noun habit, and the overuse of which and of.

The following sections will discuss other most common errors in

research writing.

Dangling Participles

The most common dangling modifier is the dangling participle or the

dangling participial phrase. Participles are verb forms used as adjectives or
noun modifiers.

The present participle is a verb form ending in ing: using, sowing, and
running. The past participle is the third form of the three principal parts of
the verb, as follows:

Present Past Past Participle

use used used

harvest harvested harvested

feed fed fed

break broke broken

write wrote written

freeze froze frozen

The present and past participles are often used in phrases that modify
nouns or substantives and pronouns. The italicized words in the following
sentences are participial phrases placed very close to the words modified
(underlined).
 1. Using a spade, he dug an irrigation canal.

2. Standing up, the farmer announced his decision to adopt the

technology.

3. The plants, attacked by insects, were burned.

4. They read the primer written in the vernacular...

Can you tell why the following participial phrases are dangling?

1. He removed the insects using forceps.

2. Standing up, the meeting was adjourned.

3. Bitten by a snake, we rushed the boar to the veterinarian.

4. The insect sucks the sap of the plant, causing its death.

5. The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy season,
eliminating the need for irrigation.

A participial phrase dangles if:

1. It is not placed close to the word modified,

2. It does not modify any word, and

3. It modifies the wrong word.

There are three ways of correcting dangling participial phrases:

1. Place the phrase close to the word it modifies.

Example:

Dangling: The farmer plowed the field using a tractor.

Correct: The farmer, using a tractor, plowed the field. Or Using

the tractor, the farmer plowed the field.

2. Provide the word modified.

Example:
 Dangling: Disappointed with the results, the research was
terminated.

Correct: Disappointed with the results, PCARRD terminated the

research.

3. Reconstruct the whole sentence.

Examples:

Dangling:

a. Bitten by the snake, we rushed the boar to the

veterinarian.

b. Using the tractor, the field was plowed.

c. The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy,

eliminating the need for irrigation.

Correct:

a. We rushed the boar, bitten by a snake, to the

veterinarian.

Or

We rushed the snake-bitten boar to the veterinarian.

b. Using the tractor, the farmer plowed the field.

Or

The farmer plowed the feild with the tractor.

c. The farmer, eliminating the need for irrigation, planted

his crop at the onset of the rainy season.

Or

The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy

season and eliminated the need for irrigation.

4. Add by to using or change using to with.

 Example:

Dangling: He removed the insects using forceps.

Correct: He removed the insects by using forceps.

Or

He removed the insects with forceps.

Exceptions:

Some phrases beginning with such words as assuming, considering,

and speaking have come to be accepted as clusters that do not strictly need
to have a noun or pronoun to modify.

Examples:

1. Assuming him to be right, there are still questions to be settled.

2. We extended the soybean pilot project, considering that many

farmers expressed their desires to participate.

3. Speaking of funding, many foreign agencies are waiting to help

financially with agricultural projects.

Vague Pronoun Reference

The reader should immediately know the word (called antecedent) to

which a pronoun refers.

1. The pronoun it

Vague: The peanut sheller is equipped with a blower, but it is

inadequate.

(Which is inadequate, the sheller or the blower?)

Clear: The peanut sheller, which is inadequate, is equipped with a

blower.

(Place the modifier, which is inadequate, near the noun modified-

sheller
 Clear: The peanut sheller is equipped with a blower, which is
inadequate.

(Blower is modified by which is inadequate.)

2. Implied references to an entire preceding statement. The most

common error is to use the pronoun which, this, that, etc. To refer to
an entire clause and not to a definite noun or pronoun.

Examples:

Vague: Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil, which

improves crop yield.

The relative pronoun which refers to the whole clause preceding

it. This refers is merely implied and thus contributes to
vagueness.

Good:Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil, a fact which

improves crop yield.

(In this sentence, which now refers to a definite word – fact -

which refers to the whole preceding statement.)

Better: Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil and

consequently improves crop yield.

Vague: His father is a farmer. This helps in the education of the

children.

Better: His father is a farmer. Farming helps in the education of

the children.

Better: His father’s farm helps in the education of the children.

3. Relative pronouns (who, which, that)

 These pronouns refer to the nearest noun (antecedent) and
should agree with it in number. The antecedent should, therefore, be
placed near the relative pronoun.

Examples:

1. He is one of the researchers who dedicate their time to science.

2. They choose the pesticide that does not harm the environment.

3. Integrated pest control, which seems to be the best method, is the

subject of the seminar.

Lumped Compound Modifiers

A number of writers lump compound modifiers together, perhaps in an

attempt to say much in a few words. Unfortunately, this tendency is often
more confusing than enlightening. It is also bad diction. This error in writing
can be remedied by doing any or all of the following together:

1. Break the cluster into prepositional phrases.

2. Hyphenate.

3. Add conjunctions.

4. Rearrange word replacement.

Examples:

1. slatted rectangular corn crib on-farm storage.

2. traditional subsistence sweet potato products practices

3. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King infested field

Improved:

1. on-farm stoirage in a slatted and rectangular on corn crib

2. traditional subsistence practices for sweet potato products

3. field infested with Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King

Faults against Parallelism

 Two or more words, phrases, or clauses that are parallel in thought or
that do the same work, are easier to read if they are similar in grammatical
construction. The conjunctions used are and, but, for, nor, either-or, neither-
nor, nut only but also.

A. Words

Poor: The project was observed, analyzed, and a judgement given.

Better: the project was observed, analyzed, and judge.

Poor: The fisherman was calm, cool, and did not worry.

Better: The fisherman was calm, cool, and confident.

B. Phrases

Bad: They introduced new ways of planting corn and control of pest.

Good: They introduced new ways of planting corn and controlling

pests.

or

They introduced new ways to plant corn and control pests.

Bad: Everyday the farmer milks his cows, cleans his field, and hogs
are fed.

Good: Everyday the farmer milks cows, cleans his field, and feeds
his hogs.

C. Clauses
 Bad: An additional amount was generated when the project leader
needed it most and during the time the bills were coming in.

Good: An additional amount was generated when the project leader

needed it most and the bills started coming in.

Bad: they plowed the field with a carabao, harrowed it with a

tractor, and it was prepared for planting.

Good: They plowed the field with a carabao, harrowed it with a

tractor, and prepared it for planting.

Comparisons

Comparisons should be between two or more logical words

(nouns or substantives) or concepts.

Poor: Rice yield in the first crop rotation was good compared with
the second rotation.

(Note: What the writer wants to compare are the yields of

rice between the first and second season crop rotations. In
this sentence construction, he is actually comparing rice yield
and second rotation.)

Good: Rice yield in the first crop rotation was better than that in
the second.

(Note: The word that refers to yield (singular). The

comparison is now between the yields of the two rotations.
The expression better than is more logical i this type of
sentence.)

Pairs Often Confused

adapt-adopt

adapt – to make suitable, to adjust

 adopt – to take as one’s own

Examples:

a. That temperate crop adapted well to Philippine conditions.

b. The farmers failed to adopt the technology generated.

affect – effect (v)

affect – to influence

effect – to cause

Examples:

a. The right kind of fertilizer affects plant growth favourably.

b. Sunlight effects a favourable change in plants.

agree to – agree with (also agree on)

agree to terms proposed

agree with a person

agree on a course of action

Examples:

a. The farmers agreed to some of the terms of the Department

of Agriculture.

b. The project implementers did not agree with the government

negotiators.

c. The scientists agreed on conducting a multidisciplinary

research.
all right – alright

all right – two words

alright – not an acceptable word

Examples:

a. It is all right to do it.

b. All right, let’s do it.

already - all ready

already – previously, by this time

all ready – everything prepared

Examples:

a. The farmers have already harvested the crop.

b. The participants are all ready to start work.

among – between

among – shows a relationship of more than two object, persons,

etc.

between – shows relationship of two objects, person, etc.

Examples:

a. An agreement was forged among the numerous members for

R&D research on banana.

b. There showed an inconsistency in treatment between the two

trials.
amount – number

amount – refers to quantity, used with a unified mass

number – refers to countable units, used with separate units

Examples;

a. The amount of work planned es extensive.

b. The number of plants lost in the flood led to the failure of the
project.

apprise – appraise

apprise – to inform, give notice

appraise – to evaluate, judge, set value

Examples:

a. We apprised the funding agency of the status in the

implementation of the project.

b. The evaluation committee apparaised the work of the project

coordinatyor.

apt – liable (also likely)

apt- habitually, tending, suited, or fitted (positive in connotation)

liable – exposed to the danger of (negative in connotation)

likely- expected, probable (negative or positive in connotation)

 Examples:

a. The small entrepreneur is apt to improve his income with the

new technology.

b. The small farmer is liable to be suspicious of a new

technology.

c. Extension workers are likely to fall if they don’t understand

farmers.

d. One is likely to succeed if he works hard.

capacity – ability or capability

capacity – refers to volume and amount

ability and capability – refers to what can be done

Examples:

a. The capacity of the machine is 20 sacks an hour.

b. That machine has the capacity to harvest and thresh rice

simultaneously.

compare to – compare with

compare with – for like things

compare to – for unlike things

Examples:

a. Yield in the first plot was compared with that of the second.
(two yields are compared)

b. Life is compared to sailing on the sea. (Two unlike things are

compared

– life and sailing)

credible – creditable (also credulous)

credible – believable
creditable – praiseworthy
credulous – ready to believe especially on slight or uncertain evidence

Examples:

a. The honest and outstanding farmer gave a credible account of

his success.
b. The new researcher made a creditable research performance.
c. A credulous person will not make a good scientist.

different from – different to/than

Do not use different than or different to

Example:

a. His style of writing is different from that of the others.

due to – because of

due to – an adjective phrase, so it must modify a noun

because of – adverbial phrase, so it must modify a verb

Examples:

Wrong: Yield was high due to the application of fertilizers.

Better: Yield was high because of fertilizer application.
Better: High yield was due to fertilizer application.

estrus (n.) – estrous (adj.)

Examples:

a. The carabao’s next estrus was delayed.

b. The estrous bitch is restless and nervous.

farther – further
 farther – an adjective referring to distance
further – going beyond what exists (adjective), in addition (adverb), to
move forward
(verb)
Examples:

a. The RACO staff drove farther north.

b. We all need further training to enable us to improve our lives more.
c. The liberal application of chicken dung enriched the soil further.
d. The farmers furthered their learning of the technology in a workshop
conducted by extension workers.

imply – infer

imply – to express or suggest indirectly

infer – to draw conclusion from the evidence.

Examples:

a. Your silence implies that you agree.

b. From the findings, we infer that the methodology was questionable.

less – few

Do not use less with nouns in the plural form.

Examples:

less gasoline, less land

few palnts, few tractors

lose – loose

lose (v.) – to misplace

loose (v.) – to unfasten, to be unfastened
loose (adj.) – not tight

Examples:

a. She loses her serenity when the project goes wrong.

b. They usually loose the pigs at night.
c. We wear loose clothes when working in the field.
mucus (n.) – mucous (adj.)

Examples:

a. The mucus is a protective secretion of mucous membrane.

b. The organ has a mucous lining that keeps it from irritants.

phosphorus (n.) – phosphorous (adj.)

phosphorus (n.) – a non-metallic element

phosphorous (adj.) – containing phosphorus, resembling phosphorus

Examples:

a. Phosphorus is one of the elements in commercial fertilizers.

b. The planter owned a farm lot of phosphorous soil.

practical – practicable

practical – concerned with practice rather than theory

practicable – capable of being put into practice

Examples:

a. The director is a practical man and not a dreamy, romantic

person at all.
b. The proposed project is not practicable.

regardless – irregardless

regardless – without regard to

irregardless – a substandard word, an illiteracy

Example:

a. They went ahead with the project regardless of the

consequences.

result in – result to

It is incorrect to use the preposition to with result.

Example:
 The application of fertilizers resulted in (not to) a bountiful harvest.

superior to – superior than

Do not use than with superior

Example:

Many people find Latundan superior to Lacatan in taste.

that – which (relative pronouns)

that – introduces a restrictive (defining, limiting) clause; no commas

are used.
which – introduces a non-restrictive (descriptive, nondefining) clause;
commas are used.

Examples:

a. Research improves yields that are unstable. (The italicized clause

defines which yields).
b. The study, which was conducted at the agency, aimed to increase
corn yield. (The italicized clause merely explains or describes study).

varying – various

varying – changing
various – many, different

Examples:

a. The seeds were planted in holes of various (not varying) depths.

b. Research results are unreliable in a room of varying degrees of
heat intensity.

X ray – X-ray

X ray – (noun) the electromagnetic radiation, photograph obtained by

the use of X rays
X-ray – adjective and verb

Examples:

a. The X ray showed a spot on the scientist’s lung.

b. The X-ray machine broke down.
c. The technicians had to X-ray the patient who fell from the
tractor.