ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 99-M28
Damage Assessment of Concrete Bridge Decks using
Impact-Echo Method
by Waleed F. Tawhed and Sarah L. Gassman
A nondestructive testing program was performed to evaluate the
integrity of damaged concrete bridge decks. The bridge decks
were removed from a bridge built in 1953 in Charleston, S. C.
While the concrete decks were in service, they were retrofitted
with fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials to repair the
extensive damage suffered during their service lives. In this study,
two slabs were nondestructively evaluated in the laboratory using
the impact-echo method after the removal of the reinforcement
layer. Impact-echo tests were performed concurrently with full-
scale static and dynamic load tests. The first slab was statically
loaded to failure, and the second was tested dynamically with cyclic
loading. Impact-echo tests were performed before and after the
loading sequence for each slab and between each application of
cyclic loading for the second slab. Results from tests on the stati-
cally loaded slab detected a significant reduction in propagation
wave velocity after failure, indicating a reduction in the slab stiff-
ness. Impact-echo tests on the dynamically loaded slab quantified
the degradation of the slab during dynamic testing. Significant
damage, such as cracking, was detected earlier than visually
observed and before the slab reached service failure.
Keywords: bridge deck; concrete; crack.
INTRODUCTION
Efficient, cost-effective, and reliable methods for the
inspection of bridge structures are in demand. Traditionally,
structural components (decks, beams, columns, and founda-
tions) have been inspected by visual means or destructive
methods such as coring, drilling, or load tests. These methods
can be labor-intensive, may be unable to detect subsurface
defects, and may have adverse effects on an originally sound
structure. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques signif-
icantly improve both the efficiency and the accuracy of
bridge inspection. Accurate and efficient assessment tech-
niques are particularly critical in determining the state of
bridge structures requiring repair or rehabilitation, and improve
the integrity and safety of the bridge infrastructure by iden-
tifying problems before significant damage accumulates,
requiring more expensive repairs.
NDE techniques currently available for the integrity assess-
ment of concrete bridge decks include impact-echo (Sansalone
and Streett 1997), ground-penetrating radar (Warhus, Mast,
and Nelson 1995), ultrasonic pulse velocity (ASTM C 597-97),
and spectral analysis of surface waves (Nazarian and Stokoe
1989). These methods can be used to locate voids and structural
components such as reinforcing bars embedded in concrete,
and characterize construction flaws and wear- or age-induced
damage in structures without relying only on coring or other
destructive techniques.
This study presents the results of a NDE testing program
performed to assess the damage in concrete bridge decks
subjected to full-scale static and dynamic loading using the
impact-echo method. The impact-echo method was selected
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
TECHNICAL PAPER
for this study because it is a simple, well-established procedure
that can provide a baseline with which other newly emerging
techniques can be compared. The slabs evaluated in this
study had suffered extensive damage while in service and
were retrofitted with fiber-reinforced polymer composite
materials. Impact-echo tests were performed concurrently
with static and dynamic load tests in the laboratory. The
objective of this testing program was to nondestructively
assess the distribution of damage throughout deteriorated
concrete bridge slabs and to evaluate the initiation and
generation of damage, such as cracking, within the concrete
slab subjected to various loading conditions.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
NDE methods can improve both the efficiency and accuracy
of bridge inspection without compromising the structural
integrity. These techniques are valuable for determining the
state of bridge structures requiring repair or rehabilitation
and improve the integrity and safety of the bridge infrastructure
by identifying problems before significant damage accumu-
lates requiring more expensive repairs. The impact-echo
method is used herein as a non-destructive tool to determine
the distribution of damage throughout deteriorated concrete
bridge slabs and track the propagation of cracks when sub-
jected to various types of loading. This research shows the
importance of using NDE methods to detect damage within
a structure before it can be visually identified.
BACKGROUND
Impact-echo method
The impact-echo method is a NDE method used for testing
concrete or masonry structures using impact-generated stress
waves that propagate through a structure and are reflected at
any property change (internal flaws or interfaces). The impact-
echo method can be used to locate cracks, voids, honeycombing,
and delaminations in concrete bridge decks and slabs, as well
as other concrete structures (Sansalone and Streett 1997). An
impact-echo test is performed by introducing a stress pulse
impact source (such as a ball drop or hammer strike) at the sur-
face of a structure and monitoring the resulting stress waves
with a transducer attached to the same surface. Stress waves
reflect between the surface and existing voids or delamina-
tions to create a resonant condition that can be observed in a
frequency analysis of the acquired waveforms. One advantage
of the method is that access to only one surface of a structure
ACI Materials Journal, V. 99, No. 3, May-June 2002.
MS No. 01-204 received July 9, 2001, and reviewed under Institute publication pol-
icies. Copyright © 2002, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including
the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion will be published in the March-April 2003 ACI Materials Journal
if received by December 1, 2002.
273

Waleed F. Tawhed is a graduate research assistant in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C. His
research interests include nondestructive testing.
Sarah L. Gassman is an assistant professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at the University of South Carolina. She received her PhD from North-
western University, Evanston, Ill. Her research interests include nondestructive evalu-
ation of unknown bridge foundations, concrete bridge decks, and drilled shafts.
is needed, making this technique suitable for rapid assess-
ment of bridges.
Frequency changes due to cracks, voids, and reinforcing
bars—Lin, Yen, and Chen (1996) found that when a flaw or
a void exists, the frequency of the fundamental mode of vibra-
tion of the solid response shifts to a lower value or becomes
absent due to reduction in stiffness. In addition, a larger
amplitude, lower frequency peak at a value less than the fun-
damental frequency appears due to the flexural vibrations
caused by the portion of concrete above the void or crack, for
shallow voids or cracks. Cheng and Sansalone (1993) found
Fig. 1—Details of dimensions and visual cracks for: (a) Slab 1; and (b) Slab 2.
274
that when a reinforcing bar is present, a cluster of peaks (or a
broad peak) at frequencies higher than the frequency expected
from the top of the bar exist in the response. The amplitudes
of the cluster frequencies are close and are centered on the
value of frequency reflection from the top of the reinforcing
bar. Further work by Cheng and Sansalone (1995a,b) found
that, as a crack propagates and as its width increases, the am-
plitude of the peak frequency corresponding to the crack
depth increases and becomes sharper as more energy is re-
flected from the top surface of the crack. Hill, McHugh, and
Turner (2000) found that the amplitude of the dominant fre-
quency peak over a void (ungrouted duct) was larger than
that over the grouted duct due to larger displacements from
a less stiff section.
Crack detection—Cheng and Sansalone (1995a,b) deter-
mined the minimum crack width that can be detected by the
impact-echo method in concrete both experimentally and nu-
merically to be 0.08 mm (0.003 in.) using a frequency input
of 15 to 80 kHz. Lin, Yen, and Chen (1996) successfully located
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
and traced the initiation and propagation of cracks in composite
slab specimens subjected to various levels of static loading.
They found that changes in the spectral pattern are key to
identifying the formation of cracks. Sansalone, Lin, and
Streett (1998) measured the depth of surface-opening cracks
in concrete structures numerically and experimentally and
found that the first arrival at the receiver was from the diffracted
P-waves originating from the crack tip. Therefore, a spacing
of 0.03 to 0.05 m (1.2 to 2.0 in.) from each—the receiver and
source—to the crack was recommended.
Correlation between propagation velocity and concrete
quality—A typical indication of the presence of cracks is the
shift of the expected thickness frequency to a lower frequency.
This shift is due to reduction in the stiffness of the structure near
the crack that, in turn, reduces the wave velocity. The P-wave
velocity Cp is related to slab stiffness E as
E(1 – υ)
Cp = ------------------------------------------
( 1 + υ ) ( 1 – 2 υ )ρ
where
υ = Poisson’s ratio for the material; and
ρ = material density (Popovics et al. 1998).
The range of propagation wave velocity in concrete ranges
from 3500 to 4500 m/s (11,480 to 14,760 ft/s) depending
upon concrete composition, age, and condition (Popovics
and Rose 1994).
Pessiki and Johnson (1996) related the early-age concrete
strength to P-wave velocity for concrete slabs and their
corresponding cores and found that the velocity in the cores
is less than the velocity in the slab due to the effects of
Poisson’s ratio. They recommended that the P-wave velocity
be limited to early-strength monitoring only. Destructive
tests, such as coring, would be required to accurately assess
the concrete strength for mature concrete.
To assess the quality and condition of concrete within a
structure, the variation in Cp can be compared. The acceptable
variation in Cp for a given batch of concrete was determined
to be approximately 2 to 2.5%. This variation is based on an
average variation in concrete batch strength equal to 7.8%
for laboratory conditions and 9.5% for field conditions per
ASTM Standard C 39-96, and assumes a wave velocity of
4000 m/s (13,120 ft/s) and a corresponding concrete strength
of 61.9 MPa (E and υ are required for a more accurate esti-
mate). Therefore, velocity measurements across a structure
that vary by more than 100 m/s (328 ft/s) would indicate
concrete deterioration.
Data analysis
The data are generally analyzed in the frequency domain
using the fast fourier transform to interpret the data, which
becomes complicated in the time domain. When the Cp of the
concrete is known (or assumed), the thickness of the slab can
be calculated from
0.96C
f = ----------------p-
2T
where
f = slab frequency; and
T = slab thickness (Sansalone and Streett 1997).
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
The factor 0.96 is a shape factor to account for the slab
modes of vibration for an infinite plate configuration. This
equation can also be used to calculate Cp when the thickness
is known. Further details on impact-echo method analysis
and crack detection are presented by Sansalone (1997) and
Sansalone and Streett (1997).
METHODOLOGY
Slab specimens
Two precast, reinforced concrete slabs were tested in this
research program. They were removed from a bridge over
Sanders Creek in Berkeley County, South Carolina. This
bridge was built in 1953 as a maintenance bridge and was
taken out of service in 1997. The slabs were constructed with
the same design and dimensions, and were presumed to be
cast from the same concrete mixture. The two slabs were
nominally 4.27 m (14 ft) long by 1.52 m (5 ft) wide by 0.21 m
(8.25 in.) thick. The slabs were reinforced with Grade 60
steel mesh reinforcing bars spaced 0.3 m (12 in.) in the longi-
tudinal direction and 0.15 m (6 in.) in the transverse direction.
The two slabs had different levels of observed in-service
damage before they were tested in the laboratory. Both slabs
had visible external cracks on the sides and bottom as noted
schematically in Fig. 1. Slab 1 had a large visible void [approx-
imately 20 cm2 (3.1 in.2) in area and 50 mm (2 in.) deep] on the
underside of the slab. This void exposed one of the longitudi-
nal reinforcing bars and was surrounded by a zone of dam-
aged concrete approximately 633 cm2 (98.2 in.2) in area.
Load testing
The first slab was statically loaded to failure using a 489 kN
(110 kips) capacity loading system. The loading rate was
445 N/sec (100 lb/sec), which resulted in a peak failure load of
267 kN (60.1 kips) and a peak deflection of 0.09 m (3.6 in.).
The second slab was dynamically tested under cyclic
loading (a fatigue test) using the same loading system. The
slab was subjected to three levels of loading cycles. The slab
was initially loaded between 4.5 and 120 kN (1 and 27 kips)
up to 2 million cycles at a loading rate of 2 Hz. The load was
then increased to oscillate between 4.5 and 169 kN (1 and
38 kips) for an additional 500,000 cycles at the same loading
rate. Finally, the load was increased to oscillate between 4.5
and 227 kN (1 and 51 kips) for an additional 32,246 cycles
at a rate of 1 Hz until failure. Three successively increasing
loads were needed because the failure prediction made based
on the design specifications was insufficient.
The slab failure mode due to the application of static
load was purely one-way flexural. During the application
Fig. 2—Grid point numbering system.
275
 Fig. 3—Velocity profile of statically loaded slab: (a) before loading; (b) after loading; and
(c) velocity reduction.
of the static load, the steel yielded, causing the compression
stresses to increase until failure. Cracks were observed
propagating through the compression zone to the top surface
of the slab. The resulting damage in the compression zone
was extensive and caused spalling of the top cover. The
failure mode for the dynamically loaded slab was similar
to that observed for the statically loaded slab. However,
the damage on the top cover was not quite as extensive.
Two failure limits were defined for the load testing.
Service failure was defined when the measured deflection
rate changed from 2.54 to 12.7 mm (0.10 to 0.5 in.) per
1000 cycles during the test, indicating fatigue failure in
one of the reinforcing bars. This definition of failure
means that the slab could not safely be used in service,
but could withstand additional loading. Structural failure
occurred when several of the steel reinforcing bars rup-
tured, indicating that the slab could not support additional
loads. The dynamically loaded slab reached service failure
after a total of 2,518,140 cycles, and the loading was con-
276
tinued until structural failure was reached after a total of
2,532,246 cycles.
NDE testing equipment
The NDE system used in this study consisted of a digital
oscilloscope with a maximum sampling frequency of 1 MHz
for data acquisition and processing. A 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) diameter
ball bearing that imparts up to 23 kHz was used as the impact
source. The ball bearing was dropped from a 0.3 m (1 ft)
height. An accelerometer with a frequency range of 0.7 to
30 kHz was used as the receiver. Based on the resolution of
the equipment used herein, the accuracy of the wave velocity
measurements was determined to be ±1%. The depth to a
detectable crack tip from the surface is 0.076 to 0.097 m
(3.0 to 3.8 in.) for the 23-kHz ball bearing for wave velocities
ranging from 3500 to 4500 m/s.
Impact-echo testing plan
A grid spaced at 0.3 m (1 ft) was designed for the first slab,
as shown in Fig. 1. The grid was spaced at 0.3 m (1 ft) in both
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
directions to avoid coinciding with the design steel arrange-
ment and achieve a clear response of the slab’s thickness. A
complete set of impact-echo tests was implemented on all
grid points on the slab (as numbered in Fig. 2) to evaluate the
response of the slab before and after the load test.
For the second slab, a grid was designed in a similar manner
to that of the first slab. A complete series of tests on the slab
was performed at all grid points prior to load testing to assess
the integrity of the slab. Tests were then performed on the
20 grid points in the middle third of the slab between each
increment of cyclic loading. Between each loading sequence,
a constant static load of 4.5 kN (1 kip) was applied to the slab
to simulate the original pavement dead load. Finally, tests
were performed on all grid points again after structural failure.
The set of tests performed prior to load testing and the set after
structural failure were performed without the influence of the
dead load.
During each stage of the cyclic testing, the results at each
point were compared with the results from the previous set
of cycles. In this way, the change in the response resulting
from the fatigue loading could be quantified to provide
information on the deterioration of the slab and the pro-
gression of the cracking.
During the loading sequence, some points experienced a
severe level of damage caused by extensive shallow cracks.
The frequency associated with the reflections from these
cracks was above the detection limit of the equipment used
in this research. When this condition occurred, it was defined
as local failure because the impact-echo method could no
longer detect the depth to the crack tip or slab thickness.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF STATICALLY
LOADED SLAB
Initial condition
Figure 3(a) presents the impact-echo results obtained
for all grid points on the slab before the static load test
was performed. Linear point Kriging was used to interpo-
late between grid points. In general, the wave velocity
ranged from 3600 to 4500 m/s (11,808 to 14,760 ft/s) when the
slab was removed from service. These values are within the
acceptable velocity range for normal concrete quality;
however, the variation of velocity within the slab is 900 m/s
(2953 ft/s) and indicates a highly deteriorated structure.
The variation in velocity of the concrete throughout the
slab is substantially higher than the 100 m/s variation expected
for a given batch of good-quality concrete. Direct verifica-
tion (namely, coring) would be required to determine the
absolute quality (specifically, the compressive strength) of
the concrete.
Asymmetry was observed in the impact-echo results. The
average wave velocity on one side of the slab (from y = 0.91 m
[3 ft] to 1.52 m [5 ft]) was 4100 m/s (13,448 ft/s). This value is
less than the average velocity of 4300 m/s (14,104 ft/s) deter-
mined for the other side (y < 0.91 m [3 ft])) and so indicates
poorer-quality concrete. Furthermore, surface cracks were
more apparent in the region of lower velocity.
The region of damaged concrete around the void before
loading is shown in Fig. 4(a). The wave velocity in this
region varied from 4500 to 4000 m/s (14,760 to 13,120 ft/s)
over a distance of 0.3 m (1 ft). This is a significant variation
over a small region and indicates a highly damaged area. The
inferior quality of this concrete may have been intensified by
corrosion of the exposed steel reinforcing bar while the slab
was in service.
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
Fig. 4—Velocity profile of statically loaded slab around
void: (a) before loading; and (b) after loading.
Condition after loading
The impact-echo results obtained for all grid points after
the static load test was performed are shown in Fig. 3(b). The
reduction in propagation velocity due to the application of
the static load is shown in Fig. 3(c). The results indicate that
the slab had suffered significant damage concentrated in the
middle third of the slab between transverse lines 1.52 and
2.74 m (5 and 9 ft). This damage is signified by a 2 to 6%
reduction in the velocity in that zone. The level of damage
was the highest (6% reduction) near the center of the slab at
Points 26 and 27, where the loading plate caused a high
stress concentration. The level of damage decreased (2%
reduction) near the edges of the slab. In contrast, the outer
zones of the slab (0 to 1.22 m [0 to 4 ft]) and (3.05 to 4.27 m
[10 to 14 ft]), were relatively intact, except for some regions
that experienced an increase in velocity, indicating a recov-
ering of stiffness such as the increase in velocity of 2% near
Point 16.
The region of damaged concrete around the void after
loading is shown in Fig. 4(b). In this region, the velocity
was reduced by as much as 300 m/s (984 ft/s), whereas the
velocity in the outer zones of the slab remained essentially
constant. Also, the lengths and widths of pre-existing cracks
increased. These areas with pre-existing damage were more
sensitive to loading effects than those that were initially intact.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF DYNAMICALLY
LOADED SLAB
Cumulative propagation velocity reduction
Figure 5(a) presents the impact-echo results obtained for
all grid points on the slab before the dynamic load test was
performed. The average wave velocity in the slab was
about 4300 m/s (14,104 ft/s) and indicates a better quality
of concrete than that of the first slab. The velocity distribution
across the slab ranged from 4100 to 4600 m/s (13,668 to
15,088 ft/s), which is indicative of a deteriorated structure.
This variation indicates less deterioration than was observed
in the first slab.
The results obtained after structural failure are shown in
Fig. 5(b). These results are from tests performed without the
dead load applied. The outer zones (from 0 to 1.52 m [0 to 5 ft]
and 2.74 to 4.27 m [9 to 14 ft]) of the slab were only mini-
mally affected by the loading sequence. The reduction in
velocity in these regions was less than 2%, which was simi-
lar to the results of the statically loaded slab. In the middle
third of the slab, severe damage occurred at some points such
that reflections from the bottom of the slab (or any depth
within) were not detectable in the impact-echo results. This
indicates that the wave velocity was essentially reduced to
277
Table 1—Occurrence of local failure and
associated reduction in wave velocity
Initial wave Velocity reduction No. of cycles
Grid point velocity, m/s before local failure, % before local failure
21 4366 4.0 2,515,000
22 4540 4.0 2,515,000
24 4366 8.0 2,518,140
25 4366 2.0 2,500,001
26 4453 Not tested N/A
27 4453 Not tested N/A
28 4278 6.0 2,502,500
29 4278 2.0 2,515,000
30 4366 6.0 2,531,690
31 4191 2.0 2,515,000 (a)
32 4278 4.0 2,505,000
36 4191 4.0 2,502,000

(b)
Fig. 7—Normalized response spectrums during dynamic
loading sequence: (a) Point 17; and (b) Point 22.
within the zone bounded by the two transverse gridlines
(1.83 m [6 ft] and 2.44 m [8 ft]) and the longitudinal grid line
0.61 m (2 ft). This damaged zone extends an additional 0.3 m
(1 ft) in each longitudinal direction, wherein the reduction in
Fig. 5—Velocity profile of dynamically loaded slab: (a) before
wave velocity decreases rapidly from 4000 to 500 m/s. The
loading; and (b) after loading (modified).
extent of damage between longitudinal lines 0 and 0.61 m
(0 and 2 ft) is broader than between longitudinal lines 0.61
and 1.52 m (2 and 5 ft), indicating longitudinal asymmetry
in the slab response.

Progression of propagation velocity reduction

Fig. 6—Propagation velocity reduction for dynamically
loaded slab.
zero in this region. To provide a conservative estimate of
damage within the middle region, the wave velocity values
were modified by changing the zero values at these points to
equal the average value of velocity from the surrounding
non-zero points.
The cumulative reduction in propagation velocity ranged
from 500 to 4000 m/s (1640 to 13,120 ft/s), as shown in Fig. 6.
The largest reduction in wave velocity was concentrated
The response spectrums for Grid Points 17 and 22 at various
stages during the dynamic loading sequence are shown in
Fig. 7(a) and (b), respectively. The integrity of the concrete at
Point 17 was essentially unaffected by the loading sequence.
The velocity determined by the thickness frequency at 10.0 kHz
remained constant throughout the loading cycles and up to
structural failure. A reduction in velocity (2%) was only
observed after the dead load was removed. In contrast, the
concrete at Point 22 was sensitive to the loading sequence.
The thickness frequency shifted from 10.4 to 9.8 kHz as the
loading sequence progressed until structural failure, which
corresponds to a reduction of 4% in velocity. The develop-
ment of damage at this point is indicated by the increase in
number and magnitude of peaks occurring at frequencies
greater than the thickness frequency. These peaks were created
by reflections from cracks and inferior-quality concrete that
developed through the loading sequence. As this damage pro-
gressed, the magnitude of the corresponding peaks increased
and masked the thickness frequency after failure.

278 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002


Fig. 8—Change in wave velocity with applied loading
cycles for Points 17, 20, 21, and 24.
The variation in wave velocity with applied loading cycles
within the slab is shown for Points 17, 20, 21, and 24 in Fig. 8.
These points lie on Transverse Grid Lines 5 and 6. Whereas
Points 17 and 21 began with the same initial velocity,
Point 21 experienced a decrease in wave velocity after
2,000,000 cycles and locally failed at 2,515,000 cycles after
a decrease of 4% in wave velocity; however, the wave velocity
for Point 17 remained constant until service failure and local
failure was not observed. The same behavior was observed for
Points 20 and 24. Point 24 began to deteriorate after 1,500,000
cycles of loading and locally failed after 2,515,000 cycles of
loading after a reduction of 8% in wave velocity.
The level of damage increased longitudinally from the
center of the slab as the loading sequence increased as shown in
Fig. 9(a) and (b) for the transverse gridlines within the middle
third of the slab at service and structural failure, respectively.
After service failure, the velocity reduction ranged from 0 to
4% along Transverse Lines 5 and 9, whereas the velocity
reduction ranged from 2 to 100% along Lines 6 and 8.
Localized failure was observed at all points on Line 7. Addi-
tional applied cycles after service failure continued to degrade
the points along Lines 6 and 8. The wave velocity at all
points along Line 8 and three of the four points along Line 6
exhibited localized failure, whereas the wave velocity along
both Lines 5 and 9 remained relatively constant. This suggests
that the applied load became concentrated within 0.3 m (1 ft)
of the loading plate.
The number of loading cycles at which some points experi-
enced local failure is summarized in Table 1. Point 25 was
the first point to locally fail when the number of cycles
reached 2,500,001. This is 18,140 cycles before service failure
of the slab. At Point 24, local failure occurred concurrently
with service failure and, at Point 28 local failure occurred
15,640 cycles before service failure. Before these failures
occurred, the wave velocity at these points was reduced by 2
to 8%. The localized damage at these points indicated that
most of the local damage was observed for points near the
center of the slab (within 0.3 m (1 ft) of the loading plate);
whereas only a few points near the edges of the slab experienced
local damage such as Point 36. Point 36 was prone to local failure
because it had the lowest initial wave velocity of 4100 m/s
(13,448 ft/s) in the region (Fig. 5(a)) and hence the lowest
quality of concrete.
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9—Reduction in wave velocity in dynamically loaded
slab: (a) service failure; and (b) structural failure.
Progression of cracks
Figure 10(a) and (b) present the wave velocity change for
Point 24 and its corresponding depth to crack, respectively.
This point reached a local failure at 2,518,140 cycles, which
coincided with service failure of the slab. Figure 10(a) shows
an initial 2% decrease in velocity after the first 1000 cycles
followed by additional 2% losses after each of 1,600,000;
2,500,100; and 2,502,000 cycles for a total of 8% reduction
in wave velocity. The growth of this crack was quantified using
the peak frequency associated with the reflection from the
crack that was identified in the frequency-response spectrum.
As shown in Fig. 10(b), the crack propagated from a depth of
0.17 to 0.14 m (6.5 to 5.6 in.) during the loading sequence for
a total increase in crack depth of 57%. The growth of the
crack was gradual before 2,510,000 cycles, after which it
propagated rapidly until local failure was achieved after
2,530,000 cycles. The propagation of this crack significantly
reduced the wave velocity, and hence the local stiffness, at
this point within the slab. This behavior was observed for all
points in the vicinity of the loading plate, as shown in Fig. 11.
The slope of the relation between the velocity and the depth
to crack increases as the initial depth to crack decreases.
A summary of the progression of all detected cracks is
presented in Table 2. Cracks were detected at all but three points
within the middle third region before loading commenced.
Initial depths from the slab surface to the crack ranged from
0.15 to 0.19 m (5.9 to 7.3 in.); thus, the initial crack depths
ranged from 0.024 to 0.059 m (0.95 to 2.35 in.). For all
cracks, the depth to the crack remained constant until
1,500,000 cycles. At this point in the loading sequence,
cracks at Points 19, 24, and 33 began to propagate. Cracks at
279
Table 2—Progression of crack depth
No. of cycles
Initial depth before onset of Final depth to crack Maximum no. of Total increase in Decrease in depth to Increase in crack depth
Point no. to crack, in. crack progression before failure, in. cycles sustained crack depth, in. crack before failure, % before failure, %
17 6.00 2,515,000 5.70 2,532,246 0.30 5 13
18 6.90 N/A 6.90 2,532,246 0.00 0 0
19 6.60 1,400,000 6.50 2,532,246 0.10 2 6
20 7.20 2,500,001 5.20 2,532,246 2.00 28 190
21 No crack 2,010,000 5.60 2,505,000 2.65 32 —
22 No crack 2,000,000 6.50 2,505,000 1.75 21 —
23 6.00 2,501,000 5.40 2,532,246 0.60 10 27
24 6.50 1,500,000 5.50 2,515,000 1.00 15 57
25 6.40 2,300,000 6.20 2,500,000 0.20 3 11
28 7.20 2,010,000 6.50 2,502,000 0.70 10 67
29 5.90 2,050,000 5.70 2,505,000 0.20 3 9
30 6.80 2,503,000 6.40 2,515,000 0.40 6 28
31 6.40 2,050,000 5.80 2,505,000 0.60 9 32
32 7.30 2,500,000 5.90 2,503,000 1.40 19 147
33 6.25 1,500,000 6.00 2,532,246 0.25 4 13
34 No crack 2,001,000 5.80 2,532,246 2.45 30 —
35 6.50 2,505,000 5.60 2,532,246 0.90 14 51
36 5.90 2,500,001 5.60 2,501,500 0.30 5 13

(a) (b)

Fig. 10—Localized failure at Point 24 in dynamically loaded slab: (a) velocity change; and (b) crack progression.
Fig. 11—Effect of crack propagation on wave velocity
measurements.
all other points began to propagate after 2,000,000 cycles.
Before the onset of failure, the decrease in the depth to the
crack from the surface ranged from 2 to 32%. Assuming
that the cracks propagated vertically, this corresponds to an
increase in crack depth (that is, crack growth) ranging from
9 to 190%. Furthermore, the amount of growth measured
before local failure varied. For example, Point 25 (the first
point to locally fail) exhibited an 11% increase in crack depth
(200,000 cycles after the onset of crack progression) before
the crack rapidly propagated to the surface and indicated local
failure. Similarly small increases in crack depth (9 to 13%)
were measured at Points 29, 33, and 36. Larger increases in
crack depth were observed at most other points, such as
Point 24, which exhibited a 57% increase in crack depth during
915,000 additional cycles. The rate of crack propagation was
dependent upon the initial concrete condition and location
relative to the loading plate; however, definitive correlations
between parameters were not apparent. At some points, as
many as 915,000 cycles elapsed before local failure, whereas
only 1500 cycles elapsed before local failure at others. It is
clear that, when a crack is detected, localized failure is immi-
nent; however, predicting the number of cycles before localized
failure occurs requires further study.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented the results of impact-echo tests
performed on two precast concrete slabs that were removed
from a maintenance bridge after suffering extensive damage
during their service lives. Tests were first performed to

280 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002

nondestructively assess the initial condition and the distribu-
tion of damage throughout the slabs. Tests were then per-
formed concurrently with full-scale static and dynamic load
tests to evaluate the initiation and generation of damage
within the slab.
Based on the results of this experimental investigation, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The relative quality of concrete throughout a structure
that has suffered extensive damage during service life can be
assessed by analyzing the variations in P-wave velocity. In
this study, variations in P-wave velocity on the order of 600 to
900 m/s were associated with a level of concrete deterioration
that warranted removal of slabs from service based on visual
assessment methods;
2. Localized failure and crack propagation within a slab is
a function of the initial concrete quality, initial presence and
extent of cracks, type of applied load (static or dynamic), and
the relative distance from the applied load;
3. Crack propagation correlates to a reduction in P-wave
velocity ranging from 2 to 8% (a direct result of slab stiffness
reduction) before local failure is detected. This reduction in
velocity increases more rapidly for cracks that are initially of
greater extent;
4. Detection of cracks in slabs subjected to fatigue loading
indicates that localized failure is imminent; however, predicting
the number of cycles before this failure will occur requires
further study; and
5. The impact-echo method detected cracks within the slab
before indications of damage became visible on the surface.
Therefore, NDE methods should be used for early damage detec-
tion so that a structure can be rehabilitated before further damage
accumulates and leads to service failure of the structure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation
under Grant No. CMS 9875066. The support is gratefully acknowledged.
NOTATION
Cp = P-wave velocity
df = final depth to crack
di = initial depth to crack
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
f = frequency
T = slab thickness
ρ = mass density
υ = Poisson’s ratio
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2002
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