Nervous System Physiology

Lectures

2nd year English Module.

Ana-Maria Zagrean M.D., Ph.D.

 Nervous System Physiology
Lectures
2nd year English Module.
Preliminary schedule.

1. Organization of the Nervous system. Physiology of neurons

and glial cells. Excitability and ionic transport (Dec. 13)
2. Synaptic transmission in the nervous system.
Neurotransmitters (Jan. 3)
3. Physiology of the neuro-muscular system (Jan. 10) .
4. Sensory transduction. Physiology of sight. Physiology of
hearing (Jan. 17).
5. Physiology of the autonomic nervous system.
The hypothalamus. Integration of vital functions (Jan 24).
 The nervous system

Human brain - most complex tissue in the body.

- mediates behavior ranging from simple
movements and sensory perception to learning
and memory
- the organ of the mind…
- capacity to think
Many of the brain's functions are poorly understood.

While philosophers ponder the paradox of a person thinking

about thinking, physiologists are trying to learn about learning.
Bruce R. Ransom in Boron & Boulpaep’ Medical Physiology
 Organization of the Nervous System: CNS, PNS & ANS
• Central nervous system (CNS):
- brain (including cranial nerve II and retina) and spinal cord;
- covered by the meninges (pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater);
- special features: oligodendrocytes provide myelin; axons cannot regenerate
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
- parts of the nervous system that lie outside the dura mater;
- consists of peripheral ganglia (including cell bodies); sensory
receptors; afferent & efferent peripheral portions of spinal nerves,
cranial nerves (except CN II) and all peripheral portions of ANS.
- special features: Schwann cells provide myelin; axons can regenerate
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS):
-anatomically includes parts of CNS & PNS;
-regulates & controls visceral functions through reflex arcs (visceral
afferent/sensory neurons, control centers in the CNS that receive input,
and visceral motor output).
- special feature: functionally distinct system
All elements of the nervous system work closely together in a way
that has no clear boundaries.
 Nervous System: structure
1) CNS (central nervous system):
brain
spinal cord

2) PNS (peripheral nervous system):

cranial nerves
spinal nerves

2 types of cells:
neurons
non-neuronal cells
(previously considered just supporting cells…)
 Central nervous system (CNS):
Nerve cells
Nerve cells: neurons and neuroglial cells.

- ~1011 neurons in the human brain

and 10 x more neuroglia
- Neurons have special shapes, physiological properties, and
connections (~1000 synapses/each neuron & other connecting
mechanisms)
Æunique patterns of connectivity & regional specialization
Ætremendous complexity of NS

- Neuroglial cells have variable structures that are suited for

their diverse functions; can function as signalling cells;
provide a physiological environment for neurons
 The structure of a typical neuron
(1) cell body/ soma /perikaryon
(nucleus, ER, Golgi complex, mitochondria)
(2) dendrites of various complexity: tapered, limited
length, contain membrane rec. for neurotransmitters.
The dendrites & cell body are the main areas for
receiving information through the membrane receptors
that bind and respond to the neurotransmitters released
by neighboring cells.
(3) the axon:
- a cone-shaped axon hillock,
- an initial segment/ the spike initiation zone
(unmyelinated region where AP initiates)
- axon can extend for more than a meter, +/- myelin
(electrical insulation, fast impulse spread), high
density of Na+ channels
- contain axoplasm, microtubules and microfilaments
that confer structural stability and axonal transport…
(4) the presynaptic terminals: rapid conversion of the
neuron's electrical signal into a chemical / another
signal… in the postsynaptic membrane.
Neuronal compartmentalization
Neurons, as polarized cells, have
distinct membrane protein at each of the
distinct domains of the plasma membr.
Smooth and rough ER & Golgi system
(are absent in the axon).
Protein synthesis (mainly in the cell
body, less in dendrites).
Role of mitochondria.
Anterograde and retrograde
axoplasmic transport of molecules in
vesicles along microtubules is mediated
by MAPs (microtubule-associated
proteins):
kinesin for anterograde transport (always
move toward the plus end of microtubules,
away from the cell body)
and dynein for retrograde transport
(provides a mechanism for target-derived
growth factors, as NGF, to reach the nucleus
of a neuron where it can influence survival). Quantum content
Features of Axoplasmic Transport

Transport Speed
Type (mm/day) Mechanism Material Transported

Fast ~ 400 Saltatory movement Mitochondria

anterograde along microtubules Vesicles containing
by the motor peptide and other
molecule kinesin neurotransmitters, some
(ATP dependent) degradative enzymes

Fast ~200-300 Saltatory movement Degraded vesicular

retrograde along microtubules membrane
by the motor Absorbed exogenous
molecule dynein (ATP material (toxins, viruses,
dependent) growth factors)

Slow ~0.2-8 Not clear; possibly by Cytoskeletal elements

anterograde molecular motors (e.g., neurofilament and
microtubule subunits)
Soluble proteins of
intermediary metabolism
Actin
 Axoplasmic Transport

"signaling endosome"
Classification of neurons based on their structure (Borone)
Various forms of neurons.
A, Pyramidal cell from the cerebral
cortex. B, Cerebellar Purkinje cell.
C, Sympathetic postganglionic neuron.
D, Spinal cord motor neuron.
E, Dorsal root ganglion cell.
a, axon
Neuroglial cells of the central nervous
system. A, Fibrous astrocyte (glial foot
processes in association with a capillary).
B, Protoplasmic astrocyte. C, Oligodendrocyte
(each process is responsible for the production
of one or more myelin sheath internodes
around central axons.D, Microglial cell.
E, Ependymal cells.
Classification of Neurons based on their function

Types of neurons:
• Sensory or afferent
• Interneurons
• Motor or efferent

Sensory/afferent nerves: messages from periphery to CNS

Motor/efferent nerves: messages from CNS to peripheral
tissues.
Classification of Neurons
 Classification of neurons based on the type of
information transmitted
• Direction of information flow:
Afferent (sensory): neurons that transmit information into the CNS from sensory
cells or sensory receptors outside the nervous system (dorsal root ganglion cell
and neurons in the sensory nucleus of the fifth cranial nerve).
Efferent (motor): neurons that transmit information out of the CNS to muscles or
secretory cells (spinal motor neurons and motor neurons in the ANS).

• The second category defines the anatomical distribution of the information flow.
Visceral: neurons that transmit information to or from internal organs or regions
that arise embryologically from the branchial arch (e.g., chemoreceptors of the
carotid body).
Somatic: neurons that transmit information to or from all nonvisceral parts of the
body, including skin and muscle.

• The third category, on the basis of the embryological origin of the structure being
innervated.
Special: neurons that transmit information to or from a "special" subset of visceral
or somatic structures
- special visceral neurons: information travels to or from structures derived from
the branchial arch region of the embryo (e.g., pharyngeal muscles)
- special somatic neurons, which handle only sensory information: the neurons
arise from the organs of special sense (e.g., retina, taste receptors, cochlea).
 Characteristics of Neurons

1) excitable
- respond to stimuli
- produce & conduct electrical impulses
- release chemical regulators
2) amitotic- cannot divide by mitosis
3) long-lived
4) high metabolic rate
 Non-neuronal Cells

• “neuroglia”
• support & protect & nourish
& signal… neurons
• smaller & numerous
• types:
astrocytes
microglia
Schwann cells *
oligodendrocytes *
ependymal cells
 Non-neuronal cells:
Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes
(PNS) (CNS)
Myelin

-Layers of lipid membrane of oligodendrocytes (CNS) or

Schwann cells (PNS)

-The signal that causes these glial cells to myelinate the axons
is an epidermal GF-like ligand (neuregulin), which derives
from the axon and whose potency is dependent of axonal size
(usually axons > 1microm in diameter are myelinated )

- voltage-gated Na+ channels are highly concentrated in the

nodes of Ranvier, and in low density beneath the sheath of
myelin Æ AP jump from one Ranvier to the next one
Æ saltatory conduction
Æ increased conduction velocity: 3-120 m/sec in myelinated
axons comparing to 0.5-2 m/sec in unmyelinated axons
Myelin, Oligodendrocyts and network of intercellular
channels between astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

Orthmann-Murphy, J. L. et al. J. Neurosci. 2007;27:13949-13957

Neuro-vascular unit
Neuron – astroglia connections