PVT Properies Correlations SLB

Weltest 200
Technical Description
2001A
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Table of Contents 0
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. iii

List of Figures ..... ................................................................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ...... ................................................................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

PVT property correlations ....................................................................................................................................................1-1
Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

SCAL correlations................................................................................................................................................................2-1
Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables
Chapter 4 - Analytical Models

Fully-completed vertical well................................................................................................................................................4-1
Partial completion ................................................................................................................................................................4-3
Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer ...........................................................................................................................4-5
Infinite conductivity vertical fracture.....................................................................................................................................4-7
Uniform flux vertical fracture ................................................................................................................................................4-9
Finite conductivity vertical fracture.....................................................................................................................................4-11
Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries ......................................................................................................................4-13
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifer ..............................................................................................................................4-15
Homogeneous reservoir ....................................................................................................................................................4-17
Two-porosity reservoir .......................................................................................................................................................4-19
Radial composite reservoir ................................................................................................................................................4-21
Infinite acting ...... ..............................................................................................................................................................4-23
Single sealing fault ............................................................................................................................................................4-25
Single constant-pressure boundary ...................................................................................................................................4-27
Parallel sealing faults.........................................................................................................................................................4-29
Intersecting faults ..............................................................................................................................................................4-31
Partially sealing fault..........................................................................................................................................................4-33
Closed circle ....... ..............................................................................................................................................................4-35
Constant pressure circle ....................................................................................................................................................4-37
Closed Rectangle ..............................................................................................................................................................4-39
Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles ..........................................................................................................4-41
Constant wellbore storage .................................................................................................................................................4-43
Variable wellbore storage ..................................................................................................................................................4-44
Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Introduction ......... ................................................................................................................................................................5-1
Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells ...................................................................................................................5-4
Composite naturally fractured reservoirs .............................................................................................................................5-5
Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Introduction ......... ................................................................................................................................................................6-1
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt method...............................................................................................................................6-2
Nonlinear least squares .......................................................................................................................................................6-4
Appendix A - Unit Convention

Unit definitions .... ............................................................................................................................................................... A-1
Unit sets.............. ............................................................................................................................................................... A-5
Unit conversion factors to SI............................................................................................................................................... A-8
iii
Appendix B - File Formats
Mesh map formats .............................................................................................................................................................. B-1
Bibliography
Index
iv
List of Figures 0

Figure 2.1 Oil/water SCAL correlations....................................................................................................................2-1
Figure 2.2 Gas/water SCAL correlatiuons ...............................................................................................................2-3
Figure 2.3 Oil/gas SCAL correlations.......................................................................................................................2-4

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir....................4-1
Figure 4.2 Typical drawdown response of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir......4-2
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well ....................................................................................4-3
Figure 4.4 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well. .....................................................................4-4
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well in a reservoir with an aquifer......................................4-5
Figure 4.6 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well in a reservoir with a gas cap or aquifer ........4-6
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-7
Figure 4.8 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with an infinite conductivity vertical fracture ..............4-8
Figure 4.9 Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture .............................................................4-9
Figure 4.10 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a uniform flux vertical fracture ..........................4-10
Figure 4.11 Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture ...........................................................4-11
Figure 4.12 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a finite conductivity vertical fracture .................4-12
Figure 4.13 Schematic diagram of a fully completed horizontal well .......................................................................4-13
Figure 4.14 Typical drawdown response of fully completed horizontal well.............................................................4-14
Figure 4.15 Schematic diagram of a horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap...................................................4-15
Figure 4.16 Typical drawdown response of horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap or an aquifer...................4-16
Figure 4.17 Schematic diagram of a well in a homogeneous reservoir ...................................................................4-17
Figure 4.18 Typical drawdown response of a well in a homogeneous reservoir......................................................4-18
Figure 4.19 Schematic diagram of a well in a two-porosity reservoir.......................................................................4-19
Figure 4.20 Typical drawdown response of a well in a two-porosity reservoir .........................................................4-20
Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of a well in a radial composite reservoir ................................................................4-21
Figure 4.22 Typical drawdown response of a well in a radial composite reservoir ..................................................4-22
Figure 4.23 Schematic diagram of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir ...................................................................4-23
Figure 4.24 Typical drawdown response of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir .....................................................4-24
Figure 4.25 Schematic diagram of a well near a single sealing fault .......................................................................4-25
Figure 4.26 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single sealing fault...............................................4-26
Figure 4.27 Schematic diagram of a well near a single constant pressure boundary..............................................4-27
Figure 4.28 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single constant pressure boundary .....................4-28
Figure 4.29 Schematic diagram of a well between parallel sealing faults................................................................4-29
Figure 4.30 Typical drawdown response of a well between parallel sealing faults ..................................................4-30
Figure 4.31 Schematic diagram of a well between two intersecting sealing faults ..................................................4-31
Figure 4.32 Typical drawdown response of a well that is between two intersecting sealing faults ..........................4-32
Figure 4.33 Schematic diagram of a well near a partially sealing fault ....................................................................4-33
v
Figure 4.34 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a partially sealing fault ........................................... 4-34
Figure 4.35 Schematic diagram of a well in a closed-circle reservoir ..................................................................... 4-35
Figure 4.36 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-circle reservoir........................................................ 4-36
Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir ................................................... 4-37
Figure 4.38 Typical drawdown response of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir...................................... 4-38
Figure 4.39 Schematic diagram of a well within a closed-rectangle reservoir......................................................... 4-39
Figure 4.40 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-rectangle reservoir ................................................. 4-40
Figure 4.41 Schematic diagram of a well within a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir ......................................... 4-41
Figure 4.42 Typical drawdown response of a well in a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir .................................. 4-42
Figure 4.43 Typical drawdown response of a well with constant wellbore storage ................................................. 4-43
Figure 4.44 Typical drawdown response of a well with increasing wellbore storage (Ca/C < 1) ............................ 4-45
Figure 4.45 Typical drawdown response of a well with decreasing wellbore storage (Ca/C > 1) ........................... 4-45
vi
List of Tables 0

Table 1.1 Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.57]......................................................................................1-11
Table 1.2 Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.98]......................................................................................1-19
Table 1.3 Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.123]....................................................................................1-23

Table 5.1 Values of f1 and f2 as used in [EQ 5.28] and [EQ 5.29] .........................................................................5-5
Table 5.2 Values of and as used in [EQ 5.33] ......................................................................................................5-6

Table A.1 Unit definitions ....................................................................................................................................... A-1
Table A.2 Unit sets ................................................................................................................................................. A-5
Table A.3 Converting units to SI units .................................................................................................................... A-8
vii
viii
PVT Property Correlations
Chapter 1
PVT property correlations 1
Rock compressibility
Newman
Consolidated limestone
2 –6
C r = exp(4.026 – 23.07 φ + 44.28 φ ) ×10 psi [EQ 1.1]
Consolidated sandstone
2 –6
C r = exp(5.118 – 36.26 φ + 63.98 φ ) ×10 psi [EQ 1.2]
Unconsolidated sandstone
–6
C r = exp(34.012 ( φ – 0.2 )) ×10 psi, ( 0.2 ≤ φ ≤ 0.5 ) [EQ 1.3]
where
φ is the porosity of the rock
PVT Property Correlations 1-1

Hall
–5
3.63 ×10 – 0.58 psi
C r = ------------------------- P Ra [EQ 1.4]
2φ
–4
7.89792 ×10 – 0.687 psi, φ ≥ 0.17
C r = ---------------------------------- P Ra [EQ 1.5]
2
–4
7.89792 ×10 φ -ö – 0.42818
– 0.687 × æ ---------
C r = ---------------------------------- P Ra psi, φ < 0.17
2 è 0.17ø
where
Pa is the rock reference pressure
P Ra is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P a ) ⁄ 2
Knaap
0.42 0.42
– 4 P Ra – P Ri –7
C r = 0.864 ×10 --------------------------------- – 0.96 ×10 psi [EQ 1.6]
φ ( Pi – P a )
0.30 0.30
– 2 P Ra – P Ri –7
C r = 0.292 ×10 --------------------------------- – 1.86 ×10 psi [EQ 1.7]
Pi – Pa
where
Pi is the rock initial pressure
Pa is the rock reference pressure
P Ri is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P i ) ⁄ 2
P Ra is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P a ) ⁄ 2
1-2 PVT Property Correlations

Water correlations
Compressibility
Meehan
2 –6
c w = S c ( a + bT F + cT F ) ×10 [EQ 1.8]
where
a = 3.8546 – 0.000134p
–7
b = – 0.01052 + 4.77 ×10 p [EQ 1.9]
–5 – 10
c = 3.9267 ×10 – 8.8 ×10 p
0.7 –6 2 –9 3
S c = 1 + NaCl ( – 0.052 + 0.00027T F – 1.14 ×10 T F + 1.121 ×10 TF ) [EQ 1.10]
where
TF is the fluid temperature in ºF
p is the pressure of interest, in psi

NaCl is the salinity (1% = 10,000 ppm)
Row and Chou
a = 5.916365 × 10 0 + T F × ( – 1.0357940 × 10 – 2 + T F × 9.270048 ) [EQ 1.11]
+ ------ × æ – 1.127522 × 10 3 + ------ × 1.006741 × 10 5ö

1 1
T è T ø
F F
b = 5.204914 × 10 – 3 + T F × ( – 1.0482101 × 10 – 5 + T F × 8.328532 × 10 – 9 ) [EQ 1.12]
+ ------ × æ – 1.170293 + ------ × 1.022783 × 10 2 )ö

1 1
TF è TF ø
– 11
c = 1.18547 × 10 – 8 – T F × 6.599143 ×10 [EQ 1.13]
–2 –5
d = – 2.51660 + T F × ( 1.11766 ×10 – T F × 1.70552 ×10 ) [EQ 1.14]
–2 –5
e = 2.84851 + T F × ( – 1.54305 ×10 + T F × 2.23982 ×10 ) [EQ 1.15]
–3 –6 –8
f = – 1.4814 ×10 + T F × ( 8.2969 ×10 – T F × 1.2469 ×10 ) [EQ 1.16]
–3 –5 –8
g = 2.7141 ×10 + T F × ( – 1.5391 ×10 + T F × 2.2655 ×10 ) [EQ 1.17]

Water correlations
–7 –9 – 12
h = 6.2158 ×10 + T F × ( – 4.0075 ×10 + T F × 6.5972 ×10 ) [EQ 1.18]
V w = a – ------------- × æ b + ------------- × cö + NaCl × 1 ×10

p p –6
[EQ 1.19]
14.22 è 14.22 ø
–6
× ( d + NaCl × 1 ×10 × e)
× ------------- × æ f + NaCl × 1 ×10 × g + 0.5 × ------------- × h )ö

–6 p –6 p
– NaCl × 1 ×10
14.22 è 14.22 ø
æ b + 2.0 × ------------ p
- × c + NaCl × 1 ×10 × æ f + NaCl × 1 ×10 × g + ------------- × hö ö
–6 –6 p
è 14.22 è 14.22 øø
c w = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V w × 14.22
[EQ 1.20]

Vw is the specific volume of Water [ cm 3 ⁄ gram ]
cw is compressibility of Water [ 1 ⁄ psi ]
Formation volume factor

Meehan
2
B w = ( a + bp + cp ) S c [EQ 1.21]
• For gas-free water

–6 –6 2
a = 0.9947 + 5.8 ×10 T F + 1.02 ×10 TF
–6 –8 – 11 2
b = – 4.228 ×10 + 1.8376 ×10 T F – 6.77 ×10 TF [EQ 1.22]
– 10 – 12 – 15 2
c = 1.3 ×10 – 1.3855 ×10 T F + 4.285 ×10 TF
• For gas-saturated water

–6 –7 2
a = 0.9911 + 6.35 ×10 T F + 8.5 ×10 TF
–6 –9 – 12 2
b = – 1.093 ×10 – 3.497 ×10 T F + 4.57 ×10 TF [EQ 1.23]
– 11 – 13 – 15 2
c = – 5 ×10 + 6.429 ×10 T F – 1.43 ×10 TF
–8 –6 – 10
S c = 1 + NaCl [ 5.1 ×10 p + ( 5.47 ×10 – 1.96 ×10 p ) ( T F – 60 ) [EQ 1.24]
–8 – 13 2
+ ( – 3.23 ×10 + 8.5 ×10 p ) ( T F – 60 ) ]
where

Water correlations

Viscosity
Meehan
446.04 ⁄ ( T r – 252 )
µ w = S c ⋅ S p ⋅ 0.02414 ×10 [EQ 1.25]
0.5 2.5
S c = 1 – 0.00187NaCl + 0.000218NaCl [EQ 1.26]
0.5 1.5
+ ( T F – 0.0135T F ) ( 0.00276NaCl – 0.000344NaCl )
Pressure correction:
– 12 2
S p = 1 + 3.5 ×10 p ( T F – 40 ) [EQ 1.27]
where

Van Wingen
–2 –5
( 1.003 + T F × ( – 1.479 ×10 + 1.982 ×10 × TF ) )
µw = e
T F is the fluid temperature in ºF
Density
–3 2
62.303 + 0.438603NaCl + 1.60074 ×10 NaCl
ρ w = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [EQ 1.28]
Bw
where
Bw is the formation volume factor
ρw is the Density of Water [ lb ⁄ ft 3 ]
Water Gradient:

Water correlations
ρw
g = ------------- [psi/ft]
144.0
Gas correlations
Z-factor
Dranchuk, Purvis et al.
æ a2 a3 ö æ a5 ö 2 a5 a6 Pr
5
ç ÷
z = 1 + a 1 + --------- + --------- P r + ç a 4 + ---------÷ P r + ------------------- [EQ 1.29]
ç T R∗ 3 ∗÷ è T R∗ø T R∗
è TR ø
2
a7 Pr 2 2
+ ------------ ( 1 + a 8 P r ) exp ( – a 8 P r )
3∗
TR
TR
T R∗ = -------- [EQ 1.30]
T ∗ c
5E 3
T c∗ = T c – æ ---------ö [EQ 1.31]
è 9 ø
0.9 1.6ö
E 3 = 120 æ ( Y H S + Y CO ) + 15 æ Y H S – Y H Sö
0.5 4
– ( Y H S + Y CO ) [EQ 1.32]
è 2 2 2 2 ø è 2 2 ø
0.27P pr
P r = ------------------- [EQ 1.33]
ZT R∗
P
P pr = --------- [EQ 1.34]
P ∗ c
P c T c∗
P c∗ = ----------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.35]
T c + YH S ( 1 – YH S ) E3
2 2
where
TR is the reservoir temperature, ºK
Tc is the critical temperature, ºK
T R∗ is the reduced temperature
T c∗ is the adjusted pseudo critical temperature
YH S is the mole fraction of Hydrogen Sulphide

2
Y CO is the mole fraction of Carbon Dioxide

2

Gas correlations
P is the pressure of interest
Pc is the critical pressure
P c∗ is the adjusted pseudo critical Pressure
Tc is the critical temperature, ºK
a 1 = 0.31506237
a 2 = – 1.04670990
a 3 = – 0.57832729
a 4 = 0.53530771
[EQ 1.36]
a 5 = – 0.61232032
a 6 = – 0.10488813
a 7 = 0.68157001
a 8 = 0.68446549
Hall Yarborough
0.06125P pr t 2
( – 1.2 ( 1 – t ) )
Z = æ ------------------------------ö exp [EQ 1.37]
è Y ø
where
P pr is the pseudo reduced pressure
t is 1 ⁄ pseudo reduced temperature
Y is the reduced density
P
P pr = ----------- (where P is the pressure of interest and P crit is the critical pressure)
P crit
[EQ 1.38]
T crit
t = ---------
- (where T crit is the critical temperature and T R is the
TR
temperature in ºR) [EQ 1.39]
Reduced density ( Y ) is the solution of the following equation:

2 2 3 4
– 1.2 ( 1 – t ) Y+Y +Y –Y
– 0.06125P pr t e + ---------------------------------------- [EQ 1.40]
3
(1 – Y)
2 3 2
– ( 14.76t – 9.76t + 4.58t ) Y
2 3 ( 2.18 + 2.82t )
+ ( 90.7t – 242.2t + 4.58t ) Y = 0
This is solved using a Newon-Raphson iterative technique.

Gas correlations
Viscosity
Lee, Gonzalez, and Akin
–4
µ g = 10 K exp ( Xp Y ) [EQ 1.41]
M
where ρ = 1.4935 ( 10 – 3 ) p -------g-
zT

ZT R P sc
B g = ------------------
- [EQ 1.42]
T sc P
where
Z is the Z-factor at pressure P
TR is the reservoir temperature
P sc is the pressure at standard conditions
T sc is the temperature at standard conditions
Compressibility
1 1 ∂Z
C g = --- – --- æè ------öø [EQ 1.43]
P Z ∂P
where
Z is the Z-factor at pressure P
Density
35.35 ρ sc P
ρ g = ------------------------- [EQ 1.44]
ZT
ρ sc = 0.0763 γ g [EQ 1.45]
where
γg is the gas gravity
Z is the Z-factor
T is the temperature in ºR

Gas correlations
Condensate correction
0.07636 γ g + ( 350 ⋅ γ con ⋅ c gr )
γ gcorr = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.46]
æ 350 ⋅ γ con ⋅ c gr ö
0.002636 + ç -------------------------------------------------÷
è 6084 ( γ conAPI – 5.9 )ø
where
γ con is the condensate gravity
c gr is the condensate gas ratio in stb/scf
γ conAPI is the condensate API
Oil correlations
Compressibility
Saturated oil
McCain, Rollins and Villena (1988)

c o = exp [ – 7.573 – 1.450 ln ( p ) – 0.383 ln ( p b ) + 1.402 ln ( T ) + 0.256 ln ( γ API ) + 0.449 ln ( R sb ) ]
[EQ 1.47]
where
Co is isothermal compressibility, psi-1
R sb is the solution gas-oil ratio at the bubblepoin pressure, scf/STB
γg is the weight average of separator gas and stock-tank gas specific gravities
T is the temperature, oR
Undersaturated oil
Vasquez and Beggs

–5
( 5R sb + 17.2T – 1180 γ g + 12.61 γ API – 1433 ) ×10
c o = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.48]
p
where
co is the oil compressibility 1/psi
R sb is the solution GOR, scf/STB
γg is the gas gravity (air = 1.0)

Oil correlations
γ API is the stock tank oil gravity , °API
T is the temperature in °F
p is the pressure of interest, psi

• Example
Determine a value for c o where p = 3000 psia, R sb = 500 scf /STB, γ g = 0.80 ,
γ API = 30 °API, T = 220 °F.
• Solution
5 ( 500 ) + 17.2 ( 220 ) – 1180 ( 0.8 ) + 12.61 ( 30 ) – 1433
c o = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [EQ 1.49]
5
3000 ×10
–5
c o = 1.43 ×10 /psi [EQ 1.50]
Petrosky and Farshad (1993)

–7
C o = ( 1.705 ×10 0.3272 T 0.6729 p – 0.5906
⋅ R s0.69357 )γ g0.1885 γ API [EQ 1.51]
where
Rs is the solution GOR, scf/STB
γg is the average gas specific gravity (air = 1)
γ API is the oil API gravity, oAPI
T is the tempreature, oF
p is the pressure, psia

Saturated systems
Three correlations are available for saturated systems:
• Standing
• Vasquez and Beggs
• GlasO
• Petrosky
These are describe below.
Standing
1.175
B o = 0.972 + 0.000147F [EQ 1.52]
where
F = Rs( γg/γo )0.5 + 1.25 T [EQ 1.53]

Oil correlations
and
Bo is the oil FVF, bbl/STB
γo is the oil specific gravity = 141.5/(131.5 + γAPI)
• Example
Use Standing’s equation to estimate the oil FVF for the oil system described by the
data T = 200 °F, R s = 350 scf / STB, γ g = 0.75, γ API = 30.
• Solution
141.5
γ o = ------------------------- = 0.876 [EQ 1.54]
131.5 + 30
0.75 0.5
F = 350 æ -------------ö + 1.25 ( 200 ) = 574 [EQ 1.55]
è 0.876ø
B o = 1.228 bbl / STB [EQ 1.56]
Vasquez and Beggs
æ γ APIö
B o = 1 + C 1 R s + ( C 2 + C 3 R s ) ( T – 60 ) ç -----------÷ [EQ 1.57]
è γ gc ø
where
γ API is the stock tank oil gravity , °API
γ gc is the gas gravity
C 1 , C 2 , C 3 are obtained from the following table:
Table 1.1 Values of C1, C2 and C3 as used in [EQ 1.57]
API ≤ 30 API > 30

C1 4.677 10 -4 4.670 10-4
C2 1.751 10 -5 1.100 10-5
C3 -1.811 10 -8 1.337 10 -9
• Example

Oil correlations
Use the Vasquez and Beggs equation to determine the oil FVF at bubblepoint
pressure for the oil system described by p b = 2652 psia, R sb = 500 scf / STB,
γ gc = 0.80 , γ API = 30 and T = 220 °F.
• Solution
B o = 1.285 bb /STB [EQ 1.58]
GlasO
A
B o = 1.0 + 10 [EQ 1.59]
2
A = – 6.58511 + 2.91329 log B ob∗ – 0.27683 ( log B ob∗ ) [EQ 1.60]
æ γ gö 0.526
B ob∗ = R s ç -----÷ + 0.968T [EQ 1.61]
è γ oø
where
γo is the oil specific gravity, γ o = 141.5 ⁄ ( 131.5 + γ API )
B ob∗ is a correlating number
Petrosky & Farshad (1993)
–5 æ γ g 0.2914ö 3.0936
B o = 1.0113 + 7.2046 ×10 R s0.3738 ç ------------------÷ + 0.24626T 0.5371 [EQ 1.62]
è γ o0.6265 ø
where
B o is the oil FVF, bbl/STB
R s is the solution GOR, scf/STB
T is the temperature, oF
Undersaturated systems
B o = B ob exp(c o ( p b – p )) [EQ 1.63]
where
B ob is the oil FVF at bubble point , p b psi .
co is the oil isothermal compressibility , 1/psi
p is the pressure of interest, psi

Oil correlations
pb is the bubble point pressure, psi
Viscosity
Saturated systems
There are 4 correlations available for saturated systems:
• Beggs and Robinson
• Standing
• GlasO
• Khan
• Ng and Egbogah
These are described below.
Beggs and Robinson

x
µ od = 10 – 1 [EQ 1.64]
where
– 1.168
x = T exp(6.9824 – 0.04658 γ API)
µ od is the dead oil viscosity, cp
T is the temperature of interest, °F
γ API is the stock tank gravity
Taking into account any dissolved gas we get

B
µ o = A µ od [EQ 1.65]
where
– 0.515
A = 10.715 ( R s + 100 )
– 0.338
B = 5.44 ( R s + 150 )
• Example
Use the following data to calculate the viscosity of the saturated oil system.
T = 137 °F, γ API = 22 , R s = 90 scf / STB.
• Solution
x = 1.2658
µ od = 17.44 cp
A = 0.719
B = 0.853

Oil correlations
µ o = 8.24 cp
Standing
æ 7ö
360 -ö a
×10 ÷ æ -----------------
µ od = ç 0.32 + 1.8
------------------- [EQ 1.66]
ç 4.53 ÷ è T – 260ø
è γ API ø
æ 0.43 + ----------
8.33 ö
-
è γ ø API
a = 10 [EQ 1.67]
where
a b
µ o = ( 10 ) ( µ od ) [EQ 1.68]
–7 –4
a = R s ( 2.2 ×10 R s – 7.4 ×10 ) [EQ 1.69]
0.68
b = ---------------------------------- 0.25
- + ------------------------------- 0.062 -
- + ---------------------------------- [EQ 1.70]
–5 –3 –3
8.62 ×10 R s 1.1 ×10 R s 3.74 ×10 R s
10 10 10
where
Glasφ
a b
µ o = 10 ( µ od ) [EQ 1.71]
–7 –4
a = R s ( 2.2 ×10 R s – 7.4 ×10 ) [EQ 1.72]
0.68 0.25 0.062

b = ----------------------------------- + -------------------------------- + ----------------------------------- [EQ 1.73]
–5 –3 –3
8.62 ×10 R s 1.1 ×10 R s 3.74 ×10 R s
10 10 10
and
10 – 3.444 a
µ od = 3.141 ×10 ( T – 460 ) ( log γ API ) [EQ 1.74]
= 10.313 ( log ( T – 460 ) ) – 36.44 [EQ 1.75]
where

Oil correlations
Khan
–4
– 0.14 ( – 2.5 ×10 ) ( p – p b )
µ o = µ ob æ -----ö
p
e [EQ 1.76]
èp ø
b
0.5
0.09 γ g
µ ob = --------------------------------------------- [EQ 1.77]
1 ⁄ 3 4.5 3
Rs θr ( 1 – γ o )
where
µ ob is the viscosity at the bubble point
θr is T ⁄ 460
T is the temperature, °R
γo is the specific gravity of oil
γg is the specific gravity of solution gas
pb is the bubble point pressure
p is the pressure of interest
Ng and Egbogah (1983)

log [ log ( µ od + 1 ) ] = 1.8653 – 0.025086 γ API – 0.5644 log ( T ) [EQ 1.78]
Solving for µ od , the equation becomes,
( 1.8653 – 0.025086 γ – 0.5644 log ( T ) )

API
µ od = 10 10 –1 [EQ 1.79]
where
µ od is the “dead oil” viscosity, cp
uses the same formel as Beggs and Robinson to calculate Viscosity
Undersaturated systems
There are 5 correlations available for undersaturated systems:
• Vasquez and Beggs
• Standing
• GlasO
• Khan
• Ng and Egbogah
These are described below.

Oil correlations
Vasquez and Beggs
p m
µ o = µ ob æ -----ö [EQ 1.80]
èp ø
b
where
µo = viscosity at p > p b
µ ob = viscosity at p b
p = pressure of interest, psi
pb = bubble point pressure, psi
C2
m = C1 p exp(C 3 + C 4 p)
where
C 1 = 2.6
C 2 = 1.187
C 3 = – 11.513
–5
C 4 = – 8.98 ×10
Example
Calculate the viscosity of the oil system described at a pressure of 4750 psia, with
T = 240 °F, γ API = 31 , γ g = 0.745 , R sb = 532 scf / SRB.
Solution
p b = 3093 psia.
µ ob = 0.53 cp
µ o = 0.63 cp
Standing
1.6 0.56
µ o = µ ob + 0.001 ( p – p b ) ( 0.024 µ ob + 0.038 µ ob ) [EQ 1.81]
where
µ ob is the viscosity at bubble point
GlasO
1.6 0.56
µ o = µ ob + 0.001 ( p – p b ) ( 0.024 µ ob + 0.038 µ ob ) [EQ 1.82]

Oil correlations
where
Khan
–5
9.6 ×10 ( p – p b )
µ o = µ ob ⋅ e [EQ 1.83]
where
Ng and Egbogah (1983)

log [ log ( µ od + 1 ) ] = 1.8653 – 0.025086 γ API – 0.5644 log ( T ) [EQ 1.84]
Solving for µ od , the equation becomes,
( 1.8653 – 0.025086 γ – 0.5644 log ( T ) )

API
µ od = 10 10 –1 [EQ 1.85]
where
µ od is the “dead oil” viscosity, cp
uses the same formel as Beggs and Robinson to calculate Viscosity
Bubble point
Standing
æ R sbö 0.83 yg
P b = 18 ç ---------÷ ×10 [EQ 1.86]
è γg ø
where
yg = mole fraction gas = 0.00091T R – 0.0125 γ API
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia

Oil correlations
R sb = solution GOR at P ≥ P b, scf / STB
γg = gas gravity (air = 1.0)
TR = reservoir temperature ,°F
γ API = stock-tank oil gravity, °API
Example:
Estimate p b where R sb = 350 scf / STB, T R = 200 °F, γ g = 0.75 ,
γ API = 30 °API.
Solution
γ g = 0.00091 ( 200 ) – 0.0125 ( 30 ) = – 0.193 [EQ 1.87]
0.83
p b = 18 æè ----------öø
350 – 0.193
×10 = 1895 psia [EQ 1.88]
0.75
Lasater
For API ≤ 40
M o = 630 – 10 γ API [EQ 1.89]
For API > 40
73110
M o = --------------- [EQ 1.90]
1.562
γ API
1.0
y g = ----------------------------------------------------------------- [EQ 1.91]
1.0 + ( 1.32755 γ o ⁄ M o R sb )
For y g ≤ 0.6
( 0.679exp(2.786y g) – 0.323 ) T R
P b = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.92]
γg
For y g ≥ 0.6
3.56
( 8.26y g + 1.95 ) T R
P b = ---------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.93]
γg
where
Mo is the effective molecular weight of the stock-tank oil from API gravity
γo = oil specific gravity (relative to water)
Example
Given the following data, use the Lasater method to estimate p b .

Oil correlations
y g = 0.876 , R sb = 500 scf / STB, γ o = 0.876 , T R = 200 °F,
γ API = 30. [EQ 1.94]
Solution
M o = 630 – 10 ( 30 ) = 330 [EQ 1.95]
550 ⁄ 379.3
y g = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
- = 0.587 [EQ 1.96]
500 ⁄ 379.3 + 350 ( 0.876 ⁄ 330 )
p b = 3.161 ( 660 )- = 2381.58 psia

-------------------------- [EQ 1.97]
0.876
Vasquez and Beggs

1
------
C2
R sb
P b = -------------------------------------------------- [EQ 1.98]
æ C 3 γ API ö
C 1 γ g exp ç ----------------------÷
è T R + 460ø
where
API < 30 API > 30

C1 0.0362 0.0178
C2 1.0937 1.1870
C3 25.7240 23.9310
Example
Calculate the bubblepoint pressure using the Vasquez and Beggs correlation and
the following data.
y g = 0.80 , R sb = 500 scf / STB, γ g = 0.876 , T R = 200 °F,
γ API = 30 . [EQ 1.99]
Solution
1
----------------
1.0937
500
p b = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 2562 psia [EQ 1.100]
0.0362 ( 0.80 ) exp 25.724 æ ---------ö
30
è 680ø
GlasO
2
log ( P b ) = 1.7669 + 1.7447 log ( P b∗ ) – 0.30218 ( log ( P b∗ ) ) [EQ 1.101]

Oil correlations
0.172ö
æ R sö 0.816 æç T p
∗
Pb = ç ÷
----- -÷
-------------- [EQ 1.102]
è γgø ç 0.989 ÷
èγ API ø
where
Rs is the solution GOR , scf / STB
TF is the reservoir temperature ,°F
γ API is the stock-tank oil gravity, °API
0.130
for volatile oils T F is used.
Corrections to account for non-hydrocarbon components:

P b = P b × CorrCO2 × CorrH2S × CorrN2 [EQ 1.103]
c c
CorrN2 = 1 + [ – a1 γ API + a 2 T F + a 3 γ API – a 4 ] Y N2 [EQ 1.104]
a6 a7 2
+ a 5 γ API T F + a 6 γ API – a 8 Y N2
– 1.553
CorrCO2 = 1 – 693.8Y CO2 T F [EQ 1.105]
CorrH2S = 1 – ( 0.9035 + 0.0015 γ API ) Y H2S + 0.019 ( 45 – γ API ) Y H2S [EQ 1.106]
where
–4
a 1 = – 2.65 ×10
–3
a 2 = 5.5 ×10
a 3 = 0.0391
a 4 = 0.8295
[EQ 1.107]
– 11
a 5 = 1.954 ×10
a 6 = 4.699
a 7 = 0.027
a 8 = 2.366
Y N2 is the mole fraction of Nitrogen
Y CO2 is the mole fraction of Carbon Dioxide
Y H2S is the mole fraction of Hydrogen Sulphide

Oil correlations
Marhoun
b c d e
p b = a· ⋅ R s ⋅ γ g ⋅ γ o ⋅ T R [EQ 1.108]
where
TR is the reservoir temperature ,°R
–3
a = 5.38088 ×10
b = 0.715082
c = – 1.87784 [EQ 1.109]
d = 3.1437
e = 1.32657
R s0.5774 X
- ×10 – 12.340
p b = 112.727 ------------------ [EQ 1.110]
γ g0.8439
where
–5 –4
1.5410
X = 4.561 ×10 T 1.3911 – 7.916 ×10 γ API
γg is the average gas specific gravity (air=1)
γo is the oil specific gravity (air=1)
GOR
Standing
æ p ö 1.204
R s = γ g ç --------------------÷ [EQ 1.111]
è y gø
18 ×10
where
yg is the mole fraction gas = 0.00091T R – 0.0125 γ AP

Oil correlations
Example
Estimate the solution GOR of the following oil system using the correlations of
Standing, Lasater, and Vasquez and Beggs and the data:
p = 765 psia, T = 137 °F, γ API = 22 , γ g = 0.65 . [EQ 1.112]
Solution
1.204
R s = 0.65 æ ----------------------------ö
765
= 90 scf / STB [EQ 1.113]
è – 0.15ø
18 ×10
Lasater
132755 γ o y g
R s = ----------------------------
- [EQ 1.114]
Mo ( 1 – yg )
For API ≤ 40
M o = 630 – 10 γ API [EQ 1.115]
For API > 40
73110
M o = --------------- [EQ 1.116]
1.562
γ API
For p γ g ⁄ T < 3.29
1.473p γ
y g = 0.359ln æ ---------------------g- + 0.476ö [EQ 1.117]
è T ø
For p γ g ⁄ T ≥ 3.29
0.121p γ 0.281
y g = æ ---------------------g- – 0.236ö [EQ 1.118]
è T ø
where T is in °R.
Example
Solution
y g = 0.359ln [ 1.473 ( 0.833 ) + 0.476 ] = 0.191 [EQ 1.120]
M o = 630 – 10 ( 22 ) = 410 [EQ 1.121]
132755 ( 0.922 ) ( 0.191 )

R s = ------------------------------------------------------- = 70 scf / STB [EQ 1.122]
410 ( 1 – 0.191 )

Oil correlations
Vasquez and Beggs
C2 æ C 3 γ API ö
Rs = C1 γg p exp ç ----------------------÷ [EQ 1.123]
è T R + 460ø
where C1, C2, C3 are obtained from Table 1.3.
API < 30 API > 30

C1 0.0362 0.0178
C2 1.0937 1.1870
C3 25.7240 23.9310
• Example
• Solution
1.0937 25.724 ( 22 )
R s = 0.0362 ( 0.65 ) ( 765 ) exp --------------------------- = 87 scf / STB [EQ 1.125]
137 + 460
GlasO
1.2255
æ γ 0.989 ö
ç API ÷ ∗
R s = γ g --------------- P b [EQ 1.126]
ç 0.172÷
è TF ø
0.5
[ 2.8869 – ( 14.1811 – 3.3093 log ( Pbc ) ) ]
P b∗ = 10 [EQ 1.127]
Pb
P bc = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.128]
CorrN2 + CorrCO2 + CorrH2S
where
Y N2 is the mole fraction of Nitrogen
Y CO2 is the mole fraction of Carbon Dioxide
Y H2S is the mole fraction of Hydrogen Sulphide

Oil correlations
Marhoun
b c d e
R s = ( a ⋅ γg ⋅ γo ⋅ T ⋅ pb ) [EQ 1.129]
where
T is the temperature, °R
γo is the specific gravity of oil
a = 185.843208
b = 1.877840
c = – 3.1437 [EQ 1.130]
d = – 1.32657
e = 1.398441

pb X 1.73184
R s = æ ------------------
- + 12.340ö γ g0.8439 ×10 [EQ 1.131]
è 112.727 ø
where
–4 –5
X = 7.916 ×10 γ g1.5410 – 4.561 ×10 T 1.3911 [EQ 1.132]
pb is the bubble-point pressure, psia
Separator gas gravity correction

P sep
γ gcorr = γ g æè 1 + 5.912 ×10 ⋅ γ API ⋅ T Fsep ⋅ log æè -------------öø öø
–5
[EQ 1.133]
114.7
where
γ API is the oil API
T Fsep is the separator temperature in °F
P sep is the separator pressure in psia
Tuning factors
Bubble point (Standing):

Oil correlations
æ R sbö 0.83 γg
P b = 18 ⋅ FO1 ç ---------÷ ×10 [EQ 1.134]
è γg ø
GOR (Standing):
æ P ö 1.204
R s = γ g ç -----------------------------------÷ [EQ 1.135]
è γ gø
18 ⋅ FO1 ×10
Formation volume factor:
1.175
B o = 0.972 ⋅ FO2 + 0.000147 ⋅ FO3 ⋅ F [EQ 1.136]
æ γ gö 0.5
F = R s ç -----÷ + 1.25T F [EQ 1.137]
è γ oø
Compressibility:
–5
FO4 ( 5R sb + 17.2T F – 1180 γ g + 12.61 γ API – 1433 ) ×10
c o = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 1.138]
P
Saturated viscosity (Beggs and Robinson):
B
µ o = A µ od [EQ 1.139]
– 0.515
A = 10.715 ⋅ FO5 ( R s + 100 ) [EQ 1.140]
– 0.338
B = 5.44 ⋅ FO6 ( R s + 150 ) [EQ 1.141]
Undersaturated viscosity (Standing):

1.6 0.56
µ o = µ ob + ( P – P b ) [ FO7 ( 0.024 µ ob + 0.038 µ ob ) ] [EQ 1.142]

Oil correlations
Oil correlations
SCAL Correlations
Chapter 2
SCAL correlations 2
Oil / water
Figure 2.1 Oil/water SCAL correlations
Kro Swmin,
Swmax,
Kro(Swmin) Krw(Swmax)
Krw
Sorw’
Krw(Sorw)
0 Swmin Swcr 1-Sorw 1
where
SCAL Correlations 2-1

Oil / water
s wmin is the minimum water saturation
s wcr is the critical water saturation (≥ s wmin )
s orw is the residual oil saturation to water ( 1 – s orw > s wcr )
k rw(s orw) is the water relative permeability at residual oil saturation
k rw(s wmax) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that
is 100%)
k ro(s wmin) is the oil relative permeability at minimum water saturation
Corey functions
• Water
(For values between S wcr and 1 – S orw )
Cw
s w – s wcr
k rw = k rw(s orw) --------------------------------------------------- [EQ 2.1]
s wmax – s wcr – s orw
where C w is the Corey water exponent.
• Oil
(For values between s wmin and 1 – s orw )
Co
s wmax – s w – s orw
k ro = k ro(s wmin) ----------------------------------------------- [EQ 2.2]
s wmax – s wi – s orw
where s wi is the initial water saturation and

C o is the Corey oil exponent.
2-2 SCAL Correlations

Oil / water
Gas / water
Figure 2.2 Gas/water SCAL correlatiuons
Swmin, Swmax,
Krg Krg(Swmin) Krw(Smax)
Krw
Sgrw,
Krw(Sgrw)
0 Swmin Swcr Sgrw 1
where
s wcr is the critical water saturation (≥ s wmin )
s grw is the residual gas saturation to water ( 1 – s grw > s wcr )
k rw(s grw) is the water relative permeability at residual gas saturation
k rw(s wmax) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that is
100%)
k rg(s wmin) is the gas relative permeability at minimum water saturation
Corey functions
• Water
(For values between s wcr and 1 – s grw )
Cw
s w – s wcr
k rw = k rw(s grw) --------------------------------------------------- [EQ 2.3]
s wmax – s wcr – s grw
where C w is the Corey water exponent.

Gas / water
• Gas
(For values between s wmin and 1 – s grw )
Cg
s wmax – s w – s grw
k rg = k rg(s wmin) ----------------------------------------------- [EQ 2.4]
s wmax – s wi – s grw

C g is the Corey gas exponent.
Oil / gas
Figure 2.3 Oil/gas SCAL correlations
Swmin,
Krg(Swmin) Swmax,
Krw(Smax)
Sorg+Swmin,
Krg(Sorg)
0 Swmin Sorg+Swmin 1-Sgcr 1-Sgmin

Sliquid
where
s gcr is the critical gas saturation (≥ s gmin )
s org is the residual oil saturation to gas ( 1 – s org > s wcr )
k rg(s org) is the water relative permeability at residual oil saturation
k rg(s wmin) is the water relative permeability at maximum water saturation (that
is 100%)
k ro(s wmin) is the oil relative permeability at minimum water saturation

Oil / gas
Corey functions
• Oil
(For values between s wmin and 1 – s org )
Co
s w – s wi – s org
k ro = k ro(s gmin) ------------------------------------ [EQ 2.5]
1 – s wi – s org

C o is the Corey oil exponent.
• Gas
(For values between s wmin and 1 – s org )
Cg
1 – s w – s gcr
k rg = k rg(s org) -------------------------------------------------- [EQ 2.6]
1 – s wi – s org – s gcr

C g is the Corey gas exponent.
Note In drawing the curves s wi is assumed to be the connate water saturation.

Oil / gas
Oil / gas
Pseudo variables
Chapter 3
Pseudo pressure transformations

The pseudo pressure is defined as:
p
p
m ( p ) = 2 ò ---------------------- dp [EQ 3.1]
µ(p )z( p)
pi
It can be normalized by choosing the variables at the initial reservoir condition.
Normalized pseudo pressure transformations

µi z p
i p
m n ( p ) = p i + --------- ò --------------------- dp [EQ 3.2]
p i µ ( p ) z(p)
pi
The advantage of this normalization is that the pseudo pressures and real pressures
coincide at p i and have real pressure units.
Pseudo time transformations

The pseudotime transform is
Pseudo variables 3-1

Pseudo Variables
t
1
m(t) = ò -----------------------
µ(p)c (p)
- dt [EQ 3.3]
t
0
Normalized pseudo time transformations

Normalizing the equation gives
t
1
m n ( t ) = µ i c i ò ------------------------ dt [EQ 3.4]
µ ( p ) ct ( p )
0
Again the advantage of this normalization is that the pseudo times and real times
coincide at p i and have real time units.
3-2 Pseudo variables

Pseudo Variables
Analytical Models
Chapter 4
Fully-completed vertical well 4
Assumptions
• The entire reservoir interval contributes to the flow into the well.
• The model handles homogeneous, dual-porosity and radial composite reservoirs.
• The outer boundary may be finite or infinite.
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir.
Parameters
k horizontal permeability of the reservoir
Analytical Models 4-1

Fully-completed vertical well
s wellbore skin factor
Behavior
At early time, response is dominated by the wellbore storage. If the wellbore storage
effect is constant with time, the response is characterized by a unity slope on the
pressure curve and the pressure derivative curve.
In case of variable storage, a different behavior may be seen.
Later, the influence of skin and reservoir storativity creates a hump in the derivative.
At late time, an infinite-acting radial flow pattern develops, characterized by
stabilization (flattening) of the pressure derivative curve at a level that depends on the
k * h product.
Figure 4.2 Typical drawdown response of a fully completed vertical well in a homogeneous, infinite reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative
4-2 Analytical Models

Fully-completed vertical well
Partial completion 4
Assumptions
• The interval over which the reservoir flows into the well is shorter than the
reservoir thickness, due to a partial completion.
• The model handles wellbore storage and skin, and it assumes a reservoir of infinite
extent.
• The model handles homogeneous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well
htp
kz
h h
k
Parameters
Mech. skin
mechanical skin of the flowing interval, caused by reservoir damage
k reservoir horizontal permeability
kz reservoir vertical permeability
Auxiliary parameters
These parameters are computed from the preceding parameters:
pseudoskin
skin caused by the partial completion; that is, by the geometry of the
system. It represents the pressure drop due to the resistance encountered
in the flow convergence.
total skin
a value representing the combined effects of mechanical skin and partial
completion
Sf = ( ( S t – S r ) l ) ⁄ h

Partial completion
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, the flow is spherical or
hemispherical, depending on the position of the flowing interval. Hemispherical flow
develops when one of the vertical no-flow boundaries is much closer than the other to
the flowing interval. Either of these two flow regimes is characterized by a –0.5 slope
on the log-log plot of the pressure derivative.
At late time, the flow is radial cylindrical. The behavior is like that of a fully completed
well in an infinite reservoir with a skin equal to the total skin of the system.
Figure 4.4 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well.
pressure
pressure derivative

Partial completion
Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer 4
Assumptions
• The interval over which the reservoir flows into the well is shorter than the
reservoir thickness, due to a partial completion.
• Either the top or the bottom of the reservoir is a constant pressure boundary (gas
cap or aquifer).
• The model assumes a reservoir of infinite extent.
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of a partially completed well in a reservoir with an aquifer
ht
kz
h h
k
Parameters
Mech. skin
mechanical skin of the flowing interval, caused by reservoir damage
k reservoir horizontal permeability
Auxiliary Parameters
These parameters are computed from the preceding parameters:
pseudoskin
skin caused by the partial completion; that is, by the geometry of the
system. It represents the pressure drop due to the resistance encountered
in the flow convergence.
total skin
a value for the combined effects of mechanical skin and partial completion.

Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, the flow is spherical or
hemispherical, depending on the position of the flowing interval. Either of these two
flow regimes is characterized by a –0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
When the influence of the constant pressure boundary is felt, the pressure stabilizes
and the pressure derivative curve plunges.
Figure 4.6 Typical drawdown response of a partially completed well in a reservoir with a gas cap or aquifer
pressure
pressure derivative

Partial completion with gas cap or aquifer
Infinite conductivity vertical fracture 4
Assumptions
• The well is hydraulically fractured over the entire reservoir interval.
• Fracture conductivity is infinite.
• The pressure is uniform along the fracture.
• This model handles the presence of skin on the fracture face.
• The reservoir is of infinite extent.
• This model handles homogeneous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of a well completed with a vertical fracture
well
xf
Parameters
k horizontal reservoir permeability
xf vertical fracture half-length
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by
linear flow from the formation into the fracture. The linear flow is perpendicular to the
fracture and is characterized by a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.
At late time, the behavior is like that of a fully completed infinite reservoir with a low
or negative value for skin. An infinite-acting radial flow pattern may develop.

Infinite conductivity vertical fracture
Figure 4.8 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with an infinite conductivity vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative

Infinite conductivity vertical fracture
Uniform flux vertical fracture 4
Assumptions
• The flow into the vertical fracture is uniformly distributed along the fracture. This
model handles the presence of skin on the fracture face.
well
xf
Parameters
k Horizontal reservoir permeability in the direction of the fracture
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by
linear flow from the formation into the fracture. The linear flow is perpendicular to the
fracture and is characterized by a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.

Uniform flux vertical fracture
Figure 4.10 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a uniform flux vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative

Uniform flux vertical fracture
Finite conductivity vertical fracture 4
Assumptions
• Fracture conductivity is uniform.
well
xf
Parameters
kf-w vertical fracture conductivity
k horizontal reservoir permeability in the direction of the fracture
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effects are seen, response is dominated by the
flow in the fracture. Linear flow within the fracture may develop first, characterized by
a 0.5 slope on the log-log plot of the derivative.
For a finite conductivity fracture, bilinear flow, characterized by a 0.25 slope on the log-
log plot of the derivative, may develop later. Subsequently the linear flow (with slope
of 0.5) perpendicular to the fracture is recognizable.

Finite conductivity vertical fracture
Figure 4.12 Typical drawdown response of a well completed with a finite conductivity vertical fracture
pressure
pressure derivative

Finite conductivity vertical fracture
Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries 4
Assumptions
• The well is horizontal.
• The reservoir is of infinite lateral extent.
• Two horizontal no-flow boundaries limit the vertical extent of the reservoir.
• The model handles a permeability anisotropy.
• The model handles homogeneous and the dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.13 Schematic diagram of a fully completed horizontal well
Lp
h
x
y dw
Parameters
Lp flowing length of the horizontal well
k reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction of the well
ky reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction perpendicular to the
well
Zw standoff distance from the well to the reservoir bottom
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, a radial flow, characterized by a
plateau in the derivative, develops around the well in the vertical (y-z) plane.
Later, if the well is close to one of the boundaries, the flow becomes semi radial in the
vertical plane, and a plateau develops in the derivative plot with double the value of
the first plateau.
After the early-time radial flow, a linear flow may develop in the y-direction,
characterized by a 0.5 slope on the derivative pressure curve in the log-log plot.

Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries
At late time, a radial flow, characterized by a plateau on the derivative pressure curve,
may develop in the horizontal x-y plane.
Depending on the well and reservoir parameters, any of these flow regimes may or
may not be observed.
Figure 4.14 Typical drawdown response of fully completed horizontal well
pressure
pressure derivative

Horizontal well with two no-flow boundaries
Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifer 4
Assumptions
• The well is horizontal.
• The reservoir is of infinite lateral extent.
• One horizontal boundary, above or below the well, is a constant pressure
boundary. The other horizontal boundary is a no-flow boundary.
Figure 4.15 Schematic diagram of a horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap
z
Lp
h
x
y dw
Parameters
k reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction of the well
ky reservoir horizontal permeability in the direction perpendicular to the
well
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, a radial flow, characterized by a
plateau in the derivative pressure curve on the log-log plot, develops around the well
in the vertical (y-z) plane.
Later, if the well is close to the no-flow boundary, the flow becomes semi radial in the
vertical y-z plane, and a second plateau develops with a value double that of the
radial flow.
At late time, when the constant pressure boundary is seen, the pressure stabilizes, and
the pressure derivative curve plunges.

Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifier
Note Depending on the ratio of mobilities and storativities between the reservoir
and the gas cap or aquifer, the constant pressure boundary model may not be
adequate. In that case the model of a horizontal well in a two-layer medium
(available in the future) is more appropriate.
Figure 4.16 Typical drawdown response of horizontal well in a reservoir with a gas cap or an aquifer
pressure
pressure derivative

Horizontal well with gas cap or aquifier
Homogeneous reservoir 4
Assumptions
This model can be used for all models or boundary conditions mentioned in
"Assumptions" on page 4-1.
Figure 4.17 Schematic diagram of a well in a homogeneous reservoir
well
Parameters
phi Ct storativity
k permeability
h reservoir thickness
Behavior
Behavior depends on the inner and outer boundary conditions. See the page describing
the appropriate boundary condition.

Homogeneous reservoir
Figure 4.18 Typical drawdown response of a well in a homogeneous reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Homogeneous reservoir
Two-porosity reservoir 4
Assumptions
• The reservoir comprises two distinct types of porosity: matrix and fissures.
The matrix may be in the form of blocks, slabs, or spheres. Three choices of flow
models are provided to describe the flow between the matrix and the fissures.
• The flow from the matrix goes only into the fissures. Only the fissures flow into the
wellbore.
• The two-porosity model can be applied to all types of inner and outer boundary
conditions, except when otherwise noted. \
Figure 4.19 Schematic diagram of a well in a two-porosity reservoir
Interporosity flow models

In the Pseudosteady state model, the interporosity flow is directly proportional to the
pressure difference between the matrix and the fissures.
In the transient model, there is diffusion within each independent matrix block. Two
matrix geometries are considered: spheres and slabs.
Parameters
omega storativity ratio, fraction of the fissures pore volume to the total pore
volume. Omega is between 0 and 1.
lambda interporosity flow coefficient, which describes the ability to flow from the
matrix blocks into the fissures. Lambda is typically a very small number,
ranging from
1e – 5 to 1e – 9.

Two-porosity reservoir
Behavior
At early time, only the fissures contribute to the flow, and a homogeneous reservoir
response may be observed, corresponding to the storativity and permeability of the
fissures.
A transition period develops, during which the interporosity flow starts. It is marked
by a “valley” in the derivative. The shape of this valley depends on the choice of
interporosity flow model.
Later, the interporosity flow reaches a steady state. A homogeneous reservoir
response, corresponding to the total storativity (fissures + matrix) and the fissure
permeability, may be observed.
Figure 4.20 Typical drawdown response of a well in a two-porosity reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Two-porosity reservoir
Radial composite reservoir 4
Assumptions
• The reservoir comprises two concentric zones, centered on the well, of different
mobility and/or storativity.
• The model handles a full completion with skin.
• The outer boundary can be any of three types:
• Infinite
• Constant pressure circle
• No-flow circle
Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of a well in a radial composite reservoir
well
L
re
Parameters
L1 radius of the first zone
re radius of the outer zone
mr mobility (k/µ) ratio of the inner zone to the outer zone
sr storativity (phi * Ct) ratio of the inner zone to the outer zone
SI Interference skin
Behavior
At early time, before the outer zone is seen, the response corresponds to an infinite-
acting system with the properties of the inner zone.

Radial composite reservoir
When the influence of the outer zone is seen, the pressure derivative varies until it
reaches a plateau.
At late time the behavior is like that of a homogeneous system with the properties of
the outer zone, with the appropriate outer boundary effects.
Figure 4.22 Typical drawdown response of a well in a radial composite reservoir
pressure mr >
mr <
mr >
pressure derivative
mr <
Note This model is also available with two-porosity options.

Radial composite reservoir
Infinite acting 4
Assumptions
• This model of outer boundary conditions is available for all reservoir models and
for all near wellbore conditions.
• No outer boundary effects are seen during the test period.
Figure 4.23 Schematic diagram of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir
well
Parameters
k permeability
h reservoir thickness
Behavior
At early time, after the wellbore storage effect is seen, there may be a transition period
during which the near wellbore conditions and the dual-porosity effects (if applicable)
may be present.
At late time the flow pattern becomes radial, with the well at the center. The pressure
increases as log t, and the pressure derivative reaches a plateau. The derivative value
at the plateau is determined by the k * h product.

Infinite acting
Figure 4.24 Typical drawdown response of a well in an infinite-acting reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Infinite acting
Single sealing fault 4
Assumptions
• A single linear sealing fault, located some distance away from the well, limits the
reservoir extent in one direction.
• The model handles full completion in homogenous and dual-porosity reservoirs.
Figure 4.25 Schematic diagram of a well near a single sealing fault
well
re
Parameters
re distance between the well and the fault
Behavior
At early time, before the boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
When the influence of the fault is seen, the pressure derivative increases until it
doubles, and then stays constant.
At late time the behavior is like that of an infinite system with a permeability equal to
half of the reservoir permeability.

Single sealing fault
Figure 4.26 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single sealing fault
pressure
pressure derivative
Note The first plateau in the derivative plot, indicative of an infinite-acting radial
flow, and the subsequent doubling of the derivative value may not be seen if
re is small (that is the well is close to the fault).

Single sealing fault
Single constant-pressure boundary 4
Assumptions
• A single linear, constant-pressure boundary, some distance away from the well,
limits the reservoir extent in one direction.
Figure 4.27 Schematic diagram of a well near a single constant pressure boundary
well
re
Parameters
re distance between the well and the constant-pressure boundary
Behavior
At early time, before the boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of the constant-pressure boundary is seen, the
pressure stabilizes, and the pressure derivative curve plunges.

Single Constant-Pressure Boundary
Figure 4.28 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a single constant pressure boundary
pressure
pressure derivative
Note The plateau in the derivative may not be seen if re is small enough.

Single Constant-Pressure Boundary
Parallel sealing faults 4
Assumptions
• Parallel, linear, sealing faults (no-flow boundaries), located some distance away
from the well, limit the reservoir extent.
Figure 4.29 Schematic diagram of a well between parallel sealing faults
well L1
L2
Parameters
L1 distance from the well to one sealing fault
L2 distance from the well to the other sealing fault
Behavior
At early time, before the first boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of an
infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of both faults is seen, a linear flow condition exists in
the reservoir. During linear flow, the pressure derivative curve follows a straight line
of slope 0.5 on a log-log plot.
If the L1 and L2 are large and much different, a doubling of the level of the plateau
from the level of the first plateau in the derivative plot may be seen. The plateaus
indicate infinite-acting radial flow, and the doubling of the level is due to the influence
of the nearer fault.

Parallel sealing faults
Figure 4.30 Typical drawdown response of a well between parallel sealing faults
pressure
pressure derivative

Parallel sealing faults
Intersecting faults 4
Assumptions
• Two intersecting, linear, sealing boundaries, located some distance away from the
well, limit the reservoir to a sector with an angle theta. The reservoir is infinite in
the outward direction of the sector.
• The model handles a full completion, with wellbore storage and skin.
Figure 4.31 Schematic diagram of a well between two intersecting sealing faults
well
theta
yw
xw
Parameters
theta angle between the faults
(0 < theta <180°)
x w, y w the location of the well relative to the intersection of the faults
Behavior
infinite system.
When the influence of the closest fault is seen, the pressure behavior may resemble
that of a well near one sealing fault.
Then when the vertex is reached, the reservoir is limited on two sides, and the
behavior is like that of an infinite system with a permeability equal to theta/360
times the reservoir permeability.

Intersectingfaults
Figure 4.32 Typical drawdown response of a well that is between two intersecting sealing faults
pressure
pressure derivative

Intersectingfaults
Partially sealing fault 4
Assumptions
• A linear partially sealing fault, located some distance away from the well, offers
some resistance to the flow.
• The reservoir is infinite in all directions.
• The reservoir parameters are the same on both sides of the fault. The model
handles a full completion.
• This model allows only homogeneous reservoirs.
Figure 4.33 Schematic diagram of a well near a partially sealing fault
well
re
Parameters
re distance between the well and the partially sealing fault
Mult a measure of the specific transmissivity across the fault. It is defined by
Mult = ( 1 – α ) ⁄ ( 1 + α )
α = (kf/k)(re/lf), where kf and lf are respectively the permeability
and the thickness of the fault region. The value of alpha typically varies
between 0.0 (sealing fault) and 1.0 or larger. An alpha value of infinity
(∞) corresponds to a constant pressure fault.
Behavior
At early time, before the fault is seen, the response corresponds to that of an infinite
system.
When the influence of the fault is seen, the pressure derivative starts to increase, and
goes back to its initial value after a long time. The duration and the rise of the deviation
from the plateau depend on the value of alpha.

Partially sealing fault
Figure 4.34 Typical drawdown response of a well that is near a partially sealing fault
pressure
pressure derivative

Partially sealing fault
Closed circle 4
Assumptions
• A circle, centered on the well, limits the reservoir extent with a no-flow boundary.
Figure 4.35 Schematic diagram of a well in a closed-circle reservoir
well
re
Parameters
re radius of the circle
Behavior
At early time, before the circular boundary is seen, the response corresponds to that of
an infinite system.
When the influence of the closed circle is seen, the system goes into a pseudosteady
state. For a drawdown, this type of flow is characterized on the log-log plot by a unity
slope on the pressure derivative curve. In a buildup, the pressure stabilizes and the
derivative curve plunges.

Closed circle
Figure 4.36 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-circle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Closed circle
Constant pressure circle 4
Assumptions
• A circle, centered on the well, is at a constant pressure.
Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir
well
re
Parameters
re radius of the circle
Behavior
At early time, before the constant pressure circle is seen, the response corresponds to
that of an infinite system.
At late time, when the influence of the constant pressure circle is seen, the pressure
stabilizes and the pressure derivative curve plunges.

Constant Pressure Circle
Figure 4.38 Typical drawdown response of a well in a constant pressure circle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Constant Pressure Circle
Closed Rectangle 4
Assumptions
• The well is within a rectangle formed by four no-flow boundaries.
Figure 4.39 Schematic diagram of a well within a closed-rectangle reservoir
By xw well
yw
Bx
Parameters
Bx length of rectangle in x-direction
By length of rectangle in y-direction
xw position of well on the x-axis
yw position of well on the y-axis
Behavior
infinite system.
At late time, the effect of the boundaries will increase the pressure derivative:
• If the well is near the boundary, behavior like that of a single sealing fault may be
observed.
• If the well is near a corner of the rectangle, the behavior of two intersecting sealing
faults may be observed.
Ultimately, the behavior is like that of a closed circle and a pseudo-steady state flow,
characterized by a unity slope, may be observed on the log-log plot of the pressure
derivative.

Closed Rectangle
Figure 4.40 Typical drawdown response of a well in a closed-rectangle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Closed Rectangle
Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles 4
Assumptions
• The well is within a rectangle formed by four boundaries.
• One or more of the rectangle boundaries are constant pressure boundaries. The
others are no-flow boundaries.
Figure 4.41 Schematic diagram of a well within a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir
By xw well
yw
Bx
Parameters
Bx length of rectangle in x-direction
By length of rectangle in y-direction
xw position of well on the x-axis
yw position of well on the y-axis
Behavior
infinite system.
At late time, the effect of the boundaries is seen, according to their distance from the
well. The behavior of a sealing fault, intersecting faults, or parallel sealing faults may
develop, depending on the model geometry.
When the influence of the constant pressure boundary is felt, the pressure stabilizes
and the derivative curve plunges. That effect will mask any later behavior.

Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles
Figure 4.42 Typical drawdown response of a well in a mixed-boundary rectangle reservoir
pressure
pressure derivative

Constant pressure and mixed-boundary rectangles
Constant wellbore storage 4
Assumptions
This wellbore storage model is applicable to any reservoir model. It can be used with
any inner or outer boundary conditions.
Parameters
C wellbore storage coefficient
Behavior
At early time, both the pressure and the pressure derivative curves have a unit slope
in the log-log plot.
Subsequently, the derivative plot deviates downward. The derivative plot exhibits a
peak if the well is damaged (that is if skin is positive) or if an apparent skin exists due
to the flow convergence (for example, in a well with partial completion).
Figure 4.43 Typical drawdown response of a well with constant wellbore storage
pressure
pressure derivative

Constant wellbore storage
Variable wellbore storage 4
Assumptions
This wellbore storage model is applicable to any reservoir model. The variation of the
storage may be either of an exponential form or of an error function form.
Parameters
Ca early time wellbore storage coefficient
C late time wellbore storage coefficient
CfD the value that controls the time of transition from Ca to C. A larger value
implies a later transition.
Behavior
The behavior varies, depending on the Ca/C ratio.
If Ca/C < 1, wellbore storage increases with time. The pressure plot has a unit slope at
early time (a constant storage behavior), and then flattens or even drops before
beginning to rise again along a higher constant storage behavior curve.
The derivative plot drops rapidly and typically has a sharp dip during the period of
increasing storage before attaining the derivative plateau.
If Ca/C > 1, the wellbore storage decreases with time. The pressure plot steepens at
early time (exceeding unit slope) and then flattens.
The derivative plot shows a pronounced hump. Its slope increases with time at
early time. The derivative plot is pushed above and to the left of the pressure plot.
At middle time the derivative decreases. The hump then settles down to the late time
plateau characteristic of infinite-acting reservoirs (provided no external boundary
effects are visible by then).

Variable wellbore storage
Figure 4.44 Typical drawdown response of a well with increasing wellbore storage (Ca/C < 1)
pressure
pressure derivative
Figure 4.45 Typical drawdown response of a well with decreasing wellbore storage (Ca/C > 1)
pressure
pressure derivative

Selected Laplace Solutions
Chapter 5
Introduction 5
The analytical solution in Laplace space for the pressure response of a dual porosity
reservoir has the form:
K o [ r D sf(s) ]
P˜ fD(s) = -----------------------------------------
- [EQ 5.1]
sf(s)K 1 [ sf(s) ]
The laplace parameter function f(s) depends on the model type and the fracture system
geometry. Three matrix block geometries have been considered
• Slab (strata) n=1
• Matchstick (cylinder) n=2
• Cube (sphere) n=3
where n is the number of normal fracture planes.
In the analysis of dual porosity systems the dimensionless parameters λ and ω are
employed where:
2
α k mb r w
λ = Interporosity Flow Parameter = ----------------------
- [EQ 5.2]
2
k fb h m
α = 4n ( n + 2 ) [EQ 5.3]
and
Selected Laplace Solutions 5-1

Introduction
φ fb c f
ω = Storativity or Capacity Ratio = -----------------------------------
- [EQ 5.4]
φ fb c f + φ mb c m
If interporosity skin is introduced into the PSSS model through the dimensionless
factor S ma given by
2k mi h s
S ma = ----------------
- [EQ 5.5]
hm ks
where k s is the surface layer permeability and hs is its thickness, and defining an
apparent interporosity flow parameter as
λ
λ a = ----------------------- β = n + 2 [EQ 5.6]
1 + β S ma
then
ω(1 – ω)s + λ
f(s) = ------------------------------------a- [EQ 5.7]
( 1 – ω ) s + λa
In the transient case, it is also possible to allow for the effect of interporosity kin, that
is, surface resistance on the faces of the matrix blocks.
The appropriate f(s) functions for this situation are given by:
• Strata
1 λ 3( 1 – ω )s (1 – ω)s
--- --- ------------------------ tanh 3----------------------- -
3s λ λ
f(s) = ω + --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [EQ 5.8]
1 + S ma 3 ( 1 – ω ) s- tanh 3-----------------------
----------------------- ( 1 – ω ) s-
λ λ
• Matchsticks
1--- λ 1 8( 1 – ω )(s ⁄ λ )
8 ( 1 – ω ) s- I--------------------------------------------
--- ----------------------- -
4s λ I0 8 ( 1 – ω ) ( s ⁄ λ )
f ( s ) = ω + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [EQ 5.9]
8 ( 1 – ω ) s I1 8 ( 1 – ω ) ( s ⁄ λ )
1 + S ma ------------------------ ---------------------------------------------
λ I0 8 ( 1 – ω ) ( s ⁄ λ )
• Cubes
1 λ 15 ( 1 – ω ) s (1 – ω)s
--- --- --------------------------- coth 15 --------------------------- – 1
5s λ λ
f ( s ) = ω + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ [EQ 5.10]
15 ( 1 – ω ) s 15 ( 1 – ω ) s
1 + S ma --------------------------- coth --------------------------- – 1
λ λ
Wellbore storage and skin
If these are present the Laplace Space Solution for the wellbore pressure, p̃ wD is given
by:
5-2 Selected Laplace Solutions

Introduction
sp̃ fD + S
p̃ wD = -----------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 5.11]
s [ 1 + C D s ( S + sp̃ fD ) ]
Three-Layer Reservoir: Two permeable layers separated by a Semipervious Bed.

2 2
q A2 – ξ1 A2 – ξ2
p ( r, s' ) = -------------- --------------------- K 0 ( ξ 1 r ) – --------------------- K 0 ( ξ 2 r [EQ 5.12]
2 π Ts' D D
where
2
ξ 1 = 0.5 ( A 1 + A 2 – D ) [EQ 5.13]
2
ξ 2 = 0.5 ( A 1 + A 2 + D ) [EQ 5.14]
2 2
D = 4B 1 B 2 + ( A 1 – A 2 ) [EQ 5.15]
A 1 = s' + ------- coth æ -------ö ⁄ r

s'S' s'S' 2
[EQ 5.16]
S è S ø
η s' T s'S' 2
A 2 = ------- + ------ ------- ⁄ r [EQ 5.17]
η2 T2 S
B1 = s'S' s'S' ⁄ r 2
------- ⁄ sinh ------- [EQ 5.18]
S S
T s'S' s'S' 2
B 2 = ------ ------- ⁄ sinh ------- ⁄ r [EQ 5.19]
T2 S S
T''
r D = r ----- ⁄ b [EQ 5.20]
T
2
s' = sr ⁄ η [EQ 5.21]
s = φ ct h [EQ 5.22]
T = kh ⁄ µ [EQ 5.23]
and K 0 is the modified Bessel function of the second kind of the zero order.

Introduction
Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells 5
The pressure at the wellbore,

π
P WD = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
- [EQ 5.24]
1⁄2
s
k fD w fD s --------- + ------------------ 2 s
η fD k fD w fD
where
η fD is the dimensionless fracture hydraulic diffusivity
k fD w fD is the dimensionless fracture conductivity
Short-time behavior
The short-time approximation of the solution can be obtained by taking the limit as
s→∞.
π η fD
P wD = ------------------------------ [EQ 5.25]
3⁄2
k fD w fD s
Long-time behavior
We can obtain the solution for large values of time by taking the limit as s → 0 :
π
P wD = -------------------------------------- [EQ 5.26]
5⁄4
2k fD w fD s

Transient pressure analysis for fractured wells
Composite naturally fractured reservoirs 5
Wellbore pressure
P wd = A [ I 0 ( γ 1 ) – S γ 1 I 1 ( γ 1 ) ] + B [ K 0 ( γ 1 ) + S γ 1 K 1 ( γ 1 ) ] [EQ 5.27]
where
1⁄2
γ 1 = ( sf 1 ) [EQ 5.28]
1⁄2
γ 2 = ( sf 2 ) [EQ 5.29]
Table 5.1 Values of f1 and f2 as used in [EQ 5.28] and [EQ 5.29]
Model f1 (Inner zone) f2 (Outer zone)

Homogene 1 1
-ous
Restricted ( 1 – ω 1 )λ 1 ( 1 – ω 2 )λ 2
ω 1 + -----------------------------------
- ω 2 + -----------------------------------------
-
double λ1 + ( 1 – ω1 ) s M
λ 2 + ( 1 – ω 2 ) ----- s
porosity Fs
λ1 æ ψ 1 sinh ψ 1 ö λ2 M æ ψ 2 sinh ψ 2 ö
Matrix skin ω 1 + ------ ç -------------------------------------------------------------÷ ω 2 + ------ ----- ç -------------------------------------------------------------÷
3s è cosh ψ 1 + ψ 1 S m1 sinh ψ 1ø 3s F s è cosh ψ 2 + ψ 2 S m2 sinh ψ 2ø
Double 3 ( 1 – ω1 ) s 1 ⁄ 2 3 ( 1 – ω 2 ) Ms 1 ⁄ 2
ψ 1 = -------------------------- ψ 2 = --------------------------------
porosity λ1 λ2 Fs
Ω = α 11 A N – α 12 B N [EQ 5.30]
A = AN ⁄ Ω [EQ 5.31]
B = ( –BN ) ⁄ Ω [EQ 5.32]
1
A N = --- ( α 22 α 33 – α 23 α 32 ) [EQ 5.33]
s
1
B N = --- ( α 21 α 33 – α 23 α 31 )
s
Where

Composite naturally fractured reservoirs
α 11 = C D s ( [ I 0 ( γ 1 ) – S γ 1 I1 ( γ 1 ) ] – γ 1 I i ( γ 1 ) )
α 12 = C D s ( [ K 0 ( γ 1 ) – S γ 1 K 1 ( γ 1 ) ] – γ 1 K 1 ( γ 1 ) )
α 21 = I 0 ( R D γ 1 )
[EQ 5.34]
α 22 = K 0 ( R D γ 1 )
α 31 = M γ 1 I 1 ( R D γ 1 )
α 32 = – M γ 1 K 1 ( R D γ 1 )
Table 5.2 Values of α 23 and α 33 as used in [EQ 5.33]
Outer boundary condition

Constant
Infinite Constant pressure
Closed
1/2 1/2
–[ K0 ( RD γ2 η ) –[ K0 ( R D γ2 η )
1/2 1/2
1 K 1 ( r eD γ 2 η ) K 0 ( r eD γ 2 η )
æ ---ö + ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------
α 23 – K0 ç RD γ2 η ÷
2 1/2 1/2
ç ÷ I 1 ( r eD γ 2 η ) I 0 ( r eD γ 2 η )
è ø
1/2 1/2
I0 ( RD γ2 η )] I0 ( RD γ2 η )]
1⁄2 1⁄2
γ2 η γ2 η
1⁄2 1⁄2
K1 ( RD γ2 η ) K1 ( RD γ2 η )
α 33 1⁄2 1⁄2
γ2η K1 ( RD γ2 η )
1⁄2 1⁄2
K 1 ( r eD γ 2 η ) K 0 ( r eD γ 2 η )
– ---------------------------------------- I 0 + ---------------------------------------- I 0
1⁄2 1⁄2
I 1 ( r eD γ 2 η ) I 0 ( r eD γ 2 η )
1⁄2 1⁄2
( RD γ2 η ) ( RD γ2 η )

Composite naturally fractured reservoirs
Non-linear Regression
Chapter 6
Introduction 6
The quality of a generated solution is measured by the normalized sum of the squares
of the differences between observed and calculated data:
N
1 2
Q = ----
N å ri [EQ 6.1]
i=1
where N is the number of data points and the residuals ri are given by:
2
ri = wi ( Oi – Ci ) [EQ 6.2]
where O i is an observed value, C i is the calculated value and wi is the individual
measurement weight. The rms value is then rms = Q

The algorithm used to improve the generated solution is a modified Levenberg-
Marquardt method using a model trust region (see "Modified Levenberg-Marquardt
method" on page 6-2).
The parameters are modified in a loop composed of the regression algorithm and the
solution generator. Within each iteration of this loop the derivatives of the calculated
quantities with respect to each parameter of interest are calculated. The user has
control over a number of aspects of this regression loop, including the maximum
number of iterations, the target rms error and the trust region radius.
Non-linear Regression 6-1

Introduction
Modified Levenberg-Marquardt method 6
Newton’s method
A non-linear function f of several variables x can be expanded in a Taylor series about
a point P to give:
2
∂f 1 ∂ f
f(x) = f(P) + å
∂ x i i 2 å ∂ x i ∂x j i j
x + --- x x +… [EQ 6.3]
i i, j
Taking up to second order terms (a quadratic model) this can be written
1
f ( x ) ≈ c + g ⋅ x + --- ( x ⋅ H ⋅ x ) [EQ 6.4]
2
where:
2
∂f
c = f ( P ), g i = , H ij = ∂ f [EQ 6.5]
∂ xi ∂ xi xj
P P
The matrix H is known as the Hessian matrix.
At a minimum of f , we have
∇f = 0 [EQ 6.6]
m
so that the minimum point x satisfies
m
H⋅x = –g [EQ 6.7]
c
At the point x
c c
H ⋅ x = ∇f ( x ) – g [EQ 6.8]
Subtracting the last two equations gives:

m c –1 c
x – x = –H ⋅ ∇ fx [EQ 6.9]
c
This is the Newton update to an estimate x of the minimum of a function. It requires
the first and second derivatives of the function to be known. If these are not known
they can be approximated by differencing the function f .
6-2 Non-linear Regression

Modified Levenberg-Marquardt Method
Levenberg-Marquardt method
The Newton update scheme is most applicable when the function to be minimized can
be approximated well by the quadratic form. This may not be the case, particularly
away from the minimum of the function. In this case, one could consider just stepping
in the downhill direction of the function, giving:
m c
x – x = – µ∇ f [EQ 6.10]
where m is a free parameter.

The combination of both the Newton step and the local downhill step is the Levenberg-
Marquardt formalism:
m c –1
x – x = –( H + µ I ) ∇f [EQ 6.11]
The parameter µ is varied so that away from the solution the bias of the step is towards
the steepest decent direction, whilst near the solution it takes small values so as to
make the best possible use of the fast quadratic convergence rate of Newtons method.
Model trust region

A refinement on the Levenberg-Marquardt method is to vary the step length instead of
the parameter µ , and to adjust µ accordingly. The allowable step length is updated on
each iteration of the algorithm according to the success or otherwise in achieving a
minimizing step. The controlling length is called the trust region radius, as it is used to
express the confidence, or trust, in the quadratic model.
Non-linear Regression 6-3

Modified Levenberg-Marquardt Method
Nonlinear least squares 6
2
The quality of fit of a model to given data can be assessed by the χ function. This has
the general form:
N
2 æ y i – y ( x i, a )ö 2
χ (a ) = å ç ----------------------------÷
è σi ø
[EQ 6.12]
i=1
where y i are the observations, a is the vector of free parameters, and σ i are the
estimates of measurement error. In this case, the gradient of the function with respect
to the k’th parameter is given by:
N
∂χ
2 æ [ y i – y ( xi, a ) ]ö ∂
∂ ak
= –2 å ç ---------------------------------÷
è 2 ø ∂ ak
y ( x i, a ) [EQ 6.13]
i=1 σ i
and the elements of the Hessian matrix are obtained from the second derivative of the
function
2 2 N
1 -æ ∂ ∂ y ( x , a ) – [ y – y ( x , a ) ] ∂ y ( x , a )ö
2
∂ χ = 2
∂ ak al å 2 è∂a i ∂a i
------- ç y ( x , a ) i i ∂ a l ak i ÷
ø
[EQ 6.14]
σ
i=1 i
k l
The second derivative term on the right hand side of this equation is ignored (the
Gauss-Newton approximation). The justification for this is that it is frequently small in
comparison to the first term, and also that it is pre-multiplied by a residual term, which
is small near the solution (although the approximation is used even when far from the
solution). Thus the function gradient and Hessian are obtained from the first derivative
of the function with respect to the unknowns.
6-4 Non-linear Regression

Nonlinear Least Squares
Unit Convention
Appendix A
Unit definitions A
The following conventions are followed when describing dimensions:

• L Length
• M Mass
• mol Moles
• T Temperature
• t Time
Table A.1 Unit definitions
Unit Name Description Dimensions

LENGTH length L
AREA area L2
VOLUME volume L3
LIQ_VOLUME liq volume L3
GAS_VOLUME gas volume L3
AMOUNT amount mol
MASS mass M
DENSITY density M/L3
TIME time t
TEMPERATURE temperature T
Unit Convention A-1

Unit definitions
Table A.1 Unit definitions (Continued)

COMPRESSIBILITY compressibility Lt/M
ABS_PRESSURE absolute pressure M/Lt2
REL_PRESSURE relative pressure M/Lt2
GGE_PRESSURE gauge pressure M/L2t2
PRESSURE_GRAD pressure gradient M/L2t2
GAS_FVF gas formation volume factor
PERMEABILITY permeability L2
LIQ_VISCKIN liq kinematic viscosity L2/t
LIQ_VISCKIN liq kinematic viscosity L2/t
LIQ_VISCDYN liq dynamic viscosity ML2/t
LIQ_VISCDYN liq dynamic viscosity ML2/t
ENERGY energy ML2
POWER power ML2
FORCE force ML
ACCELER acceleration L/t2
VELOCITY velocity L/t
GAS_CONST gas constant
LIQ_RATE liq volume rate L3/t
GAS_RATE gas volume rate L3/t
LIQ_PSEUDO_P liq pseudo pressure 1/t
GAS_PSEUDO_P gas pseudo pressure M/Lt3
PSEUDO_T pseudo time
LIQ_WBS liq wellbore storage constant L4t2/M
GAS_WBS gas wellbore storage constant L4t2/M
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
LIQ_DARCY_F liq Non Darcy Flow Factor F t/L6
GAS_DARCY_F gas Non Darcy Flow Factor F M/L7t
LIQ_DARCY_D liq D Factor t/L3
GAS_DARCY_D gas D Factor t/L3
PRESS_DERIV pressure derivative M/Lt3
MOBILITY mobility L3t/M
LIQ_SUPER_P liq superposition pressure M/L4t2
GAS_SUPER_P gas superposition pressure M/L4t2
VISC_COMPR const visc*Compr t
VISC_LIQ_FVF liq visc*FVF M/Lt
VISC_GAS_FVF gas visc*FVF M/Lt
A-2 Unit Convention

Unit definitions

DATE date
OGR Oil Gas Ratio
SURF_TENSION Surface Tension M/t2
BEAN_SIZE bean size L
S_LENGTH small lengths L
VOL_RATE volume flow rate L3/t
GAS_INDEX Gas Producitvity Index L4t/M
LIQ_INDEX Liquid Producitvity Index L4t/M
MOLAR_VOLUME Molar volume
ABS_TEMPERATURE Absolute temperature T
MOLAR_RATE Molar rate
INV_TEMPERATURE Inverse Temperature 1/T
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP Molar Heat Capacity
OIL_GRAVITY Oil Gravity
GAS_GRAVITY Gas Gravity
MOLAR_ENTHALPY Molar Enthalpy
SPEC_HEAT_CAP Specific Heat Capacity L2/Tt
HEAT_TRANS_COEF Heat Transfer Coefficient M/Tt3
THERM_COND Thermal Conductivity ML/Tt3
CONCENTRATION Concentration M/L3
ADSORPTION Adsorption M/L3
TRANSMISSIBILITY Transmissibility L3
PERMTHICK Permeability*distance L3
SIGMA Sigma factor 1/L2
DIFF_COEFF Diffusion coefficient L2/t
PERMPERLEN Permeability/unit distance L
COALGASCONC Coal gas concentration
RES_VOLUME Reservoir volume L3
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV liq pseudo pressure derivative 1/t2
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV gas pseudo pressure deriva- M/Lt4
tive
MOLAR_INDEX Molar Productivity index
OIL_DENSITY oil density M/L3
DEPTH depth L
ANGLE angle
LIQ_GRAVITY liquid gravity
ROT_SPEED rotational speed 1/t
Unit Convention A-3

Unit definitions

DRSDT Rate of change of GOR 1/t
DRVDT Rate of change of vap OGR 1/t
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P liq superposition pseudo pres- 1/L4t2
sure
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P gas superposition pseudo 1/L3t
pressure
PRESSURE_SQ pressure squared M2/L2t4
LIQ_BACKP_C liq rate/pressure sq L5t3/M2
GAS_BACKP_C gas rate/pressure sq L5t3/M2
MAP_COORD map coordinates L
A-4 Unit Convention

Unit definitions
Unit sets A
Table A.2 Unit sets
Unit Sets
Oil Field
Unit Name Metric Practical Metric Lab
(English)
LENGTH ft m m cm
AREA acre m2 m2 cm2
VOLUME ft3 m3 m3 m3
LIQ_VOLUME stb m3 m3 cc
GAS_VOLUME Mscf m3 m3 scc
AMOUNT mol mol mol mol
MASS lb kg kg g
DENSITY lb/ft3 kg/m3 kg/m3 g/cc
TIME hr s hr hr
TEMPERATURE F K K C
COMPRESSIBILITY /psi /Pa /kPa /atm
ABS_PRESSURE psia Pa kPa atm
REL_PRESSURE psi Pa kPa atm
GGE_PRESSURE psi Pa kPa atmg
PRESSURE_GRAD psi/ft Pa/m kPa/m atm/cm
LIQ_FVF rb/stb 3
rm /sm 3 3
rm /sm 3 rcc/scc
GAS_FVF rb/Mscf 3
rm /sm 3
rm3/sm3 rcc/scc
PERMEABILITY mD mD mD mD
LIQ_VISCKIN cP Pas milliPas Pas
LIQ_VISCDYN cP Pas milliPas Pas
GAS_VISCKIN cP Pas microPas Pas
GAS_VISCDYN cP Pas microPas Pas
ENERGY Btu J J J
POWER hp W W W
FORCE lbf N N N
AccELER ft/s2 m/s2 m/s2 m/s2
VELOCITY ft/s m/s m/s m/s
GAS_CONST dimension-less dimension- dimension- dimension-
less less less
LIQ_RATE stb/day m3/s m3/day cc/hr
GAS_RATE Mscf/day m3/s m3/day cc/hr
LIQ_PSEUDO_P psi/cP Pa/Pas MPa/Pas atm/Pas
Unit Convention A-5

Unit sets
Table A.2 Unit sets (Continued)
Unit Sets
Oil Field
(English)
GAS_PSEUDO_P psi2/cP Pa2/Pas MPa2/Pas atm2/Pas
PSEUDO_T psi hr/cP bar hr/cP MPa hr/Pas atm hr/Pas
LIQ_WBS stb/psi 3
m /bar 3
dm /Pa m3/atm
GAS_WBS Mscf/psi m3/bar dm3/Pa m3/atm
GOR scf/stb rm3/sm3 rm3/sm3 scc/scc
LIQ_DARCY_F psi/cP/(stb/day)2 bar/cP/(m3/day)2 MPa/Pas/(m3/day)2 atm/Pas/(m3/day)2
GAS_DARCY_F psi2/cP/(Mscf/day)2 bar2/cP/(m3/day)2 MPa2/Pas/(m3/day)2 atm2/Pas/(m3/day)2
LIQ_DARCY_D day/stb day/m3 day/m3 day/m3
GAS_DARCY_D day/Mscf day/m3 day/m3 day/m3
PRESS_DERIV psi/hr Pa/s kPa/s Pa/s
MOBILITY mD/cP mD/Pas mD/Pas mD/Pas
LIQ_SUPER_P psi/(stb/day) Pa/(m /s) 3 3
Pa/(m /s) atm/(m3/s)
GAS_SUPER_P psi/(Mscf/day) Pa/(m3/s) Pa/(m3/s) atm/(m3/s)
VISC_COMPR cP/psi cP/bar milliPas/kPa Pas/atm
VISC_LIQ_FVF cP rb/stb Pas rm3/sm3 milliPas rm3/sm3 Pas rm3/sm3
VISC_GAS_FVF cP rb/Mscf Pas rm3/sm3 microPas rm3/sm3 Pas rm3/sm3
DATE days days days days
OGR stb/Mscf sm /sm 3 3 3
sm /sm 3 scc/scc
SURF_TENSION dyne/cm dyne/cm dyne/cm dyne/cm
BEAN_SIZE 64ths in mm mm mm
S_LENGTH in mm mm mm
VOL_RATE bbl/day m3/day m3/day cc/hr
GAS_INDEX (Mscf/day)/psi (sm3/day)/bar (sm3/day)/bar (sm3/day)/atm
LIQ_INDEX (stb/day)/psi (sm3/day)/bar (sm3/day)/bar (sm3/day)/atm
MOLAR_VOLUME ft3/lb-mole m3/kg-mole m3/kg-mole cc/gm-mole
ABS_TEMPERATURE R K K C
MOLAR_RATE lb-mole/day kg-mole/day kg-mole/day gm-mole/hr
INV_TEMPERATURE 1/F 1/K 1/K 1/C
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP Btu/ lb-mole/ R kJ/ kg-mole/ K kJ/ kg-mole/ K J/ gm-mole/ K
OIL_GRAVITY API API API API
GAS_GRAVITY sg_Air_1 sg_Air_1 sg_Air_1 sg_Air_1
MOLAR_ENTHALPY Btu/ lb-mole kJ/ kg-mole kJ/ kg-mole J/ gm-mole
SPEC_HEAT_CAP Btu/ lb/ F kJ/ kg/ K kJ/ kg/ K J/ gm/ K
HEAT_TRANS_COEF Btu/ hr/ F/ ft2 W/ K/ m2 W/ K/ m2 W/ K/ m2
THERM_COND Btu/ sec/ F/ ft W/ K/ m W/ K/ m W/ K/ m
A-6 Unit Convention

Unit sets
Table A.2 Unit sets (Continued)
Unit Sets
Oil Field
(English)
CONCENTRATION lb/STB kg/m3 kg/m3 g/cc
ADSORPTION lb/lb kg/kg kg/kg g/g
TRANSMISSIBILITY cPB/D/PS cPm /D/B 3 3
cPm /D/B cPcc/H/A
PERMTHICK mD ft mD m mD m mD cm
SIgA 1/ft 2
1/M 2
1/M 2
1/cm2
DIFF_COEFF ft2/D M2/D M2/D cm2/hr
PERMPERLEN mD/ft mD/M mD/M mD/cm
COALGASCONC SCF/ft3 sm3/m3 sm3/m3 scc/cc
RES_VOLUME RB rm3 rm3 Rcc
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV psi/cP/hr Pa/Pas/s MPa/Pas/s atm/Pas/hr
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV 2
psi /cP/hr 2
Pa /Pas/s 2
MPa /Pas/s atm2/Pas/hr
MOLAR_INDEX lb-mole/day/psi kg-mole/day/bar kg-mole/day/bar gm-mole/hr/atm
OIL_DENSITY lb/ft 3
kg/m 3
kg/m 3 g/cc
DEPTH ft m m ft
ANGLE deg deg deg deg
LIQ_GRAVITY sgw sgw sgw sgw
ROT_SPEED rev/min rev/min rev/min rev/min
DRSDT scf/stb/day rm3/rm3/day rm3/rm3/day scc/scc/hr
DRVDT stb/Mscf/day rm3/rm3/day rm3/rm3/day scc/scc/hr
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P psi/cP/(stb/day) Pa/Pas/(m3/s) MPa/Pas/(m3/s) atm/Pas/(cc/hr)
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P psi2/cP/(Mscf/day) Pa2/Pas/(m3/s) MPa2/Pas/(m3/s atm2/Pas/(cc/hr)
PRESSURE_SQ psi2 atm2
LIQ_BACKP_C stb/day/psi2 m3/s/Pa2 m3/day/kPa2 cc/hr/atm2
GAS_BACKP_C Mscf/day/psi2 m3/s/Pa2 m3/day/kPa2 cc/hr/atm2
MAP_COORD UTM UTM UTM UTM
LENGTH ft m m cm
AREA acre m2 m2 cm2
VOLUME ft3 m3 m3 m3
LIQ_VOLUME stb m3 m3 cc
GAS_VOLUME Mscf m3 m3 scc
AMOUNT mol mol mol mol
MASS lb kg kg g
Unit Convention A-7

Unit sets
Unit conversion factors to SI A
SI units are expressed in m, kg, s and K.
Table A.3 Converting units to SI units
Unit Quantity Unit Name Multiplier to SI

ABS_PRESSURE MPa 1e6
ABS_PRESSURE Mbar 1e11
ABS_PRESSURE Pa 1.0
ABS_PRESSURE atm 101325.35
ABS_PRESSURE bar 1.e5
ABS_PRESSURE feetwat 2.98898e3
ABS_PRESSURE inHg 3386.388640
ABS_PRESSURE kPa 1000.0
ABS_PRESSURE kbar 1e8
ABS_PRESSURE kg/cm2 1e4
ABS_PRESSURE mmHg 1.33322e2
ABS_PRESSURE psia 6894.757
ACCELER ft /s2 0.3048
ACCELER m /s2 1.0
ADSORPTION g /g 1.0
ADSORPTION kg /kg 1.0
ADSORPTION lb /lb 1.0
AMOUNT kmol 1000
AMOUNT mol 1.0
AREA acre 4.046856e3
AREA cm2 1.e-4
AREA ft2 0.092903
AREA ha 10000.0
AREA m 2 1.0
AREA micromsq 1.0e-12
AREA section 2.589988e6
BEAN_SIZE 64ths in 0.00039688
COMPRESSIBILITY /Pa 1.0
COMPRESSIBILITY /atm 0.9869198e-5
COMPRESSIBILITY /bar 1.0e-5
COMPRESSIBILITY /kPa 1.0e-3
COMPRESSIBILITY /psi 1.450377e-4
CONCENTRATION g /cc 1.0e+3
CONCENTRATION kg /m 3 1.0
A-8 Unit Convention

Unit conversion factors
Table A.3 Converting units to SI units (Continued)

CONCENTRATION lb /stb 2.85258
DENSITY g /cc 1.e+3
DENSITY kg /m 3 1.0
DENSITY lb /ft3 16.01846
DRSDT Mscf /stb /day 2.06143e-3
DRSDT rm3 /rm3 /day 1.157407e-5
DRSDT rm3 /rm3 /hr 2.777778e-4
DRSDT scc /scc /hr 2.777778e-4
DRSDT scf /stb /day 2.06143e-6
DRVDT scc /scc /hr 2.777778e-4
DRVDT rm3 /rm3 /day 1.157407e-5
DRVDT rm3 /rm3 /hr 2.777778e-4
DRVDT stb /Mscf /day 6.498356e-8
ENERGY J 1.0
ENERGY Btu 1055.055
ENERGY MJ 1e6
ENERGY cal 4.1868
ENERGY ergs 1e-7
ENERGY hp 2.6478e6
ENERGY hpUK 2.68452e6
ENERGY kJ 1000.0
FORCE N 1.0
FORCE dyne 1e-5
FORCE kgf 9.80665
FORCE lbf 4.448221
FORCE poundal 0.138255
GAS_BACKP_C Mscf /day /psi2 6.89434490298039e-012
GAS_BACKP_C cc /hr /atm2 2.705586e-20
GAS_BACKP_C m3 /day /kPa2 1.15741e-11
GAS_BACKP_C m3 /s /Pa2 1.0
GAS_BACKP_C m3 /s /atm2 9.740108055e-11
GAS_CONST J /mol /K 1.0
GAS_DARCY_D day /Mscf 3051.18
GAS_DARCY_F 2 3
MPa /Pas /(m /day) 2 0.7464926e23
GAS_DARCY_F atm2 /Pas /(m3 /day)2 7.664145e19
GAS_DARCY_F bar2 /cp /(m3 /day)2 0.7464926e23
GAS_DARCY_F psi2 /cp /(Mscf /day)2 4.4256147e17
Unit Convention A-9


GAS_DARCY_F psi2 /cp /(stb /day)2 1.403915315617e+022
GAS_FVF rb /Mscf 5.61458e-3
GAS_GRAVITY g/cc 1.e+3
GAS_GRAVITY lb/ft3 16.01846
GAS_GRAVITY sg_Air_1 1.0
GAS_INDEX (Mscf /day) /psi 4.753497e-8
GAS_INDEX 3
(sm /day) /atm 1.1422684e-10
GAS_INDEX (sm3 /day) /bar 1.15741e-10
GAS_INDEX (stb /day) /psi 2.66888e-10
GAS_PSEUDO_P MPa2 /Pas 1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_P Pa2 /Pas 1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_P Pa2 /cp 1.0e3
GAS_PSEUDO_P atm2 /Pas 1.0266826e10
GAS_PSEUDO_P atm2 /cp 1.0266827e13
GAS_PSEUDO_P bar2 /cp 1e13
GAS_PSEUDO_P psi2 /cp 4.75377e10
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV atm2 /cp /hr 2.8518963e9
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV MPa2 /Pas /s 1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV Pa2 /Pas /s 1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV bar22 /cp /day 1.1574074e8
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV bar2 /cp /s 1e13
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV psi2 /cp /hr 1.32049e7
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV atm2 /Pas /day 1.1882901e5
GAS_PSEUDO_PDRV atm2 /Pas /hr 2.85189e6
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm2 /cp /(cc /hr) 3.696057559e22
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P MPa2 /Pas /(m3 /s) 1.0e12
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P Pa2 /Pas /(m3 /s) 1.0
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm2 /Pas /(cc /hr) 3.696057559e19
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm2 /Pas /(m3 /s) 1.026682655e10
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P bar2 /cp /(m3 /hr) 3.6e16
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P psi2 /cp /(Mscf /day) 1.45046e+014
GAS_PSEUDO_SUPER_P psi2 /cp /(stb /day) 2.58339e16
GAS_RATE MMscf /day 3.2774205e-1
GAS_RATE Mscf /day 3.2774205e-4
GAS_RATE scf /day 3.2774205e-7
A-10 Unit Convention


GAS_RATE scf /s 0.02831685
GAS_SUPER_P atm /(m3 /s) 101325.35
GAS_SUPER_P Pa /(m3 /s) 1.0
GAS_SUPER_P bar /(m3 /day) 8.64e9
GAS_SUPER_P bar /(m3 /s) 1.0e5
GAS_SUPER_P psi /(Mscf /day) 2.1037145e7
GAS_VOLUME MMscf 2.831685e4
GAS_VOLUME Mscf 28.31685
GAS_VOLUME scc 0.994955e-6
GAS_VOLUME scf 0.02831685
GAS_WBS Mscf /psi 4.10701e-3
GAS_WBS 3
m /atm 9.8691986e-6
GAS_WBS m3 /bar 1.0e-5
GOR Mscf /stb 1.78108e2
GOR scf /stb 0.178108
HEAT_TRANS_COEF Btu/ hr/ F/ ft2 0.1761102
HEAT_TRANS_COEF Btu/ sec/ F/ ft2 6.3399672e2
HEAT_TRANS_COEF W/ K/ m2 1.0
LENGTH NauMi 1852
LENGTH cm 0.01
LENGTH dm 0.1
LENGTH ft 0.3048
LENGTH in 0.0254
LENGTH km 1000.0
LENGTH m 1.0
LENGTH mi 1609.344
LENGTH mm 0.001
LENGTH yd 0.9144
LIQ_BACKP_C cc /hr /atm 2 2.705586e-20
LIQ_BACKP_C m3 /day /kPa2 1.15741e-11
LIQ_BACKP_C m3 /s /Pa2 1.0
LIQ_BACKP_C m3 /s /atm2 9.740108055e-11
LIQ_BACKP_C stb /day /psi2 3.87088705627079e-014
LIQ_DARCY_D day /stb 543439.87
LIQ_DARCY_D day /m3 86400.000
LIQ_DARCY_F MPa /Pas /(m3 /day)2 0.7464926e16
LIQ_DARCY_F atm /Pas /(m3 /day)2 7.5638968e14
Unit Convention A-11


LIQ_DARCY_F bar /cp /(m3 /day)2 0.7464926e18
LIQ_DARCY_F psi /cp /(stb /day)2 2.0362071e18
LIQ_GRAVITY sgw 1.0
LIQ_INDEX 3
(sm /day) /atm 1.1422684e-10
LIQ_INDEX (sm3 /day) /bar 1.15741e-10
LIQ_INDEX (stb /day) /psi 2.66888e-10
LIQ_PSEUDO_P MPa /Pas 1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_P Pa /Pas 1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_P Pa /cp 1.0e3
LIQ_PSEUDO_P atm /Pas 101325.35
LIQ_PSEUDO_P atm /cp 1.0132535e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_P bar /cp 1.0e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_P psi /cp 6.89476e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV MPa /Pas /s 1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV Pa /Pas /s 1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV atm /Pas /day 1.172747106
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV atm /Pas /hr 28.14593056
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV atm /cp /day 1172.747106
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV atm /cp /hr 28145.931
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV bar /cp /day 1157.407407
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV bar /cp /s 1.0e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_PDRV psi /cp /hr 1915.21
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P MPa /Pas /(m3 /s) 1.0e6
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P Pa /Pas /(m3 /s) 1.0
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm /Pas /(cc /hr) 3.6477126e14
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm /Pas /(m /s) 3 101325.35
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm /cp /(cc /hr) 3.6477126e17
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P atm /cp /(m /s)3 1.0132535e8
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P bar /cp /(m3 /hr) 3.6e11
LIQ_PSEUDO_SUPER_P psi /cp /(stb /day) 3.74688e12
LIQ_RATE cc /hr 2.77778e-10
LIQ_RATE 3
ft /s 0.02831685
LIQ_RATE m3 /day 1.15741e-5
LIQ_RATE m3 /s 1.0
LIQ_RATE scf /s 0.02831685
LIQ_RATE stb /day 1.84013e-6
LIQ_SUPER_P 3
atm /(m /s) 101325.35
LIQ_SUPER_P Pa /(m3 /s) 1.0


LIQ_SUPER_P bar /(m3 /day) 8.64e9
LIQ_SUPER_P bar /(m3 /s) 1.0e5
LIQ_SUPER_P psi /(stb /day) 3.74688e9
LIQ_VISCDYN Pas 1.0
LIQ_VISCDYN cp 1.e-3
LIQ_VISCDYN microPas 1.0e-6
LIQ_VISCDYN milliPas 1.0e-3
LIQ_VISCDYN poise 1e-1
LIQ_VISCKIN cSt 1e-6
LIQ_VISCKIN stoke 1e-4
LIQ_VOLUME bbl 1.589873e-1
LIQ_VOLUME cc 1.e-6
LIQ_VOLUME gal 3.785412e-3
LIQ_VOLUME galUK 4.54609e-3
LIQ_VOLUME lt 1.e-3
LIQ_VOLUME scc 1.e-6
LIQ_VOLUME stb 1.589873e-1
LIQ_WBS dm3 /Pa 1.0e-3
LIQ_WBS m3 /atm 9.8691986e-6
LIQ_WBS m3 /bar 1.0e-5
LIQ_WBS stb /psi 2.30592e-5
MAP_COORD UTM 1.0
MAP_COORD UTM_FT 0.3048
MASS UKcwt 5.080234e1
MASS UKton 1.016047e3
MASS UScwt 4.535924e1
MASS USton 9.071847e2
MASS g 0.001
MASS grain 6.479891e-5
MASS kg 1.0
MASS lb 4.535234e-1
MASS lbm 4.535234e-1
MASS oz 2.83452e-2
MASS slug 1.45939
MASS stone 6.3502932
MOBILITY mD /Pas 9.869233e-16
MOBILITY mD /cp 9.869233e-13
MOLAR_ENTHALPY Btu/ lb-mole 0.429922613
MOLAR_ENTHALPY J/ gm-mole 1.0


MOLAR_ENTHALPY kJ/ kg-mole 1.0
MOLAR_ENTHALPY kJ/ kg-mole 1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP Btu/ lb-mole/ R 0.238845896
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP J/ gm-mole/ K 1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP kJ/ kg-mole/ K 1.0
MOLAR_HEAT_CAP kJ/ kg-mole/ K 1.0
MOLAR_INDEX gm-mole /day /bar 1.15741e-13
MOLAR_INDEX gm-mole /hr /atm 2.74144405e-12
MOLAR_INDEX kg-mole /day /atm 1.14226684e-10
MOLAR_INDEX kg-mole /day /bar 1.15741e-10
MOLAR_INDEX kg-mole /sec /bar 1.0e-5
MOLAR_INDEX lb-mole /day /psi 7.613213e-10
MOLAR_INDEX lb-mole /sec /psi 6.577801e-5
MOLAR_RATE gm-mole /day 1.15741e-8
MOLAR_RATE gm-mole /hr 2.777777e-7
MOLAR_RATE kg-mole /day 1.15741e-5
MOLAR_RATE kg-mole /sec 1.0
MOLAR_RATE lb-mole /day 5.249125e-6
MOLAR_RATE lb-mole /sec 4.535234e-1
MOLAR_VOLUME cc /gm-mole 1.e-3
MOLAR_VOLUME ft3 /lb-mole 6.2427976e-2
MOLAR_VOLUME m3 /kg-mole 1.0
NULL dimensionless 1
OGR scc /scc 1.0
OGR 3
sf /sf 3 1.0
OGR sm3 /sm3 1.0
OGR stb /MMscf 5.61458e-6
OGR stb /Mscf 5.61458e-3
OGR stb /scf 5.61458
OIL_DENSITY g /cc 1.e+3
OIL_DENSITY kg /m3 1.0
OIL_GRAVITY sgo 1.0
PERMEABILITY D 9.869233e-13
PERMEABILITY mD 9.869233e-16
PERMTHICK mD cm 9.86923e-18
PERMTHICK mD ft 3.00814e-16
PERMTHICK mD m 9.86923e-16
POWER W 1.0
POWER kW 1000.0


PRESSURE_GRAD Pa /m 1.00
PRESSURE_GRAD atm /cm 1.0132535e7
PRESSURE_GRAD atm /m 101325.35
PRESSURE_GRAD bar /m 1.0e5
PRESSURE_GRAD kPa /m 1.0e3
PRESSURE_GRAD psi /ft 22620.594
PRESSURE_SQ Pa 2 1.0
PRESSURE_SQ atm2 10266826552.62
PRESSURE_SQ bar2 1.e10
PRESSURE_SQ kPa2 1e6
PRESSURE_SQ psi2 47537674.08905
PRESS_DERIV Pa /s 1.0
PRESS_DERIV bar /s 1.0e5
PRESS_DERIV kPa /s 1000.0
PRESS_DERIV psi /hr 1.9152103
PSEUDO_T MPa hr /Pas 3.6e9
PSEUDO_T atm day /Pas 8.754510240e9
PSEUDO_T atm hr /Pas 3.64771260e8
PSEUDO_T bar hr /cp 3.6e11
PSEUDO_T psi hr /cp 2.4821125e10
REL_PRESSURE psi 6894.757
ROT_SPEED rev /day 1.1574074e-5
ROT_SPEED rev /hr 2.7777777e-4
ROT_SPEED rev /min 0.01666666
ROT_SPEED rev /s 1.0
SPEC_HEAT_CAP Btu/ lb/ F 0.238845896
SPEC_HEAT_CAP Btu/ lb/ R 0.238845896
SPEC_HEAT_CAP J/ gm/ K 1.0
SPEC_HEAT_CAP kJ/ kg/ K 1.0
SURF_TENSION dyne /cm 1.0e-3
THERM_COND Btu/ hr/ F/ ft 0.5777892
THERM_COND Btu/ sec/ F/ ft 2.0800411e3
THERM_COND W/ K/ m 1.0
TIME day 86400.0
TIME hr 3600.0
TIME min 60.0
TIME mnth 2628000.0
TIME s 1.0
TIME wk 604800.0


TIME yr 31536000.0
VELOCITY ft /s 0.3048
VELOCITY knot 0.514444444
VELOCITY m /s 1.0
VISC_COMPR Pas /atm 9.8691986e-6
VISC_COMPR cp /bar 1.0e-8
VISC_COMPR cp /psi 1.450377e-7

File Formats
Appendix B
Mesh map formats B
This option allows a regular grid mesh of data values to be read from an external file,
which may have been created by the GRID program or a third party software package.
The program offers a number of different formats for reading a mesh.
The following file types may be selected:
ASCII Formatted text file of Z values
ZMAP Formatted text file from ZMAP
LCT Formatted text file from LCT
IRAP-FORMAT Formatted text file from IRAP
Note that other file formats can be set up on request provided that the format is
available.
The file description parameters that may be changed will depend on the file type
selected. In general, the following are considered:
NROW Number of mesh rows
NCOL Number of mesh columns
XMIN Minimum X value
YMIN Minimum Y value
XMAX Maximum X value
YMAX Maximum Y value
ANGLE Angle of rotation of mesh
(decimal degrees, anticlockwise, positive from X-axis)
File Formats B-1

Mesh map formats
NULL Null value used for data in the file
For ASCII formatted files, you may choose to browse through the file and inspect the
input data before deciding the format.
ASCII files
The default structure for ASCII formatted files is:
Record 1 no. of rows (NROW) no. of columns (NCOL)
Records 2 to End-of-file
NROW x NCOL items of grid data
ASCII file example:
5 4
6900.00 7000.00 7100.00 7000.00 7200.00
7000.00 7100.00 7000.00 6900.00 7000.00
7100.00 7000.00 6900.00 6800.00 6850.00
7000.00 6900.00 6800.00 6700.00 6720.00
For an ASCII file with non-default structure, you can identify the parameters to be
read from the header, the position of the first line of data, the ordering of data in the
file and the format to be used for input.
The following parameters may be read from the header:
NROW, NCOL, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
The user must indicate the line containing the data and its position in the line. Data
items should be separated by spaces and/or commas. Parameters which are not
defined in the file header may be defined by the user, or the current defaults for the
map may be used.
Data ordering:
ASCII files may have the mesh data specified in one of four orders, depending on the
mesh origin (top or bottom left), the order in which the data points were written to the
file and whether the data was written in blocks of rows or columns:
• First data value is top left corner of mesh and second data value is along the first
row.
• First data value is top left corner of mesh and second data value is along the first
column.
• First data value is bottom left corner of mesh and second data value is along the
first row.
• First data value is bottom left corner of mesh and second data value is along the
first column.
ZMAP file format

This is a special case of the ASCII formatted text file, in the standard layout produced
by ZMAP. The following information is read from the header:
NROW, NCOL, XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, NULL
B-2 File Formats

Mesh map formats
You may choose to redefine the areal position of the mesh by specifying:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE
Note Note that ZMAP formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as
ASCII and identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
LCT file format

This is a special case of the ASCII formatted text file, with the following structure:
Record 1 header record
Record 2 XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, NCOL, NROW in the format (4E14.7,2I5)
Record 3 + grid values in format (10X,5E14.7) blocked by columns.
The number of rows and columns will be taken from the file header. The user may
specify the following parameters:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
Note Note that LCT formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as
ASCII and identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
IRAP-FORMAT file format

IRAP “Formatted File” format is another special case of the ASCII file type. The file
structure is as follows:
Old format
Before IRAP Version 6.1:
Record 1 2 integers and 2 reals as follows:
Integer 1 no. of columns (NCOL)
Integer 2 no. of rows (NROW)
Real 1 row increment (XDEL)
Real 2 col. increment (YDEL)
Record 2 4 real numbers as follows:
Real 1 minimum X value (XMIN)
Real 2 maximum X value (XMAX)
Real 3 minimum Y value (YMIN)
Real 4 maximum Y value (YMAX)
Record 3+ NCOL*NROW grid values, not necessarily blocked by row:
Real 1 Row 1 Col 1
Real 2 Row 1 Col 2
File Formats B-3

Mesh map formats
Real 3 Row 1 Col 3
...
Real (NCOL*NROW)-1 Row NROW
Col NCOL-1
Real (NCOL*NROW) Row NROW
Col NCOL
New format
IRAP Version 6.1 or later:
Record 1 2 integers and 2 reals as follows:
Integer 1 IRAP version identifier
Integer 2 no. of rows (NROW)
Real 1 row increment (XDEL)
Real 2 col. increment (YDEL)
Record 2 4 real numbers as follows:
Real 1 minimum X value (XMIN)
Real 2 maximum X value (XMAX)
Real 3 minimum Y value (YMIN)
Real 4 maximum Y value (YMAX)
Record 3 1 integer and 3 reals as follows:
Integer 1 no. of columns (NCOL)
Real 1 angle of rotation
Real 2 X-origin for rotation
Real 3 Y-origin for rotation
Record 4 7 integers (IRAP internal use only)
Record 5+ NCOL*NROW grid values, not necessarily blocked by row:
Real 1 - Row 1 Col 1
...
Real (NCOL*NROW)-1 - Row NROW Col NCOL-1
Real (NCOL*NROW) - Row NROW Col NCOL
The default NULL value for this file type is 9999900.0.
If the file type IRAP-FORMAT is selected, you are prompted to indicate whether it is
OLD or NEW.
The number of rows and columns will be taken from the file header.
You may specify the following parameters:
XMIN, YMIN, XMAX, YMAX, ANGLE, NULL
B-4 File Formats

Mesh map formats
Note Note that although GRID can read a file in the NEW layout, containing
information on the angle of rotation, this option has not been fully tested. If
problems occur with use of a rotated mesh, define the mesh areal position and
angle by hand, instead of using defaults from the file header.
IRAP formatted files may also be read by selecting the file type as ASCII and
identifying the appropriate header items and file layout.
File Formats B-5

Mesh map formats
B-6 File Formats
Mesh map formats
Bibliography
David A T Donohue Gaswell Testing [Ref. 1]

and Turgay Ertekin
John Lee Well Testing [Ref. 2]
Robert C Earlougher Advances in Well Test Analysis [Ref. 3]

Jr.
Tatiana D Streltsova Well Testing in Heterogeneous Formations [Ref. 4]
H S Carslaw and Conduction of Heat in Solids (2nd edition) [Ref. 5]

J C Jaeger
Roland N Horne Modern Well Test Analysis: A Computer Aided Approach [Ref. 6]
Wilson C Chin Modern Reservoir Flow and Well Transient Analysis [Ref. 7]
Rajagopal Raghavan Well Test Analysis [Ref. 8]
M A Sabet Well Test Analysis [Ref. 9]
Stephen L Moshier Methods and Programs for Mathematical Functions [Ref. 10]
K S Pedersen, Properties of Oils and Natural Gases [Ref. 11]

Aa Fredenslund and
P Thomassen
Sadad Joshi Horizontal Well Technology [Ref. 12]
J F Stanislav and
Bibliography 1
C S Kabir Pressure Transient Analysis [Ref. 13]
Roland N Horne Modern Well Test Analysis - A Computer Aided Approach [Ref. 14]
C S Matthews and Pressure Buildup and Flow Test in Wells [Ref. 15]
D G Russell
I S Gradshteyn and Table of Integrals Series & Products (5th edition) [Ref. 16]
I M Ryzhik
Rome Spanier and An Atlas of Functions [Ref. 17]

Keith B Oldham
Milton Abramowitz Handbook of Mathematical Functions [Ref. 18]

and Irene A Stegun
William H Press, Numerical Recipes in C [Ref. 19]

William T Vetterling, CUP
Saul A Teukolsky and
Brian P Flannery
Stephen L Moshier Methods and Programs for Mathematical Functions [Ref. 20]
FJ Kuchuk Pressure behaviour of Horizontal Wells in Multi-layer Reservoirs [Ref. 21]
SPE 22731
DK Babu and Productivity of a Horizontal Well [Ref. 22]

AS Odeh SPE 18298
R de S Carvalho and Transient Pressure behaviour of Horizontal Wells in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs [Ref. 23]
AJ Rosa SPE 18302
F Daviau, G Pressure Analysis for Horizontal Wells [Ref. 24]

Mouronval and SPE 14251
G Bourdarot
AG Thompson, Efficient Algorithms for Computing the Bounded Reservoir Horizontal Well Pressure
JL Manrique and Response [Ref. 25]
TA Jelmert SPE 21827
DK Babu and Transient Flow behaviour of Horizontal Wells Pressure Drawdown and Buildup Analysis[Ref. 26]
AS Odeh
SPE 18298
AC Gringarten, The Use of Source and Greens Functions in Solving Unsteady-Flow Problems in Reservoirs [Ref. 27]
H Ramey. SPEJPage 285Oct 1973
H Cinco-Ley, Analysis of Pressure Tests through the use of Instantaneous Source Response Concepts.[Ref. 28]
F Kuchuk, J Ayoub, SPE 15476
F Samaniego,
L Ayestaran
2 Bibliography
Leif Larsen A Simple Approach to Pressure Distributions in Geometric Shapes [Ref. 29]
SPE 10088
Raj K Prasad, Pressure Transient Analysis in the Presence of Two Intersecting Boundaries [Ref. 30]
HJ Gruy AIME Page 89Jan 1975
Assoc. Pet. Trans
AF van Everdingen, The Application of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs. [Ref. 31]
W Hurst . Pet. Trans AIME Page 305Dec. 1949
RS Wikramaratna Error Analysis of the Stehfest Algorithm for Numerical Laplace Transform Inversion. [Ref. 32]
AEA
PS Hegeman A High Accuracy Laplace Invertor for Well Testing Problems [Ref. 33]
HPC-IE
Bibliography 3
4 Bibliography
Index
Closed Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39

A Completion D
Full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Analytical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 Partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 Density
With Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
With Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Compressibility Dual Porosity
B Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Boundary Conditions Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Circle Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Constant Pressure . . . . 4-37 Condensate correction F
Faults Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 Faults
Intersecting . . . . . . . . . . 4-31 Consolidated Intersecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
Parallel Sealing . . . . . . . 4-29 Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2 Parallel Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Partially Sealing . . . . . . 4-33
Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2 Partially Sealing . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
Single Sealing . . . . . . . . 4-25
Constant Pressure Circle . . . . . . . 4-37 Single Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
Infinite Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
Rectangle Constant Pressure Rectangle . . . . 4-41 Finite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39 4-11
Constant Wellbore Storage. . . . . . 4-43
Constant Pressure . . . . 4-41 Formation Volume Factor
Mixed-boundary . . . . . 4-41 Correlation
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Single Constant Pressure. . . 4-27 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Bubble point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 Fracture
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 Finite Conductivity . . . . . . . 4-11
Infinite Conductivity . . . . . . . 4-7
Correlations
Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
C Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Uniform Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Wells
Closed Circle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
Index 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 Homogeneous . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
Fully Completed Vertical Well . . . 4-1 N Radial Composite . . . . . . . . . 4-21
Two-Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Normalized Pseudo-Time Transform Rock
3-1 Compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
G
Gas
Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 O S
Condensate correction. . . . . . 1-9
Correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 Oil Sandstone
Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 Consolidated . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2
FVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 Unconsolidated. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Gravity Correction . . . . . . . . 1-24 FVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Separator Gas Gravity Correction1-24
Z-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-6, 1-8 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Single Constant-Pressure Boundary .
GOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21 4-27
Single Sealing Fault . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
P
H Parallel Sealing Faults. . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Homogeneous Reservoir. . . . . . . 4-17 Partial Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 T

With Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Horizontal Well Tuning Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
With Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Aquifer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Partially Sealing Fault. . . . . . . . . . 4-33 Two-Porosity Reservoir . . . . . . . . 4-19
Gas Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Two No-Flow Boundaries. . 4-13 Pressure
Analysis, Transient . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Constant
U
I Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
Unconsolidated Sandstone . . . . . . 1-1
Infinite Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23 Uniform Flux Vertical Fracture. . . 4-9

Properties
Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fracture Units
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
4-7 Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1
Property Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 Conversion Factors. . . . . . . . .A-8
Intersecting Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
Pseudo Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1
Pseudo-Time Transform, Normalized Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-5
3-1
L
Laplace Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 V
Levenberg-Marquardt Method, R Variable Wellbore Storage . . . . . . 4-44
Modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Radial Composite Reservoir . . . . 4-21 Viscosity
Limestone Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Consolidated. . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Levenberg-Marquardt . . . . . . 6-3
Levenberg-Marquardt, Modified
6-2
Model Trust Region. . . . . . . . . 6-3
M Newtons Method. . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 W
Nonlinear Least Squares . . . . 6-4
Mixed-Boundary Rectangles . . . 4-41 Water
Reservoir
Compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Dual Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Fractured, Composite . . . . . . . 5-5
2 Index
Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Horizontal
Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Gas Cap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Z
Wellbore Storage
Two No-Flow Boundaries . Z-factor
Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43
4-13 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-8
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-44
Vertical
Wells Fully Completed . . . . . . . 4-1
Fractured
Transient Pressure Analysis
5-4
Index 3
4 Index

PVT Properies Correlations SLB

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Weltest 200

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Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. iii

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Chapter 4 - Analytical Models

Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Appendix A - Unit Convention

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Chapter 4 - Analytical Models

Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Appendix A - Unit Convention

Appendix B - File Formats

Chapter 1 - PVT Property Correlations

Chapter 2 - SCAL Correlations

Chapter 3 - Pseudo variables

Chapter 4 - Analytical Models

Chapter 5 - Selected Laplace Solutions

Chapter 6 - Non-linear Regression

Appendix A - Unit Convention

Appendix B - File Formats

PVT property correlations 1

PVT Property Correlations 1-1

Pa is the rock reference pressure

P Ra is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P a ) ⁄ 2

Pa is the rock reference pressure

φ is the porosity of the rock

P Ri is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P i ) ⁄ 2

P Ra is ( depth × over burden gradient + 14.7 – P a ) ⁄ 2

1-2 PVT Property Correlations

p is the pressure of interest, in psi

Row and Chou

a = 5.916365 × 10 0 + T F × ( – 1.0357940 × 10 – 2 + T F × 9.270048 ) [EQ 1.11]

+ ------ × æ – 1.127522 × 10 3 + ------ × 1.006741 × 10 5ö

b = 5.204914 × 10 – 3 + T F × ( – 1.0482101 × 10 – 5 + T F × 8.328532 × 10 – 9 ) [EQ 1.12]

+ ------ × æ – 1.170293 + ------ × 1.022783 × 10 2 )ö

PVT Property Correlations 1-3

V w = a – ------------- × æ b + ------------- × cö + NaCl × 1 ×10

× ------------- × æ f + NaCl × 1 ×10 × g + 0.5 × ------------- × h )ö

TF is the fluid temperature in ºF

p is the pressure of interest, in psi

Vw is the specific volume of Water [ cm 3 ⁄ gram ]

cw is compressibility of Water [ 1 ⁄ psi ]

Formation volume factor

• For gas-free water

• For gas-saturated water

1-4 PVT Property Correlations

p is the pressure of interest, in psi

p is the pressure of interest, in psi

T F is the fluid temperature in ºF

ρw is the Density of Water [ lb ⁄ ft 3 ]

PVT Property Correlations 1-5

Tc is the critical temperature, ºK

T R∗ is the reduced temperature