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Habitat destruction is probably the single most important factor leading to the endangerment of
species. It plays a role in the decline of nearly all listed species and has had an impact on nearly
every type of habitat and ecosystem.
Many types of human activity result in habitat destruction. Agriculture is a leading cause, with
nearly half of the total land area in the United States used for farming. Besides causing the direct
replacement of natural habitat with fields, agricultural activity also results in soil erosion,
pollution from pesticides and fertilizers, and runoff into aquatic habitats. Agriculture has
compromised forest, prairie, and wetland habitats in particular. Nearly 90% of wetland losses
have resulted from drainage for agriculture. According to a study by Brian Czech, Paul R.
Krausman, and Patrick K. Devers ("Economic Associations among Causes of Species
Endangerment in the United States," Bioscience, vol. 50, no. 7, 2000), the role of agriculture in
the endangerment of species is greatest in the Southeast and California. However, agriculture
impacts threatened and endangered species throughout the country, contributing to endangerment
in thirty-five states.
Urban expansion has destroyed wild habitat areas as well, and is a primary factor in the
endangerment of many plant species. As with agriculture, urbanization leads to the direct
replacement of natural habitat. It also results in the depletion of local resources, such as water,
which are important to many species. According to Czech and his colleagues, urbanization
contributes to the endangerment of species in thirty-one states. The greatest impact is in
California, Florida, and Texas, the three states that are urbanizing most rapidly. In contrast, only
two species are endangered by urbanization in Utah, Nevada, and Idaho. The authors argue that
this is because a large proportion of land in these states is public land and therefore not available
for private development.
Logging, particularly the practice of clear-cutting forests (removal of all trees in a designated
area), destroys important habitat for numerous species. Clear-cutting or extensive logging can
also lead to significant erosion, harming both soils and aquatic habitats, which become blocked
with soil.
Numerous other forms of human activity result in habitat destruction and degradation. Grazing
by domestic livestock has a direct impact on numerous plant species, as well as animal species
that compete with livestock. Mining destroys vegetation and soil, and also degrades habitat
through pollution. Dams destroy aquatic habitats in rivers and streams. Finally, human
recreational activity, particularly the use of off-road vehicles, results in the destruction of natural
habitat. Czech, Krausman, and Devers reported that recreational activity has a particularly
detrimental effect on species in California, Hawaii, Florida, as well as species in the Mojave
Desert, which includes portions of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah.

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Human land-use patterns often result in the fragmentation of natural habitat areas that are
available to species. Studies have shown that habitat fragmentation is occurring in most habitat
types. Habitat fragmentation can have significant effects on species. Small populations can
become isolated, so that dispersal from one habitat patch to another is impossible. Smaller
populations are also more likely to become extinct. Finally, because there are more "edges" when
habitats are fragmented, there can be increased exposure to predators and increased vulnerability
to disturbances associated with human activity.


  
Global warming is a phenomenon associated with the enhanced greenhouse effect. Gases such as
carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere absorb and maintain heat in the same way that
glass traps heat in a greenhouse. This natural greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm and habitable
for life. (See Figure 1.6.)
An enhanced greenhouse effect refers to the possible increase in the temperature of Earth's
surface due to the release of excessive amounts of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil
fuels. Figure 1.7 shows that the global average of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased
dramatically since the early 1980s. A global temperature increase has also been compellingly
documented, as shown in Figure 1.8, and has already had important effects on ecosystems
worldwide.
According to ecologist Chris D. Thomas in "Extinction Risk from Climate Change," (Nature, no.
427, January 2004), a study of habitats comprising 20% of the Earth's surface suggested that
15% to 37% of the world's species may be extinct by 2050 if recent warming trends continue.
Summarizing his findings, Thomas said, "The midrange estimate is that 24% percent of plants
and animals will be committed to extinction by 2050. We're not talking about the occasional
extinc-tion²we're talking about 1.25 million species. It's a massive number."
Continued warming of the Earth would alter habitats drastically, with serious consequences for
numerous species. In places like Siberia and the northernmost regions of Canada, habitats such
as tundra²permanently frozen land supporting only low-growing plant life such as mosses and
lichens²and taiga²expanses of evergreen forests located immediately south of the tundra²are
shrinking. Deserts are expanding. Forests and grasslands are beginning to shift towards more
appropriate climate regimes. Animal and plant species that cannot shift their ranges quickly
enough, or have no habitat to shift into, are dying out. Some plants and animals that are found in
precise, narrow bands of temperature and humidity, such as monarch butterflies or edelweiss, are
likely to find their habitats wiped out entirely. Global warming is already endangering some of
the most diverse ecosystems on Earth, such as coral reefs and tropical cloud forests. The impact
on endangered species, which are already in a fragile state, may be particularly great.
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Pollution is caused by the release of industrial and chemical wastes into the land, air, and water.
It can damage habitats and kill or sicken animals and plants. Pollution comes from a wide variety
of sources, including industrial operations, mining, automobiles, and agricultural products such
as pesticides and fertilizers. Even animals that are not directly exposed to pollution can be
affected, if other species they rely on die out. According to Czech and his colleagues, pollution
currently affects aFIGURE 1.7 Global trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, 1981±
2003 Adapted from "Carbon Dioxide Measurements," in Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases
Figures, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, 2006,

   
Humans have hunted numerous animal species to extinction, and hunting continues to be a major
threat to some species. In the United States, gray wolves were nearly wiped out because they
were considered a threat to livestock. The Caribbean monk seal was viewed as a competitor for
fish, and exterminated. Other animals are hunted for the value of their hides, tusks, or horns,
including elephants and rhinoceroses. Many exotic species, such as parrots and other tropical
birds, are taken from their natural habitats for the pet trade.

  

Invasive species are those that have been introduced from their native habitat into a new,
nonnative habitat, and which cause environmental harm. Most introductions of invasive species
are accidental, resulting from "stowaways" on ships and planes. Invasive species harm native life
forms by competing with them for food and other resources, or by preying on them or
parasitizing them. As of 2005 approximately 50,000 species were believed to have been
introduced into the United States alone. While there are sometimes beneficial effects from
introducing nonnative species, most of the effects are harmful.
The introduction of invasive species can lead to genetic swamping. This is a condition that arises
when large numbers of one species breed with a much smaller population of another related
species. The genetic material of the invasive species becomes overwhelming, causing the
resulting generations to lose many of the characteristics that made the smaller population a
unique species in the first place.

Many species in peril are endangered partly or entirely because of invasive species. Similarly,
the IUCN Red List suggested in 2000 that invasive species affect hundreds of species of
threatened birds and plants. In fact, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources found that the majority of bird extinctions since 1800 have been due to
invasive species such as rats and snakes. In 2003 the IUCN reported that the unique flora and
fauna of islands such as the Galapagos Islands, Hawaii, the Seychelles, the Falkland Islands, and
the British Virgin Islands, have been devastated by invasive species. Human commensals²
species that are used by and associated with humans²can be among the most destructive
introduced species. In Hawaii, for example, grazing by feral pigs,FIGURE 1.8 Global mean
surface temperature anomalies, 1880±2005 "Figure 1a. Global-Mean Surface Temperature
Anomaly (Degrees C), in "Global Temperature Trends: 2005 Summation, GISS Surface
Temperature Analysis: 2005 Summation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Goddard Institute for Space Studies, January 12, 2006,
http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/2005/2005cal_fig1.pdf (accessed March 10, 2006)goats, cattle,
and sheep is responsible for the endanger-ment of numerous plants and birds.

The introduction of invasive species by humans has also taken a toll on mammalian wildlife.
Australia is overrun with domestic cats whose ancestors were brought by settlers to the island
continent 200 years ago. Stray domestic cats have driven indigenous species such as bandicoots,
bettongs, numbats, wallabies, and dozens of other bird and mammal species, most of which are
found nowhere else on Earth, towards extinction. Richard Evans, a member of the Australian
Parliament, claims the feral cats are responsible for the extinction of at least thirty-nine species in
Australia. He has called for total eradication of cats from the island by 2020, to be achieved by
neutering pets and spreading feline diseases in the wild. The Australian National Parks and
Wildlife Service reports that each house cat kills twenty-five native animals each year on
average, and feral domestic cats kill as many as 1,000 per year.
Recognizing the threat posed by invasive species, President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order
13112 on Invasive Species in 1999. This order requires federal agencies to make every possible
effort to control the spread of invasive species, and resulted in the formation of the Invasive
Species Council, which drafted the first National Invasive Species Management Plan in January
2001. The plan emphasizes prevention of introduction of alien species, early detection of
invasions, rapid response to them, and coordination of national and international efforts in
management and control of these species.
In "Update on the Environmental and Economic Costs Associated with Alien-Invasive Species in
the United States" (Ecological Economics, vol. 52, no. 3, February 15, 2005), researchers at
Cornell University, including David Pimentel, reported that invasive species cause
environmental damages and losses that cost the country nearly $120 billion per year. Invasive
species are blamed, in part, for imperiling approximately 42% of the species on the list of
threatened and endangered species in the United States.