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Eurocodes
Introduction
The introduction of European standards to UK Eurocode 21 was published in December 2004 and supersedes BS 81102
construction is a significant event. The ten design for the design of reinforced concrete structures. The development of the
standards, known as the Eurocodes, will affect Eurocodes started in 1975; since then they have evolved significantly and are
all design and construction activities as current now claimed to be the most technically advanced structural codes in the
British Standards for design are due to be world.
withdrawn in 2010.
The many benefits of using Eurocode 2 are summarised in the box below.
This publication is part of the series of guides There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural materials (see Figure
entitled How to design concrete structures using 1). They are produced by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN),
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Their aim and will replace existing national standards in 28 countries.
is to make the transition to Eurocode 2 as easy
as possible by drawing together in one place key Each country is required to publish a Eurocode with a national title page and
information and commentary required for the forward but the original text of the Eurocode must appear as produced by
design of typical concrete elements. CEN as the main body of the document. A National Annex (NA) can be
included at the back of the document (see Figure 2). All the guides in this
The cement and concrete industry recognised that series assume that the UK National Annexes will be used.
a substantial effort was required to ensure that
the UK design profession would be able to use This guide shows how to use Eurocode 2 with the other Eurocodes. In
Eurocode 2 quickly, effectively, efficiently and with particular it introduces Eurocode: Basis of structural design3 and Eurocode 1:
confidence. With support from government, Actions on structures4 and guides the designer through the process of
consultants and relevant industry bodies, the determining the design values of actions on a structure. It also gives a brief
Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group (CIEG) was overview of the significant differences between the Eurocodes and BS 8110.
formed in 1999 and this Group has provided the
guidance for a co-ordinated and collaborative
approach to the introduction of Eurocode 2. As
Benefits of using Eurocode 2
a result, a range of resources is to be made
Learning to use the new Eurocodes will require time and effort on
available through The Concrete Centre to help
behalf of the designer, so what benefits will there be?
designers during the transition period (see back
cover for details). 1. The new Eurocodes are claimed to be the most technically
advanced codes in the world
2. Eurocode 2 should result in more economic structures than
BS 8110
PIC HERE 3. The Eurocodes are logical and organised to avoid repetition
4. Eurocode 2 is less restrictive than BS 8110
5. Eurocode 2 is more extensive than BS 8110
6. Use of the Eurocodes will provide more opportunity for designers
to work throughout Europe
7. In Europe all public works must allow the Eurocodes to be used
for structural design
Design note – different colours were
requested for figs 1 and 4. Hence this in
Figure 1
The Eurocodes
greens, and fig 4 in blues.
Eurocode: Basis of
BS EN 1990, Eurocode:
Basis of structural design
Structural safety,
serviceability and durability
structural design
BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1 This Eurocode underpins all structural design irrespective of the
Actions on structures
Actions on structures material of construction. It establishes principles and requirements for
safety, serviceability and durability of structures. The Code uses a
BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Concrete
BS EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Steel
statistical approach to determine realistic values for actions that occur
BS EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Composite Design and detailing in combination with each other.
BS EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Timber
BS EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Masonry
BS EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Aluminium There is no equivalent British Standard for Basis of structural design and
Geotechnical
the corresponding information has traditionally been replicated in each
BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8:
Geotechnical design Seismic design and seismic of the material codes. The Code also introduces new definitions (see
design
Glossary at the end of this guide) and symbols (see Tables 2a and 2b),
which will be used throughout this publication to assist the reader in
becoming familiar with them. Partial factors for actions are given in
Figure 2 this Code, whilst partial factors for materials are prescribed in their
Typical Eurocode layout
relevant Codes.
Representative values
For each variable action there are four representative values. The
principal representative value is the characteristic value and this can be
B determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a nominal
A C
D value may be used. The other representative values are combination,
D
D frequent and quasi-permanent; these are obtained by applying to the
A: National title page D: EN text D
B: National foreward E: EN Annex(es) E characteristic value the factors Ψ0 , Ψ1 and Ψ2 respectively (see Figure 3).
F
C: EN title page F: National Annex A semi-probabilistic method is used to derive the Ψ factors, which vary
depending on the type of imposed load (see Table 3). Further information
Table 1 on derivation of the Ψ factors can be found in Appendix C of the Code.
Concrete related Eurocodes and their equivalent current standards
Eurocode Title Superseded standards The combination value (Ψ0 Qk) of an action is intended to take
BS EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1 – section 2 account of the reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, self-weight and BS 6399: Part 1 and BS 648 two or more variable actions. The frequent value ( Ψ1 Qk) is such that it
imposed loads
BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on structures – should be exceeded only for a short period of time and is used
exposed to fire primarily for the serviceability limit states (SLS) and also the accidental
BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads BS 6399: Part 2 ultimate limit state (ULS). The quasi-permanent value ( Ψ2 Qk) may be
BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions BS 6399: Part 3 exceeded for a considerable period of time; alternatively it may be
BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions – considered as an average loading over time. It is used for the long-term
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during execution –
affects at the SLS and also accidental and seismic ULS.
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions –
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88
Combinations of actions
BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced by cranes –
and machinery In Eurocodes the term ‘combination of actions’ is specifically used for
BS EN 1991–4 Silos and tanks – the definition of the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit
BS EN 1992–1–1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1 and 2 state is under the influence of different actions. It should not be
BS EN 1992–1–2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1,Table 3.2 and confused with ‘load cases’, which are concerned with the arrangement
structures BS 8110: Part 2, section 4
of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions and
BS EN 1992–2 Bridges BS 5400: Part 4
are given in the material codes. The following process can be used to
BS EN 1992–3 Liquid-retaining and BS 8007
containment structures determine the value of actions used for analysis:
BS EN 1997–1 Geotechnical design – BS 8002 and BS 8004 1. Identify the design situation (e.g. persistent, transient, accidental)
General rules
2. Identify all realistic actions
BS EN 1997–2 Geotechnical design – Ground BS 5930
investigation and testing 3. Determine the partial factors (see below) for each applicable
BS EN 1998 Design of structures for – combination of actions
earthquake resistance (6 parts) 4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.
2
Design note – from handwritten markup I am not sure whether I should be
using psi in upper case ( Ψ ) or lower case ( ψ ); currently have used upper
case throughout. All Greek symbols are set in italic as discussed.
Also, as I have no printed reference, I am not sure how big the Greek
symbols should be in relation to accompanying Roman text; or how they How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
should sit in relation to baseline. The gammas (γ) look smaller and lower, but
they are the same point size as the other symbols (ie γΨ ξ ). Apologies if
incorrect, I will know in future.
Table 2a
Where there is only one variable action (e.g. imposed load) in a Selected symbols for Eurocode
combination, the magnitude of the actions can be obtained by Symbol Definition
multiplying them by the appropriate partial factors. Gk Characteristic value of permanent action
Qk Characteristic value of single variable action
Where there is more than one variable action in a combination, it is γG Partial factor for permanent action
necessary to identify the leading action (Qk,1) and other accompanying γQ Partial factor for variable action
actions (Qk,i). The accompanying action is always subject to the Ψ0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
combination value. Ψ1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
Ψ2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action
Ultimate limit state ξ Reduction factor
The ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories:
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure Table 2b
Selected subscripts
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure
Subscript Definition
or structural member
A Accidental situation
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground
c Concrete
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members
d Design
The Code gives different combinations for each of these ultimate limit
E Effect of action
states. For the purpose of this publication only the STR ultimate limit
fi Fire
state will be considered. k Characteristic
R Resistance
For persistent and transient design situations under the STR limit w Shear reinforcement
state, the Code defines three possible combinations, which are given in y Yield strength
expressions 6.10, 6.10a and 6.10b of the Code (see Tables 4 and 5). The
designer (for UK buildings) may use either 6.10 or the less favourable of
Figure 3
6.10a and 6.10b. Representative values of variable actions
Characteristic value of QK
At first sight it appears that there is considerably more calculation
required from the designer to determine the appropriate load
Instantaneous value of Q
combination; however, with experience the designer will be able to Combination value of Ψ0 QK
determine this by inspection. Equation 6.10 is always equal to or more Frequent value of Ψ1 QK
conservative than the less favourable of equations 6.10a and 6.10b. Quasi-
permanent
Equation 6.10b will normally apply when the permanent actions are value of Ψ2 QK
not greater than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage
loads (category E, Table 3) where equation 6.10a always applies).
Time
Therefore, for a typical concrete frame building equation 6.10b will give
the most structurally economical combination of actions. Table 3
Recommended values of Ψ factors for buildings (from UK National Annex)
Action Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2
For members supporting one variable action the combination Imposed loads in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–1)
1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from Eqn 6.10b) Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Serviceability limit state Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
There are three combinations of actions that can be used to check the Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN 0.7 0.5 0.3
serviceability limit states (see Tables 6 and 7). Eurocode 2 indicates Category H: roofs* 0.7 0 0
which combination should be used for which phenomenon (e.g. Snow loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–3)
deflection is checked using the quasi-permanent combination). Care For sites located at altitude H > 1000 m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
should be taken not to confuse the SLS combinations of characteristic, For sites located at altitude H <1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
frequent and quasi-permanent, with the representative values that Wind loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–4) 0.5 0.2 0
have the same titles. Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–5) 0.6 0.5 0
*See also 1991–1–1: Clause 3.3.2 1
3
Table 4
Design values of actions, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations (Table A1 2 (B1) Eurocode)
Combination expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Eqn (6.10) γG, j, sup Gk , j , sup γG , j, inf G k , j , inf γQ,1 Qk,1 γQ,1 Ψ0 ,1 Q k,i
Eqn (6.10a) γG, j, sup Gk , j , sup γG , j, inf G k , j , inf γQ,1 Ψ0 ,1 Qk,1 γQ,1 Ψ0 ,1 Q k,i
Eqn (6.10b) ξγG, j, sup Gk , j , sup γG , j, inf G k , j , inf γQ,1 Qk,1 γQ,1 Ψ0 ,1 Q k,i
Design for either equation 6.10 or the less favourable of equations 6.10a and 6.10b.
Table 5
Design values of actions, derived for UK design, ulltimate state – persistent and transient design situations
Combination expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination of permanent and variable actions
Eqn (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Qk
1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Ψ 0,1
b
Eqn (6.10a) Qk
Eqn (6.10b) 0.925 D x 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Qk
Combination of permanent, variable and accompanying actions
Eqn (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Qk,1 1.5 c Ψ0,i b Q k,i
1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Ψ 0,1 1.5 c Ψ0,i b Q k,i
b
Eqn (6.10a) Qk
Eqn (6.10b) 0.925 D x 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 Qk,1 1.5 c Ψ0,i b Q k,i
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant, Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk c Where the accompanying load is favorable, γ Q,i = 0
b The value of Ψ0 can be obtained from Table NA A1.1 of the UK National Annex (reproduced here as Table 3) d The value of ξ in the UK National Annex is 0.925
Table 6
Design values of actions, serviceabilty limit states
Table 7
Example design combinations for deflection (quasi-permanent) derived from typical UK reinforced concrete design
4
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
Eurocode 1 Table 8
Eurocode 1, its parts and dates of publication
5
10. Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability Eurocode 7
and fire resistance. In addition to the minimum cover an
allowance for deviations due to variations in execution Eurocode 7, Geotechnical design18 is in two parts and gives guidance on
(construction) should be included. Eurocode 2 recommends geotechnical design, ground investigation and testing. It has a broad
that, for concrete cast against formwork, this is taken as 10 mm, scope and includes the geotechnical design of spread foundations, piled
unless the construction is subject to a quality assurance system foundations, retaining walls, deep basements and embankments. Like
in which case it could be reduced to 5 mm or even 0 mm where all the Eurocodes it is based on limit state design principles, which is
non-conforming members are rejected (e.g. in a precast yard). It a significant variation for most geotechnical design. Further guidance
is recommended that the nominal cover and permitted deviation related to simple foundations is given in the guide How to design
are clearly stated on the drawings. concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations19 in this series.
11. Higher strengths of concrete are covered by Eurocode 2, up to
class C90/105. However, because the characteristics of higher
strength concrete are different, some expressions in the Code are Eurocode 8
adjusted for classes above C50/60.
12. The ‘variable strut inclination’ method is used in Eurocode 2 for Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance20 is divided
the assessment of the shear capacity of a section. The assumed into six parts and gives guidance on all aspects of design for
angle of the concrete compression strut can be altered to give the earthquake resistance and covers guidance for the various structural
most economic design. Further advice can be found in the guide materials for all types of structures. It also includes guidance for
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams12 in this strengthening and repair of buildings.
series.
13. The punching shear checks are carried at 2d from the face of the
column and for a rectangular column, the perimeter is rounded at Related Standards
the corners.
14. Serviceability checks can still be carried out using ‘deemed to BS 8500/BS EN 206
satisfy’ span to effective depth rules similar to BS 8110. However, BS 8500 Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–121
if a more detailed check is required, Eurocode 2 guidance varies replaced BS 5328 in December 2003 and designers should currently
from the rules in BS 8110 Part 2. be using this to specify concrete. Further guidance can found in the
15. The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more publication How to use BS 8500 with BS 811022 available from The
complex than the simple tables in BS 8110. Eurocode 2 considers Concrete Centre.
the effects of, amongst other things, the position of bars during
concreting, the shape of the bar and cover. BS 4449/BS EN 10080
BS 4449 Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
Part 1–2 concrete23 has been revised so that it is a complementary standard to
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design13, gives guidance on design BS EN 10080 Steel for the reinforcement of concrete24 and Normative
for fire resistance of concrete structures. Although much of the Code Annex C of Eurocode 2. The most significant changes are that steel
is devoted to fire engineering methods, the design for fire resistance characteristic yield will change to 500 MPa. There are three classes of
may still be carried out by referring to tables for minimum cover and reinforcement, A, B and C, which indicate increasing ductility. Class A is
dimensions for various elements. These are given in section 5 of Part not suitable for use where redistribution of 20% and above has been
1–2. Further advice on using the tabular method is given in the How to assumed in the design.
design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started14 guide in
this series. BS EN 13670
BS 8110 Part 1 sections 6 and 7 specify the workmanship for concrete
Part 2 construction. There is no equivalent guidance in Eurocode 2, and it is
Eurocode 2, Part 2: Bridges15 applies the general rules given in Part 1–1 intended that execution (construction) will be covered in a new
to the design of concrete bridges. As a consequence both Part 1–1 and standard BS EN 13670 Execution of concrete structures25. This still in
Part 2 will be required to carry out a design of a reinforced concrete preparation and is not expected to be ready for publication until 2008
bridge. at the earliest. In the intervening period the draft background paper to
the UK National Annex of Eurocode 2, Part 1-1 recommends that
Part 3 designers use the National structural concrete specification for building
Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid-retaining and containment structures16 applies construction26, which refers to BS 8110 for workmanship.
the general rules given in Part 1–1 to the liquid-retaining structures
and supersedes BS 800717.
6
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
7
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: The structural use of concrete. BSI (3 parts).
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 199: Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
5 GULVANESSIAN, H, CALGARO, J A & HOLIC, M T. Designers’ Guide to EN 1990. Thomas Telford, 2002. 192 pp.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Loading for buildings. BSI (3 parts).
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials. BSI, 1964.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Web page: www.bsi-global.com/Eurocodes/Progress/index.xalter. BSI.
9 EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION. Web page:
http://www.cenorm.be/cenorm/businessdomains/businessdomains/construction/eurocodes20041007.pdf. CEN.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
11 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex. BSI (in press).
12 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
13 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
14 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Bridges. BSI, date
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–3, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Liquid-retaining and containment structures. BSI, date.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
18 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. Part 1. General rules. BSI (2 parts).
19 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. BSI (6 parts).
21 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1, 2002 (2 parts).
22 HARRISON, T A & BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
23 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005
24 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. prEN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, date.
25 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures – Part 1: Common. BSI, due 2008.
26 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. CS 152: National structural concrete specification for building construction, third edition. The Society, 2004.
Aknowledgements
The content of this publication was produced as part of the project ‘Eurocode 2: transition from UK to European concrete design standards’. This
project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation scheme. The lead partner was the British Cement Association. The work was
carried out under the guidance of the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group.
Ref: TCC/03/XX All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents
and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or
ISBN 1-904818-XX information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should note that Concrete Centre
publications are subject to revision from time to time and they should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Published XXX 2005
This publication has been produced following a contract placed by the Department for Trade and Industry (DTI); the views expressed are
© The Concrete Centre not necessarily those of the DTI.