Chapter 16: Terms & Questions

Points: 100

Part 1: Terms

Italian Renaissance- Italy was the first area that the Renaissance affected. It started in between the 14th
and 15th centuries and it was the rebirth of all Italian living. It challenged Medieval, political, intellectual,
economical, and religious values. Culture was also changed; this includes art and literature.
Niccolo Machinvelli- He was a politician during the Italian Renaissance who emphasized realistic
discussions of how to seize and maintain power. He used the Greeks and Romans as examples and
eventually his knowledge could be used to disprove traditional church claims.
humanism- This way of thinking evolved during the Italian Renaissance and focused on humankind as the
center of intellectual and artistic endeavor, instead of a mighty God or heavenly being. However, the
thinkers did not attack religions, but just made their teachings less dominant.
Northern Renaissance- Once the Renaissance died down in Italy in around 1450. The countries in the
North: France, England, Germany, Poland, and Hungary, all became interested in the classical styles of the
Renaissance. However, the effect was not as grand in this area.
Francis I- He was the king of France in 1515. He became a patron of the arts and even brought in Italians
to build classic artworks and palaces. He also allied with the Ottoman sultan. However it was just a name
alliance no fighting together actually occurred, but this foreshadows the end of the feudal justifications.
Johannes Gutenburg- He was a German who in the 15th century invented printing. He built on the
Chinese printing technology, but he remade it into a moveable type of printing. This made writers more
important.
European-style family- This style came into existence in the 15th century. It involved a later marriage age,
late 20’s, and a more nuclear family pattern rather than an extended family pattern.
Martin Luther- He was a German monk who in 1517 nailed a document of 95 theses to the door of the
castle church in Wittenberg. He was fed up with the papal representative because they sold indulgences
and grants of salvation when a person should only gain salvation through devout faith. He wanted priests
to marry and the bible to be available in a language other than Latin so that everyone could read it. In the
16th century he received a lot of support and soon created Protestantism.
Protestantism- This was a religion started when Martin Luther attacked Catholic beliefs in 1517. It was a
general wave of religious dissent and it urged state control of the church because the believers did not what
the papal in charge.
Anglican church- This was the church set up in England under Henry VIII around the time of the
Protestant reformation. He mostly did this because the papal wanted him to remain in his first marriage
even though it did not produce a male heir.
Jean Calvin – He was a Frenchman who established his religious bad in the Swiss city of Geneva. He
founded Calvinism, the religion that wanted everyone to take a part in the local systems; thus, opening up
government.
Catholic Reformation- This was the response to the Protestant Reformation. The traditional Catholic
beliefs were restated, and a council was established that revived the Catholic doctrine and refuted
Protestant beliefs.
Jesuits- They were a new religious order that followed the Catholic model. They became active in politics,
education, and missionary work and regained some part of Europe for the Catholic church.
Edict of Nantes- In France, there was a war between the Calvinists and the Catholics. This was signed in
1598 to end the fighting. However, the king of France, still Catholics, cut back on the Protestant rights.
Thirty Years War- This war broke out in Germany in 1618 between the Protestants and Lutheran Sweden
against the Holy Roman Empire, which was backed by Spain. This posed a huge loss for the Germans,
reducing their population by 60% in some areas and reducing power for almost a century.
Treaty of Westphalia- This treaty ended the Thirty Years War in 1648. This territorial tolerance concept
stated that some cities could have one religion while another could have a different one. It also gave Spain
its full independence from the Netherlands.
English Civil War- This war was started in the 1640s over religious issues and claims of parliament to the
rights of control over royal actions. It ended in 1660 after King Charles I was beheaded and when religious
tolerance was given to most Protestant faiths in 1688-1689.
Proletariat- These were the people who had access to wealth in the commercial revolution, 1500-1600.
These could be people from farmers to nobles. The commercial revolution was beneficial to many people,
but not every one.
“Levelers”- This was as English group who in 1648 had an uprising because they were not getting their
political rights. At one point their petition had at least 100,000 signatures. They believed that the peasants
should have a turn being nobility.
Witchcraft hysteria- During the end of the commercial revolution, the rich wanted to get rid of the
peasantry because they believed that were “ruining the cities.” During these accusations, 60,000 to 100,000
people were convicted and killed. Fearful neighbors often accused these people, but some actually believed
they had magical powers. Mostly women were convicted of witchcraft, which showed their position in
society.
Scientific revolution- It began in the 17th century. It was a period of empirical advances that were
associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations, which resulted in the changing of
traditional beliefs.
Copernicus- He was a Polish clergyman who used astronomical observations and mathematical
calculations to disprove the Hellenistic belief that Earth in the center of the universe. In 1543 he worked
out his theory that the Earth moved around the sun.
Johannes Kepler- He lived from 1571-1630 and was another key figure in the study of planetary motion.
Oddly enough, he was from a poor family, which was not common in those days. His father was gone and
his mother had been tried for witchcraft, but was not killed. He went to university only because of a
scholarship. He created the horoscopes based on the position of the stars each month.
Galileo- He was the Italian the publicized Copernicus’s work after the 1600’s. He added his own findings
about the laws of gravity and planetary motion as well.
John Harvey- He was an English physician that showed circular movement of the blood in animals, with
the heart at the center as the “central pumping station.” During the 17th century.
René Descartes- He explained that it was important to have a skeptical review of all received wisdom,
arguing that human reason could develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature.
During the 17th century.
Isaac Newton/Principia Mathematica- It was written in 1687 by Isaac Newton. He tied all of the
astronomical and physical observations and wider theories together into a neat set of natural laws. He set
forth the principles of motions and defined the forces of gravity in mathematical detail. His book helped to
explain how the planets actually moved.
Deism- This was the new image on God. People believed that he was a divinity, but he only set the laws of
motion and that humans did everything else. Some writers wrote this idea in their books in the 1680s.
John Locke- He was an Englishman who argued at around 1680 that people could learn everything thing
they needed to know through their senses and reason; faith was irrelevant.
Absolute monarchy- During the 17th century, the king of France began to drop feudalism and began this
monarchy. It was an absolute monarchy because the king had so much power; he ran the country almost
single-handed.
Parliamentary monarchy- This version of monarchy begins in England and Holland by the 17th century.
The kings were checked by the parliament that consisted of educated merchants and lawyers. This took
some of the power away from the king so that he was not a dictator.
Louis XIV- He was the king of France that created the absolute monarchy in the 17th century. He was also
a patron of the arts, which gave his government a cultural role. He was also educated, which encouraged
science.
Mercantilism- This was the theory that governments should promote the internal economy to improve tax
revenue and to limit imports from other nations, or money would be lost to the enemy states. Therefore
tariffs were set on imported goods, raising their prices in the 17th century.
Glorious Revolution- This was the English overthrow of James II in 1688, which resulted in parliament
having a basic sovereignty over the king.
Nation-State- Nation-states were sovereign states whose citizens or subjects had similar factors such as
language or common descent, which was around during the glorious revolution, 1688.
Frederick the Great- In Prussia, this ruler built a new government and almost a completely new society in
the 18th century. He built on the military and bureaucratic principles of his former kings. He increased
religious freedoms, but still built up a great economic state. His government was open to new technologies,
and laws were enacted that promoted commercial coordination and greater equality; harsh traditional
punishments were no longer practiced.
Seven Years War- France and Britain fought again from 1756-1763 in this war over a colonial empire.
Austria and Prussia also fought in this battle and Prussia gained more land.
Enlightenment- After the scientific revolution in the 18th century, this new movement centered mostly in
France, but also in other areas. These thinkers supported scientific advancement, but there were no
“Newton-like” breakthroughs. However, chemists began to understand the elements and biologist
developed a new classification system for natural species. Also, science was added to the study of human
society and social structures.
Adam Smith/Wealth of Nations- Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher who wrote the classic book:
Wealth of Nations, which set forth a number of principles of economic behavior for the 18th century. He
argued that people act in their own self-interest, but competition promoted general economy because
people are competitive.
Denis Diderot- 1713-1784. He was a multifaceted leader of the French Enlightenment. He edited the
Encyclopédie, which was a compilation of scientific and social scientific knowledge. He also wrote widely
on philosophy, mathematics, and the psychology of the deaf-mutes and he tried literature. He traveled to
many foreign courts as an advisor and intellectual. He visited Catherine the Great in 1773, but his health
warm harmed.
Mary Wollstonecraft- She was a feminist thinker from England who was against the male-centered views
of the Enlightenment thinkers in the 18th century. She argued that the new political rights and freedoms
should be extended to women as well as men.
Potato- This was the new American crop brought over to Europe in the late 17th century. However, it was
shunned for a while because it was not mentioned in the Bible and it was believed to cause the plague.
During the period Enlightenment it really began to spread because peasants wanted greater economic
security.
Capitalism- The investment of funds in hopes of larger profits. This idea spread from the big trading
ventures to the production of goods during the 18th century.

Part 2: Questions

1. Describe the impact of the Renaissance on European society. (see also Chapter 15)- The first area to
be affected by the Renaissance was Italy. In the 14th century, all aspect of their lives changed: politics,
economics, and religious values. Their artwork was also shifting from Medieval to more humanistic
values. One of the most important parts of the Italian Renaissance was the idea humanism, which was the
focus on humankind as the main power instead of a heavenly being. However, this did not destroy religion
just subdued it. Niccolo Machiavelli shared his political insight that involved how to seize and maintain
power. City-state leaders experimented with new was of governing and based their power on what they
could do to advance the city rather than on royal heritage lines. Advanced banking and open profit seeking
by merchants pushed commerce to a whole new level. Armies were advanced with more attention to
tactics and training, but diplomacy was also practiced. Italy began to decline as a Renaissance center in
about 1500. The Northern Renaissance moved north into France and some of Germany, England, Poland,
and Hungary. Unlike Italy, these northern countries did not want to give up all of the old traditions,
religious devotion and medieval art themes. Instead they incorporated the new systems, but kept most of
the religious beliefs and mixed the art styles. They had a few political innovations, but nothing like in
Italy. The monarchs in these countries were starting to abandon their feudal ways and started to make
allies. While this all sounds great the peasantry was felt little to no change in their lifestyle and were
sometimes burdened with new taxes. Women also felt new limits as men’s public bravado pushed down
women’s roles.
2. Describe the two Reformations and the effects they had on Europe. Make an evaluation as to
positive or negative and give examples.- The first reformation is the Protestant reformation. This all
started when Martin Luther wrote a list of problems with the Catholic church. Luther picked up many
followers in the mid-16th century and many of them were Germans who were fed up with the taxes and
authority of the Pope. Prince also saw it was a way to gain more power. Thus Protestantism was born.
This had a great positive effect on the peasantry as well as the nobility. The peasantry saw it as a change in
power because a monk was challenging the entire church. They felt that they could stand up to their
landlords. Also they wanted to reach salvation, but that was impossible with the Catholic Church because
it frowned upon “work of the world.” Moneymaking became ok because ordinary people had to make
money in order to survive. However, the nobility took this to mean that they to could capture land from the
Catholic Church and build up their nations. Then, kings began to make their own religions. For example:
Henry VIII created the Anglican Church simply because he wanted to marry multiple wives. There were
also positive branches; Calvinism is a good example because their group thought that all believers should
be allowed to participate in administration and education. One of the biggest problems was that this
divided the kings from their people. The kings did not want to give up their joint control over the people,
but the people wanted rights. Many wars also broke out between the Protestants and the Catholics, which
caused great strife. While this was happening, the Catholic Church was not just sitting around. They had
come up with the Catholic Reformation, which was not really a reformation, but really restated all of the
Catholic values and principles. They attacked the Protestant ideals and the superstitions that many of the
believers were conjuring up. They also formed a religious order that focused on politics, education, and
missionary work. Through this they gained back part of their lost area, but the Protestant ideals were just
too great.
3. What was the “Commercial Revolution”? Describe the new economic and commercial
“structures” that developed in Europe at this time. (Give reasons for their appearance at this time
and why.)- It began in the 16th century, the levels of trade rose. Price inflammation occurred in the West
when the Spanish brought gold and silver from Latin America. This pushed the people of the Western
Europe to sell more, but production couldn’t keep up. The price was up so many merchants also took
loans, hoping the price would drop within the next years. One of the major formations was the great
trading companies in Spain, England, the Netherlands, and France. Often the government backed these
companies by giving them regional monopolies. The Dutch East Indies Company dominated Indonesia and
other European traders dominated other areas bringing back profits back to Europe. Manufacturing also
became a major player in this economy. Most peasants still produced for themselves, but others became
paid laborers and others became specialized in such as shoe making or metalworking. Prosperity increase
for the peasants and artisans and many were said to have five times as many things as his counter part in
southeastern Europe. This soon set apart the proletariat from the rest of the peasants. These proletariats
had money available to the in the form of property. However, this caused the population to grow and food
prices to rise, and this hurt the portion of the economy that could not make any money. Many of the people
had no choice but to sell their land and become paid workers who were mistreated by their landlords. The
rich felt that the poor were causing “moral failings,” and because of this poverty and begging were highly
frowned upon. However in 1650, these peasants rose up to challenge the government and earn their
equality. But the rich were fighting back, they started the witchcraft prosecutions and many beggars were
put to death for their alleged witchcraft.
4. Describe the “Scientific Revolution that took place in Europe. What was it, major “players” and
effects on the European society in general, etc. Be sure to give specific examples.- Western Europe had
become the most vibrant center for scientific advance, and its leading thinkers stood alone for some time in
seeing science as the key to gaining and defining knowledge. The Scientific Revolution was a period of
empirical advancements with the development of wider theoretical generalizations, which changes
traditional beliefs. Copernicus was the first major player. He used astronomical observations and
mathematics to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Johannes Kepler expanded on his theories by
determining planetary motion and star patterns. He created the horoscopes that many of the rich people
paid for. Galileo was the first scientist to use microscopes and improved telescopes to solidify the idea of
planetary movements. He also discovered the law of gravity, which would later be written down and
solidified by Isaac Newton. John Harvey discovered that blood in animals’ moves in a circular system with
the heart as a pump. Renè Descartes stated that a skeptical review of everything was very important, and
that human reason could develop laws that could explain the workings of nature. Isaac Newton published
his book Principia Mathematica, which explained the forces of gravity, momentum, and human knowledge
using strong mathematics and reasoning. While all of these theories would eventually create society today,
it was not widely popular except among educated Westerners. New scientific institutions were established
with government aid, lectures were publicly held, and published manuals were all available to the people of
Western Europe. The belief of witchcraft was attacked and judges would not convict accused witches. In
1670 there was no “witchcraft” and it was becoming apparent that people believed that they could control
their environment. Insurance companies began to occur and doctors used this knowledge to their advantage
and attacked “witchdoctors.” Lost and found posters began to replace “magicians.” Soon after these magic
men were removed, people began to challenge religion, stating that god was nothing more than a divinity
that controlled the laws of motion. John Locke stated that humans could learn everything they needed
through their senses and reason. Faith was therefore irrelevant, and soon many different groups were
joining into their idea. Science had never been central to intellectual life, but after this revolution it was.

5. How did European governments, attitudes toward government in general and state structures
change during this period? Again, be specific.- The feudal monarchy finally collapsed in most countries
during the 17th century. However, in the countries that it did not collapse in had to have better
administration and tax collections. During this time, France was the West’s most important nation. The
kings began to grow distant from their nobility and even bombed their houses. The armies were trained
much more formally that previous nations. Absolute monarchy began to grow from France. King Louis
XIV stated that he was the state and that there should be no parliament. He also created mercantilism,
which increased trade within France. This structure was repeated in other empires as well, but the most
important copy occurred in Germany. They built a strong bureaucracy, powerful army, and a state-
sponsored school system. In other areas the Europeans were forcing out the Turks. Britain and the
Netherlands both created commercial and colonial powers, but shifted more towards a parliamentary
monarchy, in which the king shared power with representatives. The Glorious Revolution allowed the
parliament to make decisions without the king’s help. Others believed that power came from the people,
and the king’s rights were questioned. The shift from feudal rule to the absolute and parliamentary
monarchies was a big step for Europe because it helped to develop diversity throughout Europe. Separate
countries were now beginning to truly become separate. In some areas the government was looked at as
flawed because the kings were rulers by birth and marriage.
6. Describe changes that were occurring in European social structures, families and gender relations
during the period. How are they connected to developments described in questions 3, 4 & 5? Be
specific.- The Western society was transformed during this period and many of the people wondered if the
elites were more important socially than the regular people who were making a change. Throughout
history, the ordinary people have been very important in social history, but their role is still unknown.
Some think that they were victims of change and were pushed around by the power groups. Other still
believe that they positively helped in shaping their countries history. Many people see change as the elites
taking action while the ordinary people just watch. Leadership roles were very prominent during this
period and it was easily seen in leading merchants who actually lead economic change. However, this
powered needed wage labor, which tore those people away from property and economic control. Many
believe that science actually opened a new gap between the ways educated upper classes and masses
thought. But, ordinary people did not retaliate in the name of tradition, they actually wanted this change
and many times their influence was crucial. The family structure was also taking shape, and it was an
innovation created by the ordinary peoples. It set up new child parent relationships and new tensions were
created between young adults and the old. In most cases, the young had to wait until their fathers died to
inherit property and marry. This could have opened up the ability to seek new lands or economic methods.
Ordinary people changed their methods and in some cases it had the wider effect. Also in the infant stages,
rich parents were buying educational toys and books, and in the lower class the children were allowed to
move around freely. Love was also a substantial factor in marriages now, and parents were less likely to
force a match where no love was present. Women’s roles were very questionable and the witch trails
proved this seeing as most of those killed were women. Many women tried to become powerful like many
of the nobility because they were not content with the docile wife’s life. “Men, I say, may live without
women, but women cannot live without men.” This was a quote from Swetham’s “Arraignments of
Women.” However, women also fought for some of their rights during the Enlightenment period. The
Journal des Dames is an important example because a women took over the writing. All of these events
come with the pervious political and scientific advances. The sciences told people to be independent and
question the role of their superiors.
7. Describe the Enlightenment? How was it connected to the Scientific Revolution and what effect did
it have on European society?- The Enlightenment was the intellectual movement that occurred in France
and other nations in the 18th century. It was very closely related to the Scientific Revolution because there
were a few scientific advances and a lot of scientific applications. Government abolished the harsh,
traditional punishment because many criminologists said that they failed to deter crime. Books were
written in this period that used these studies for their basis of factuality. For example: Wealth of Nations,
Encyclopedie, and the Encyclopedia Britannica, all of which had something to be with economic behavior
and a compilation of scientific knowledge. Many scientific advances were used as factors in political,
economical, and social changes. Such as: rights for women and different family structures. These all had
monumental effects of Europe. The society became more like today’s society. Information was readily
available to everyone, as was education. Women were beginning to become a stronger part of society, and
their position in families was at a high point. Families also changed, babies were given educational toys
and books instead of being confined to the cloth. Love also became important in marriages and forced
marriages were becoming less frequent.
8. By 1750, Europe was poised to take-off into the Industrial Revolution. Why? Give specific
examples.- By 1750, Europeans had already been through the Commercial and Scientific Revolutions.
Those two revolutions shaped the way society functioned. For example social structure, government
structures, and scientific intelligence were heightened and transformed during this era. Therefore it was
only natural that they would be ready. Also, in Europe agriculture had been changing steadily since the late
17th century. Firstly, the three-field system was changed into the draining swamps, which allowed for more
crops. Next, reformers touted nitrogen-fixing crops that reduced the need to leave the land uncultivated.
Stockbreeding improved and scythes were used instead of sickles. One of the most vital bits was the potato
being widely used, which added economic security and better nutrition. Colonial trade was also a huge
factor, and capitalism was born. Capitalism is the investment of funds in hopes of a larger profit. For
example: people would invest money into a trading ship in hopes of a great profit from the ships
merchandise. Manufacturing of textile and metal product by the lower class was important because it led to
advances in technologies. For example James Kay created the flying shuttle loom in 1733. People were
beginning to work in teams or in small factories by 1720. And in 1736, “factory” owners were laying off
people when work was bad. Manufacturing was essential for Western Europe because it provided the
landless man with a sustainable job. The population continued to grow because of agricultural changes,
commercialism, and manufacturing.