Professional Documents
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Chapter 05
(version May 24, 2007)
01 Introduction
02 Physical Layer
03 Data Link Layer
04 MAC Sublayer
05 Network Layer
06 Transport Layer
07 Application Layer
08 Network Security
00 – 1 /
Network Layer
Main service: Provide facilities for getting data from
a source to a destination ⇒ routing.
Routing
Main issue: Routers that constitute the network layer
of a network, should cooperate to find the best routes
between all pairs of stations.
B B
A A C
C
D E D E
G J G J
F F
I I
H N H N
L L
K K
M O M O
(a) (b)
B 7 C B (2, A) C (∞, −)
2 3
2 3
E 2 F E (∞, −)
A D A F (∞, −) D (∞, −)
1 2
6 4 2
G H G (6, A) H (∞, −)
(a) (b)
E (4, B) E (4, B)
A F (∞, −) D (∞,−) A F (6, E) D (∞,1)
E (4, B) E (4, B)
A F (6, E) D (∞,−) A F (6,E) D (∞,−)
Flooding
Basic idea: Forward an incoming packet across ev-
ery outgoing line, except the one it came in through.
Example:
Neighbor: R 1 R2 R3
Link cost: 12 8 5
Advertised: 28 25 39
Total: 40 33 44
DVR – Example
New estimated
Router delay from J
A B C D To A I H K Line
A 0 24 20 21 8 A
B 12 36 31 28 20 A
C 25 18 19 36 28 I
F G D 40 27 8 24 20 H
E H
E 14 7 30 22 17 I
F 23 20 19 40 30 I
G 18 31 6 31 18 H
H 17 20 0 19 12 H
I J K L
I 21 0 14 22 10 I
J 9 11 7 10 0 −
K 24 22 22 0 6 K
L 29 33 9 9 15 K
JA JI JH JK
delay delay delay delay New
is is is is routing
8 10 12 6 table
for J
Vectors received from
J's four neighbors
(a) (b)
A B C D E A B C D E
• • • • Initially 1 2 3 4 Initially
1 • • • After 1 exchange 3 2 3 4 After 1 exchange
1 2 • • After 2 exchanges 3 4 3 4 After 2 exchanges
1 2 3 •After 3 exchanges 5 4 5 4 After 3 exchanges
1 2 3 4 After 4 exchanges 5 6 5 6 After 4 exchanges
7 6 7 6 After 5 exchanges
7 8 7 8 After 6 exchanges
..
.
• • • •
(a) (b)
• Find out who its neighbors are and get their net-
work addresses.
• Do a Dijkstra.
CONS: You may redirect traffic in such a way that the al-
ternative route becomes overloaded. Example:
advise everyone to take the train, causing the trains
to become overloaded, while the access path to
the highway is now underloaded (and thus form-
ing a better alternative).
Hierarchical Routing
Problem: No routing algorithm discussed so far can
scale: all of them require each router to know about
all others ⇒ too demanding with respect to memory
capacity and processing power.
3A 4A 5B 5C 3A 1C 3
5A 3B 1C 2
3B 4B 4C 5D 4A 1C 3
5E
4B 1C 4
Region 3 Region 4 Region 5
4C 1C 4
5A 1C 4
5B 1C 5
5C 1B 5
5D 1C 6
5E 1C 5
(a) (b) (c)
B C B C I
A D A D
F E F F H J N
E
I G I G
A D E K G O M O
J
H N H J
L
L N E C G D N K
O O
K K H B L H
M M
L B
2 1 2 1
1, 2 1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
2
2 2 2
1
1
1
1
(a) (b)
1 2
1 2 2
2
1
1
(c) (d)
Wireless
cell Home
agent
Foreign
agent
Foreign LAN
WAN
MAN
Range of
A's broadcast
A B A B A B A B
C C C C
D D D D
E E E E
F F F F
G G G G
H I H I H I H I
Congestion
Problem: when too many packets have to be trans-
mitted through the network, we can get into a serious
performance problem:
Perfect
Maximum carrying
capacity of subnet
Packets delivered
Desirable
Congested
Packets sent
Congestion A
A
B
B
Virtual
circuit
Congestion
(a) (b)
Quality of Service
• Overprovisioning
• Resource reservation
• Admission control
• Packet scheduling
QoS: Buffering
Basics: just try to reduce jitter as much as possible
by buffering incoming packets at the receiver before
passing them to the application:
Fraction of packets
Fraction of packets
High jitter
Low jitter
Time in buffer
Packet removed from buffer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Gap in playback
0 5 10 15 20
Time (sec)
Faucet
Host
computer
Packet
Unregulated
flow
Leaky
bucket The bucket
Water Interface holds
containing packets
a leaky bucket
Regulated
flow
Water drips out of the
hole at a constant rate
Network
(a) (b)
Host Host
computer computer
One token
is added The bucket
to the bucket holds
every ∆T tokens
Networks Networks
(a) (b)
(b)
2 MB/sec for 500 msec
B 2 7 12 16 B 16
C 3 8 O D 17
D 4 9 13 17 E 18
E 5 10 14 18 A 20
(a) (b)
Differentiated Services
Ingress Output
router line
Shaper/ 2
Packets Classifier Marker
dropper 3
4
Four
priority
classes
Class Queued packet
Headers
Bits 20 3 1 8
Label QoS S TTL
Internetworking (2/2)
SNA
Multiprotocol
router
1
M M ATM Router
X. 25
OSI
M
M 2
Host
End-to-end concatenated
virtual circuits
1
M M
M
M
2
Multiprotocol
Host
router
Tunneling
Multiprotocol
Tunnel
Ethernet in Paris router Ethernet in London
WAN
1 2
Header
IP IP IP
Network 1 Network 2
Packet
G1 G2 G3 G4
G2 G4
G1 fragments reassembles G3 fragments reassembles
a large packet the fragments again again
(a)
Packet
G1 G2 G3 G4
(b)
Fragmentation – Reassembly
Problem: When we create fragments, how do we
paste them together again:
• a fragment may be fragmented again by succes-
sive intermediate networks ⇒ when a fragment
arrives at the destination, we have to know ex-
actly where it fits into the original packet. Solu-
tion:
Number of the first elementary fragment in this packet
Packet End of
number packet bit 1 byte
27 0 1 A B C D E F G H I J
Header
(a)
27 0 0 A B C D E F G H 27 8 1 I J
Header Header
(b)
27 0 0 A B C D E 27 5 0 F G H 27 8 1 I J
Regional
C IP router
network
National
network
SNA
network
Tunnel
D Host
B
A 1 2
IP Ethernet IP Ethernet
LAN IP token ring LAN LAN
Internet Model
Application
Transport
Network
Host–to–network
Source address
Destination address
IP Options
Security Specifies how secret the datagram is
Strict source routing Gives the complete path to be followed
Loose source routing Gives a list of routers not to be missed
Record route Makes each router append its IP
address
Timestamp Makes each router append its address
and timestamp
Range of host
Class addresses
1.0.0.0 to
A 0 Network Host 127.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to
B 10 Network Host
191.255.255.255
192.0.0.0 to
C 110 Network Host 223.255.255.255
224.0.0.0 to
D 1110 Multicast address 239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 to
E 1111 Reserved for future use 255.255.255.255
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 This host
Broadcast on the
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
local network
Broadcast on a
Network 1111 ... 1111
distant network
Subnet Masking
32 Bits
CIDR – Example
Site # Addr. Range Notation
S1 2048 194.24.0.0 – .7.255 194.24.0.0/21
S2 1024 194.24.8.0 – .11.255 194.24.8.0/22
– 1024 194.24.12.0 – .15.255 194.24.12.0/22
S4 4096 194.24.16.0 – .31.255 194.24.16.0/20
√
(194.24.17.4&&255.255.248.0) 6= 194.24.0.0 √
(194.24.17.4&&255.255.252.0) 6= 194.24.8.0
(194.24.17.4&&255.255.240.0) = 194.24.16.0 OK
Company 5
router 6
PC NAT Leased ISP's
7 box/firewall line router
Server
Boundary of company premises
Newly-booted
host looking for DHCP Other DHCP
its IP address relay networks Router server
WAN 2
A B C D E F
I J
LAN 1 H
LAN 2
G
WAN 3
(a)
W1
10 12
A B C 4 D 6 8 W2 16 F
E
2 4
3 13
I 3 J
3 H
2 1 L2 2
17 12
G
L1 W3
(b)
Area
AS 3 AS 4 Area
border
router
B C
D
A Information F receives
from its neighbors about D
G
From B: "I use BCD"
F From G: "I use GCD"
H From I: "I use IFGCD"
From E: "I use EFGCD"
E
I J
(a) (b)
IPv6
Source address
(16 bytes)
Destination address
(16 bytes)
Ext. header
Description
Hop–by–hop options Information for routers (eg. RSVP)
Routing Full or partial route to follow
Fragmentation Management of datagram fragments
Authentication Verification of the sender’s identity
Encrypted payload Info on the encrypted contents
Destination options Add. info for destination (eg. Mobile IP)
ICMPv6 (1/2)
Informational messages:
• Router-related messages
• Mobility-management messages
IPv6 – Security
Illustrative example: There was a lot of discussion
on where and how to incorporate security in IPv6:
• Dual-stack techniques
• Tunneling techniques
Dual-stack Techniques
3 13 32 16
001 0x0002 IPv4 gateway addr network ID
host ID
Dual-stack gateway
Internet (IPv4)
IPv6 IPv6
Mobile IPv6