Technology Date

simple bows and javelins

Swords and axes of Bronze 2000 BC

Chariots 1700-30 BC

Forged iron 1400BC

The Phalanx 359-36 BC

Hoplite spear
heavy armour, helmet, greaves
Circular shield
Sarrissa

Ballista 400 BC

Pilum
Gladius

Maniple Legion 300 BC

Cohort legion 107 BC

Gaius Marius
Stirrup 200

Greek fire 673 AD

De Re Militari 392
Stratigicon 575
Tactica 900

Feudalism 800-1400

Crossbow 900-1460

Pike 1300-1550
landsknect

1550-1700

Longbow 1340

First Canon 1300

Bombards 1390
1420

1449

1495

1600-1700
 1500-1600

Machievelli 1520

matchlock 1475-1720
Arquebus 1503

Musket 1590

Wheelock 1520-1560

flintlock 1690-1840
less dependent on the weather
pre packaged paper cartridges
Allowed infantryman to stand closer with reduced danger and
weighed less than matchlock and fired 2 rounds pm
Combination with bayonet altered battlefield tactics lessenin
Casualty rates extremely high
 L
I
M
I
T
E
D

W
A
R
F
A
R
E
Vauban 1678
1650-
Socket bayonet 1680 1790

1756

1750-1760
SEVEN
YEARS
WAR
Gribeauval 1760
1756 -
1763

Guibert
ordre mixte.....column and line.
Guibert

Rifle 1775

French revolution 1789

Semaphore 1793
percussion cap musket 1815

Electric Telegraph 1837

Morse code

Railways 1840

Machine gun 1840

Rifled Artillery 1840

Percussion rifle 1840

Minnie ball 1851

Breech loading 1860

Maxim Machine gun 1889

Field Telephone 1890

Smokeless Powder 1890

Magazine feed
recoiling and quick fire artillery
Improved artillery fuses
cartridge case

Radio 1900

Internal combustion engine

Indirect fire 1900-1905

High explosive rounds 1909

Comments

Egyptians/Assyrians

Cavalry more flexible and less expensive

Unsuited to rough terrain
Used by Persians and Assyrians and Egyptians
Eventually defeated by well drilled Infantry (Roman)
Provided first true mobility and shock action

Phalanx requires cohesion discipline and drill

Vulnerable to flank attack. Somewhat inarticulate
Most effective on flat level terrain
These weapon systems
did not seriously
challenge the supremacy
of the armoured knight

Siege Craft
Roman Legion had the ability to defeat the phalanx
Articulated Infantry
The Byzantium Empire progressed
militarily despite the general decline in
the west. It was marked by an
elaborate defensive system and a
combined arms approach with
sophisticated structure and tactics. The
Roman
to start with. The maniple legio
born and flexible articulate Hea
Infantry was born. The maniple
proceeded by the Velites, and m
of hastati,principes,and triarii. P
professional army, chain of com
artillery weapons, siege craft, a
sophisticated all armed force of
capability. First class engineers
artillery.

shock action by cavalry
Byzantine books on military tactics
Knights and the demise of the Infantry
Decline of science
Inventions were few
The art of fortification flourished
Development of the castle
small version of the ballista
lethal in unskilled hands
advantages over the bow
2-3 round per minute
Swiss pikemen
Needed a mass disciplined formation to be effective
Needed drill and training
Relatively inarticulate and vulnerable to flank attack
Vulnerable to Artillery and other
Worked better in a combined force scenario
Pike was used in combination with the musket until socket bayonet
Outranged the Crossbow
4-5 times the rate of fire
12-15 rounds per minute
Siege Warfare replaced siege engines
Siege of Constantinople
More effective gunpowder developed
Charles Vii of France reconquered Normandy
The gun was the master of fortification
The guns were heavu and immobile.
Guns given mobility and drawn by horses
Increase in rate of fire
Increased use of battlefield artillery as guns became more mobile
combined arms approach with
sophisticated structure and tactics. The
army was arranged in flexible
formations not unlike Napoleon. War
was regarded as an intellectual The demise of the Roman Empire
challenge. War was based on scientific 400 saw the deterioration of milit
analysis and was highly professional. skills for 300
Their opponents the Arabs made use to tribal and raiding.
of less disciplined skirmish actions to
wear down their opponents. This period saw the rise of the
mounted soldier + feudalism + ca
Missile weapons fell into disfavou
The eventual overthrow of the
F mounted knight by the foot soldi
armed with pike and missiles, and
E eventually firearms. Shock action
U
These weapon systems
did not seriously
D
challenge the supremacy
of the armoured knight
A
L The Pike + Longbow + siege artiller
saw the demise of the feudal syste
I and the knight and the reintroduct
of the heavy infantryman as the
S
cornerstone of the battlefield.
M
1
0
0
Y
e
a The Introduction of the Bombar
r reduced siege
s
months to a matter of weeks. C
the VII of France made good use
w
them by taking 40 fortresses in
a
year. Canon Dominated siegecra
r
1453 to 1550 and dominated
1337-
fortifications.
1453
By 1525 siege engineering once
wrested the initiative from the c
and fortresses began to domina
warfare again. Sieges were cost
time consuming taking many m
and even years.
The use of cannon on the battle
was limited by their poor mobili
Charles the VIII was predominan
 was limited by their poor mobili
Charles the VIII was predominan
Italy because of the first examp
true filed artillery 1494

By 1600 the Spanish were
using a 50:50 ratio of
New tactics of pike protecting musketeer Musket to Pike.
Artillery opened the way By 1540 the Spanish were
Musketeers cleared the way fore the pike and cavalry theleaders with their
Lack of standardisation of artillery pieces formations of Pike and
Musket
The art of war
The Art of war up to the late 18t
century was the ability and skill
force battle using surprise or oth
means choosing the time and p
for the battle which suited the
aggressor.
antagonist to refuse battle.
from Caesar to Fredrick the gre
known as

Greater penetration than a bow but limited range

Low rate of fire, sensitive to wet weather

Harder to make, heavier than a bow

Less accurate and less reliable
Needed a supply of powder and shot and rounds not recyclable
Cheaper to make than the crossbow
Needed good discipline and drill to be effective
Heavier than an Arquebus but better range and penetration

Transformed cavalry warfare and dispensed with the ignited fuse

Could be operated with one hand
Mechanism expensive 3
Devastating against pike formations 0

Y
e
a
r
s

w
a
r

1
Increased speed and reliability (doubled the rate) 6
less dependent on the weather 1
pre packaged paper cartridges 8
Allowed infantryman to stand closer with reduced danger and increased firepower
weighed less than matchlock and fired 2 rounds pm 1
Combination with bayonet altered battlefield tactics lessening the role of cavalry 6
Casualty rates extremely high 4
8
 4
8

The art of fortification and siege craft

Marked the end of the Pike. Led to linear formations to maximise inaccurate firepower
Phase out of body armour. Encouraged offensive tactics
Led to an all purpose infantry
This type of infantryman with smoothbore rifle and bayonet lasted until 1830
Communication between artillery, cavalry and infantry was simple and easy

Fredrick the Great made use of massed artillery in the seven years war
Accurate out to 150m instead of musket 50m

Reintroduction of light infantry and skirmishing tactics

Standardisation of artillery under Gribeauval This encouraged use

of artillery beyond opening bombardment Mobility and accuracy
increased. Rate of fire increased Advent of massed artillery .
Artillery was standardised, became lighter and organised in regular
batteries, comprehensive training

Guibert provided the tactical philosophy for the French, and the
ordre mixte.....column and line.
Revolution
the armed forces. "Nation in ar
fought in Skirmishing order or c
were less important than in the
of service. Subsistance off the la
magazines. This led to superior
competance. A rudimentry gen
Slow rate of fire, required expert to fire it. Quick to foul, more expensive

Napoleon
the adoption of the corps d arm
level up from the mixed division
stations vulnerable to attack, dependent on weather. 150 miles in 5 minutes dispersed movement and a con
an enemy force many times its
up the process of battle. This w
were massed into the Reserve t
militirised under napoleon and
 were massed into the Reserve t
militirised under napoleon and
central to napoleon and the sie
pursuit.

crucial invention that enabled muzzle-loading firearms

to fire reliably in any weather, speeded up the process of fire

Enhanced mobilisation and strategic ability

Major strategic and operational impact. Mobilisation, deployment, concentration

logistics. Little difference at the tactical level.

Mechanically unreliable. Tactics for its use not fully evolved.

Moved artillery back out of range of the Infantry

Increased accuracy. Increased range up to 500m

Resulted in less dense skirmish lines, defensive works and trenches.

design was made to allow rapid muzzle loading of rifles, increased velocity
an innovation that brought about the widespread
use of the rifle as a mass battlefield weapon

Rate of fire increased to 6/7 rounds pm. Could be fired prone

These three inventions led to the empty battlefield

Reliable and transportable, water cooled, fully automatic

Allowed voice command

Increase in range and muzzle velocity. Absence of smoke

Increased rate of fire
All these increased the volume, range and effectiveness of firepower.
These changes strengthened defensive firepower making it difficult to overwhelm
The key to unlocking defensive firepower was combined arms warfare

Tactics on battlefield changed

Fire and movement
Continuous creeping barrages
Use of cover
Infantry coordinated with artillery

Major impact on command and control

The impact of radio not fully grasped in WWI
In WWII the radio speeded up tactical moves and coordination of combined warfare.

Greatly increase the explosive force of rounds

 Assyrians organised a state wholly
designed for war. They used forged iron.
They had discipline and training. They
used armour. First organised cavalry and
first horse archers. They also perfected
siege craft. They developed the first
corps of military engineers

Persians emerged as a great empire in

559BC. They had a huge army consisting
of heavy and light infantry, cavalry,
chariots, war elephants, camels. Elite
corps of 10 000 called the Immortals
introduced by Darius. Their tactics
remaine crude and they introduced few
new weapons

The Greeks eventually introduced a

highly professional force with no equal.
Phillip introduced highly trained light
infantry, Cavalry., artillery and bridging
equipment. Orders were transmitted
by smoke, trumpet and beacon signals.
There was a rudimentary staff. Great
stress was put on combined action and
cooperation between horse and foot.
This was a truly balanced force.

Roman legions looked like the phalanx
to start with. The maniple legion was
born and flexible articulate Heavy
Infantry was born. The maniple was
proceeded by the Velites, and made up
of hastati,principes,and triarii. Paid
professional army, chain of command,
artillery weapons, siege craft, a
sophisticated all armed force of mixed
capability. First class engineers and
artillery. Experts at siege warfare.
Reforms under Giaus Marius were the
following. Cange to a cohort based
legion consisting of three maniples.
Similar to napoleons corps. Legions
equipped by the state. 16 years service
instead of indefinite. Pay and
Retirement benefits. Soldiers were .
Soldiers were recruited from the
masses, previous property owning
qualification fell away. Drill and training
was all year round in a proffessional
army. Baggage train was reduced as
each man had to carry his own food
 army. Baggage train was reduced as
each man had to carry his own food
and equipment. Full citizenship offered
for good service.
The demise of the Roman Empire after
400 saw the deterioration of military
skills for 300 years. War reverted back
to tribal and raiding.

This period saw the rise of the

mounted soldier + feudalism + castles
Missile weapons fell into disfavour

The eventual overthrow of the

mounted knight by the foot soldier
armed with pike and missiles, and
eventually firearms. Shock action was
The Pike + Longbow + siege artillery
saw the demise of the feudal system
and the knight and the reintroduction
of the heavy infantryman as the
cornerstone of the battlefield.
Mongols (Nomadic Horsemen 1000AD)
Expert with the horse and the bow.
Subsist on the most meagre of rations
and live off the land. The basis of their
warfare was unadulterated terror. They
also had a very effective 5th column
and spy network. Every man was
mounted and there was no infantry
arm. The chief weapon was a reflex
bow. They were the precursor to
Napoleons corps in that they moved
divided and fought concentrated. Their
mobility and speed were unmatched
due to their self reliance and ability to
concentrate. The Mongol system was
marked by a ferocious discipline. They
believed in an aggressive attack
philosophy and would use whatever
means at their disposal to succeed.

The Introduction of the Bombard

reduced siege warfare from 4-10
months to a matter of weeks. Charles
the VII of France made good use of
them by taking 40 fortresses in one
year. Canon Dominated siegecraft from
1453 to 1550 and dominated
fortifications.
By 1525 siege engineering once again
wrested the initiative from the canon
and fortresses began to dominate
warfare again. Sieges were costly and In 1494 Charles the VIII invaded Italy at
time consuming taking many months the head of an army that was more
and even years. professional, more national, and better
The use of cannon on the battlefield equipped. It suceeded over the
was limited by their poor mobility. condottieri. This marked to transition
Charles the VIII was predominant in from Feudal to Modern War.
was limited by their poor mobility. condottieri. This marked to transition
Charles the VIII was predominant in from Feudal to Modern War.
Italy because of the first examples of
true filed artillery 1494

Guns were a considerable liability on

The Art of war up to the late 18th
century was the ability and skill to
force battle using surprise or other
means choosing the time and place
for the battle which suited the
aggressor. . It was easy for one
antagonist to refuse battle. This period
from Caesar to Fredrick the great was
known as classical warfare
campaign . They were entrusted to
civilians, they were bulky with short
range and inaccurate. They restricted
an armies advance to 10 miles per day.
From 1716 onward the situation
improved with the foundation of
regular regiments of artillery. Most
problems remained until 1770

Gustav Adolphus was the first truly modern army He was the father of modern war.
1611-1632

Improved tactical doctrine

Improved firepower
Linear tactical system
Pike reduced to 8 feet
Used the wheel lock
Used paper cartridges
He cross trained his army

Transformed the Artillery into Siege, Field and regimental pieces. He had the most
mobile artillery in Europe. He introduced three calibres 24, 12 , 3

The 3 pounders were innivative as they were small enough to accompany the formations
in support anywhere. Thus was born close fire support.

The Cavalry where encouraged to use shock tactics rather than the Caracole.

He also introduced the Brigade made up of platoons. As a result the Infantry became
more flexible and linear tactics were born opposing massed formations.
 more flexible and linear tactics were born opposing massed formations.

He introduced.... standardised uniforms, regular pay, chaplains, banned women, severe

but just discipline, preferred native troops to mercenaries, concentrated on supply and
reinforcement., national militia based on conscription.

Limited warfare involved dynatic struggles between monarchs rather than wars of a
national nature involving the whole population. The era between the religious and
national wars became limited in nature. Objectives were restricted to territorial,
commercial or colonial ambitions. There was a tendency fo more moderate attititudes.
Poor atate of the roads, limited fodder, and heavy cannon made movement
operationally very difficult. Campaign season only lasted 6 months. The officers came
from the nobility and the men from the lowest classes. Desertion and looting were rife.
Conscription lay in the future and the armies were crewed by volunteers. Field armies
were small at 40-70k. Armies relied on pre stocked magazines. Troops could not be
trusted to forage for themselves. Sieges dominated Europeon warfare. the work of
Vauban favoured the defence. The strategic focus became the disruption of
communication and supply lines rather than the destruction of the enemy forces.

Revolution led to an era of total war. Economy and society were geared to maintain
the armed forces. "Nation in arms" Armies increased in size. conscription,. Troops
fought in Skirmishing order or columns, the bayonet attack was favoured. Casualties
were less important than in the past. Mixed brigades were formed containing all arms
of service. Subsistance off the land. Reduction in wagon train and dependence on
magazines. This led to superior French mobility. promotion was based on professional
competance. A rudimentry general staff was added.

Napoleon inherited these considerable advancements from the revolution. He affected

the adoption of the corps d armee as the standard major formation. This was the next
level up from the mixed divisions of the republic. These subdivisions allowed for a
dispersed movement and a concentration in the attack. The Corps was also able to pin
an enemy force many times its size. Each corps was a miniature army and this speeded
up the process of battle. This was the french secret weapon. The Cavalry and Artillery
were massed into the Reserve to be used at the critical moment. The artillery was
militirised under napoleon and the guns to men ratio was steadily increased. Battle was
were massed into the Reserve to be used at the critical moment. The artillery was
militirised under napoleon and the guns to men ratio was steadily increased. Battle was
central to napoleon and the siege almost disappeared. He fused marching, fighting and
pursuit.

Once Napoleons adversaries had

learned his way of war and matched
French detachments with similar
detachments, the 19th centaury saw
the rapid extension of fronts. This
eventually resulted in the continuous
eventually resulted in the continuous
fronts of the WWI. The defence
became dominant. Whole Nations
were mobilised for an Industrial war.
The will of the whole nation was now
important and not just the army as it
had been in Napoleonic times.
 BATTLE

Arbela 331BC
Zela 47BC

Marathon 490
Issus 333BC
Gaugamela 331BC
Hydaspes 326BC

Cannae 216BC
Zama 202BC
Alesia 52BC
Adrianople 378AD
 STRATA OF WAR

Grand Strategy
Hastings 1066 Lays down the aims of the war and the broad form it

Strategy
Merv 1221 Determines the methods of how the aim is to be ach
Bhamo 1277 How What where when How much

Grand Tactics / Operational Art

Planning of major operations using speed and concen
Maintenance of a reserve

Tactics
Methods of fighting and manoeuvre from battalion c

Logistics
Provision, movement and supply of armed forces.

Seven classical manoeuvres of war

Penetration of the centre

Sedan 1940, Blenheim 1704, Austerlitz 1805
Crecy 1346
Potiers 1356 Hundred years war Envelopment of a single flank
Agincourt 1415 Various Western desert battles WWII
Gaugamela 331BC, Hydaspes326BC
Crecy 1346
Envelopment of both flanks
Cannae 216BC, Tannenberg 1914, Russian Front WW
Zama 202BC

Attack in oblique order

Constantinople 1453 Leuctra 371BC, Leuthen 1757, Castiglione 1796, Baut

Feigned withdrawal
Associated with the double envelopment
Cannae, Hastings 1066, Salamanca 1812. Merv 1221

Attack from a defensive position

Agincourt,Alesia 52BC, Stalingrad 1942
 Indirect approach
Ulm 1806, Sedan 1940, 2nd Bull run 1862

Arquebus played a major role at

Pavia in what was to become
Pavia 1525 the last major land
engagements for several
generations

Breitenfeld 1631

Lutzen 1632
Blenheim 1704
In this age of limited warfare the following shone.
Malplaquet 1709 Duke of Malborough (1650–1722), Fredrik the Great (1740–1786), Prince Eugene,
Marshall Villars. These Generals were able to restore a measure of mibility, and decsion
in the conduct of war. Discipline and Firepower were the factors that determines
victory on the battlefield.
Leuthen 1757
Marlborough devolved fire control down to platoon level, following the Sweeish
example of 1630. Fire and movement was born. The linear formation and square was
born and the Pike was discarded. Strict discipline was required to have effective
firepower and changes of formation. Marlborough success was being able to force
combat on an unwilling foe, by means of rapid marches under cover of darkness. He
retained his cavalry as a shock weapon to deliver the coup de grace. He attached two
light guns to every infantry battalion for close support.

Fredrik the Great was the ruler of an autocratic state. He demonstrated theuse of
interior lines to good effect. His philosophy was discipline,subsistance,offensive action,
and practicability. He made good use of drill and howitzers to attack the enemy out of
LOS.

Ulm 1805
American civil war
Franco Prussian
Prussian Austrian

Franco Prussian

Port Arthur

Crimean war 1853-6

American Civil War 1862

Franco Prussian

Boer War
Boer War
Port Arthur
 the war and the broad form it is to take

ods of how the aim is to be achieved

n How much

rations using speed and concentration of force

nd manoeuvre from battalion commander to rifleman

and supply of armed forces.

uvres of war

1704, Austerlitz 1805

rt battles WWII
daspes326BC

nberg 1914, Russian Front WWII, Falaise gap

n 1757, Castiglione 1796, Bautzen 1813, Hydaspes, 326BC

ouble envelopment
, Salamanca 1812. Merv 1221

Stalingrad 1942
, 2nd Bull run 1862
 , Prince Eugene,
asure of mibility, and decsion
actors that determines

following the Sweeish

formation and square was
red to have effective
was being able to force
der cover of darkness. He
de grace. He attached two

demonstrated theuse of
ubsistance,offensive action,
to attack the enemy out of