Question 1

Summarize the globalization debate. What are the major interest groups in the world economy? How are
they affected by different elements of globalization?

INTRODUCTION

Globalization is an idea whose time has come. From obscure origins in French and American writings in the
1960s, the concept of globalization finds expression today in all the world’s major languages (Stiglitz, 2002).
Yet, it lacks precise definition. Indeed, globalization is in danger of becoming, if it has not already become,
the cliché of our times: the big idea which encompasses everything from global financial markets to the
Internet but which delivers little substantive insight into the contemporary human condition.

Clichés, nevertheless, often capture elements of the lived experience of an epoch. In this respect,
globalization reflects a widespread perception that the world is rapidly being moulded into a shared social
space by economic and technological forces and that development in one region of the world can have
profound consequences for the life chances of individuals or communities on the other side of the globe. For
many, globalization is also associated with a sense of political fatalism and chronic insecurity in that the
sheer scale of contemporary social and economic change appears to outstrip the capacity of national
governments or citizens to control, contest or resist that change. The limits to national politics, in other
words, are forcefully suggested by globalization.

Although the popular rhetoric of globalization may capture aspects of the contemporary zeitgeist, there is a
burgeoning academic debate as to whether globalization, as an analytical construct, delivers any added
value in the search for a coherent understanding of the historical forces which, at the dawn of the new
millennium, are shaping the socio-political realities of everyday life. Despite a vast and expanding literature
there is, somewhat surprisingly, no cogent theory of globalization or even a systematic analysis of its
primary features. Moreover, few studies of globalization proffer a coherent historical narrative which
distinguishes between those events that are transitory or immediate and those developments that signal
the emergence of a new conjuncture; that is, a transformation of the nature, form and prospects of human
communities.

A SUMMARY OF THE GLOBALIZATION DEBATE

Globalization may be thought of initially as the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide
interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial
to the spiritual, that computer programmers in India now deliver services in real time to their employers in
Europe and the USA, while the cultivation of poppies in Burma can be linked to drug abuse in Berlin or
Belfast, illustrate the ways in which contemporary globalization connects communities in one region of the
world to developments in another continent. But beyond a general acknowledgement of a real or perceived
intensification of global interconnectedness there is substantial disagreement as to how globalization is best

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conceptualized, how one should think about its causal dynamics, and how one should characterize its
structural consequences, if any. A vibrant debate on these issues has developed in which it is possible to
distinguish three broad schools of thought, which we will refer to as the hyperglobalizers, the sceptics, and
the transformationalists. In essence each of these schools may be said to represent a distinctive account of
globalization – an attempt to understand and explain this social phenomenon.

For the hyperglobalizers, contemporary globalization defines a new era in which peoples everywhere are
increasingly subject to the disciplines of the global marketplace. By contrast the sceptics, such as Hirst and
Thompson, argue that globalization is essentially a myth which conceals the reality of an international
economy increasingly segmented into three major regional blocs in which national governments remain very
powerful. Finally, for the transformationalists, chief among them being Rosenau and Giddens, contemporary
patterns of globalization are conceived as historically unprecedented such that states and societies across
the globe are experiencing a process of profound change as they try to adapt to a more interconnected but
highly uncertain world (Kedia & Mukherji, 1999). Interestingly, none of these three schools map directly on
to traditional ideological positions or worldviews. Within the hyperglobalist’s camp orthodox neoliberal
accounts of globalization can be found alongside Marxist accounts, while among the skeptics conservative as
well as radical accounts share similar conceptions of, and conclusions about, the nature of contemporary
globalization. Moreover, none of the great traditions of social enquiry – liberal, conservative and Marxist –
has an agreed perspective on globalization as a socio-economic phenomenon. Among Marxists globalization
is understood in quite incompatible ways as, for instance, the extension of monopoly capitalist imperialism
or, alternatively, as a radically new form of globalized capitalism (Callinicos et al., 1994; Gill, 1995; Amin,
1997). Similarly, despite their broadly orthodox neoliberal starting points, Ohmae and Redwood produce
very different accounts of, and conclusions about, the dynamics of contemporary globalization (Kedia &
Mukherji, 1999). Among the hyperglobalizers, sceptics and transformationalists there is a rich diversity of
intellectual approaches and normative convictions. Yet, despite this diversity, each of the perspectives
reflects a general set of arguments and conclusions about globalization with respect to its

• conceptualization
• causal dynamics
• socio-economic consequences
• implications for state power and governance and
• historical trajectory.

It is useful to dwell on the pattern of argument within and between approaches since this will shed light on
the fundamental issues at stake in the globalization debate.

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THE MAJOR INTEREST GROUPS IN THE WORLD ECONOMY

An interest group simply can be said to be a group of people who work together for similar interests or
goals. These groups of people have an objective or objectives for which they agree to come together (Peng,
2009).

The world economy generally refers to the economy of all of the world's countries. It can be evaluated in
various kinds of ways. For instance, depending on the model used, the valuation that is arrived at can be
represented in a certain currency, such as US Dollars. It is inseparable from the geography and ecology of
earth, and is therefore somewhat of a misnomer, since, while definitions and representations of the "world
economy" vary widely, they must at a minimum exclude any consideration of resources or value based
outside of the Earth. For example, while attempts could be made to calculate the value of currently
unexploited mining opportunities in unclaimed territory in Antarctica, the same opportunities on Mars
would not be considered a part of the world economy, even if currently exploited in some way and could be
considered of latent value only in the same way as uncreated, such as a previously unconcealed invention,
(Wikipedia).

The major interest groups in the world economy are:

1. Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) such as Wal-Mart and Exxon,

2. Transnational Corporations (TNCs) such as DANIDA,
3. Transnational Media Organizations (TMCs) such as BBC and CNN,
4. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) such as Friends of the Earth etc

ELEMENTS OF GLOBALIZATION

Much as globalization has perspectives, dimensions and views, it has elements that deserve much attention
lest; they pose threats to the success of the concept of globalization and even to the interest groups in the
world economy. Globalization comprises of three inter-connected elements as postulated by Woods, (2000).
They are referred to as the core elements and are: The expansion of markets; Challenges to the state and
institutions; and the rise of new social and political movements. Trans-border capital, labour, management,
news, images and data flows are also some of the elements globalization.

HOW THESE GLOBALIZATION ELEMENTS AFFECT THE MAJOR INTEREST GROUPS

The expansion of markets

A first core aspect of globalization is the transformation of global economic activity. Technological change
and government deregulation have permitted the establishment of transnational networks in production,
trade and finance. Some have gone so far as to call this the new `borderless world.

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The new `production' network describes firms and multinational enterprises (MNEs) who use advanced
means of communication, and new, flexible techniques of production so as to spread their activities across
the globe.

In trade, globalization refers to the fact that the quantity and speed of goods and services traded across the
globe has increased, and so too the geographical spread of participants, the strength and depth of
institutions which facilitate trade, and the impact of trade on domestic economic arrangements.

Finally, in finance, globalization has been facilitated by new financial instruments which permit a wider
range of services to be bought and sold across the world economy. Overall financial globalization is
characterized by an increasing speed, quantity, geographical spread, and impact of international finance -
the creation of what can rightly be called a global financial system. It is that national currencies - for so long
thought of as a corner-stone of sovereignty - have become deterritorialized leaving governments to
compete in a global marketplace of currencies for control and usage of their currency.

It is important to recall that technology alone has not driven this expansion in global markets. Rather
technological advances, hand-in-hand with governments' policies have produced the effects noted above.
For example, the increased globalization of finance which occurred in the 1970s was made possible by state
decisions to grant more freedom to market operators and to abolish postwar capital controls. Equally
importantly, at this time states chose to refrain from imposing more effective capital controls.

The transformation of politics

A second element of globalization is political. At the extreme, some argue that a new `global politics' is
emerging which, like the `borderless world economy', is characterized by a global political order in which
states' political boundaries become much less important. In the old system, sovereign states interacted with
each other according to rules which they - as states - agreed upon. In the new interconnected global political
order, political power and political activity are said to extend across the boundaries of nation-states.
Without accepting the `global politics' version of political change, several changes can be noted in political
power and authority which have occurred not just as a result of technological advances in communications,
but also as governments and other actors have altered their perceptions of their interests and their
legitimate realm of authority.

In the first place, `global issues' have emerged which require states to coordinate policy-making at levels
above the nation-state. These issues include human rights, environmental degradation, and nuclear safety.
Furthermore, the same technologies and policies which make new kinds of economic activity possible also
facilitate the spread of transnational crime, weapons, drugs and illegal immigrants. All of these issues are
such that no one state can effectively regulate on its own. And likewise, economic globalization adds
another range of regulatory issues. For this reason, the globalization of politics describes a shift in the locus
of decision-making up to either the regional or the international level. At the regional level, the past decade

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has seen a flourishing of regional arrangements, in trade for example; virtually every country in the world is
now part of some regional trade arrangement. So too, at the international level, increasing
`institutionalization' has taken place, with an increase not just in the number of institutions, but also in the
depth and breadth of issues they are being required to address. These shifts in decision-making do not
necessarily imply an erosion of existing state power and authority. Rather, what has changed is the way (and
the fora) in which states use their power and authority - with states now choosing to participate in regimes
in which they make decisions in coordination or cooperation with other states.

Accompanying the increase in regional and international decision-making, is a change in the way
governments interact. Modern communications systems mean that national (or even sub-national) decision-
makers can interact horizontally with officials in other countries. Where previously international linkages
were made either at the top or through diplomatic channels, officials may now communicate directly across
borders with one another, across an ever-wider range of issues. This is likely both to strengthen and to
reflect strong regional ties - as in the European case.

It is not only governments that are interacting horizontally. A multitude of non-state actors are interacting in
a similar way, including multinational enterprises, non-governmental organizations, and sub-national groups
such as trade unions or indigenous minorities. The increasing linkages among these groups have
strengthened their international presence, making these non-state actors another aspect of globalized
politics.

Finally, it has been suggested by many, that globalization is inducing not just a shift in decision-making
upwards towards regional and international fora, but at the same time a shift downwards to sub-national
fora. In other words, globalization is inducing not just an increase in supranational decision-making, but at
the same time a decentralization of decision-making within countries. The example I have invoked
elsewhere is that of Europe where sub-national regions have gradually increased their status within the
institutions of the European Union. In the context of the EU, recognizing sub-national regions has been an
important part of democratic representation and accountability. Similarly, the World Bank and other
multilateral development banks have pursued more accountable and participatory programs in the
developing world, through a more decentralized approach, encouraging local levels of governance.

The emergence of new social and political movements

Globalization affects more than markets and states. It is altering the lives of people across the globe and
affecting their culture and values. New communications systems mean that media, music, books,
international ideas, and values can all disseminated in a global and virtually instantaneous manner. This is
producing what some describe as a `global culture'. Such a description, however, ignores the way in which
globalization is simultaneously producing very different kinds of reactions and cultures. For example, whilst
Western values and ideas (along with food chains) have spread into Russia and the Middle East, in both

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these regions of the world there has also been a strong reassertion of `counter' national or religious identity
- with strong nationalism in Russia and a dramatic rise in political Islam in the Middle East. These `reactions'
and `rebellions' against Westernization are in turn assisted by the new technologies which make
communication and networking across borders possible - such as the transnational networks built up around
political Islam.

Common to both the westernization and reactions against it are groups and movements organizing
themselves using new technology and new ways of connecting across borders. As argued in chapter seven,
one of the ramifications of this is the emergence of what could be described as a `global civil society'. More
modestly, what is new are social movements that can emerge with much less regard for territory. Territorial
location, territorial distance and territorial borders have lost their determining influence. Modern
technology means that people can connect in a space unbounded by territory in the sense that distance can
be covered in effectively no time and territorial frontiers present no particular impediment. As a result,
transnationally organized groups can identify in a new way, forming around a premise of supraterritorial
solidarity instead of within national bounds whether it be around class, gender, religious faith, or profession.

Common to all elements of globalization is the sense that activities previously undertaken within national
boundaries can be undertaken globally or regionally - to some extent ‘deterritorialized’. This is equally true
of: firms' research and development; the usage of national currencies; some global political issues; and
social movements. The central question this raises is: upon who do these changes impact? Globalization
entails both positive and negative consequences: it is both narrowing and widening the income gaps among
and within nations, intensifying and diminishing political domination, and homogenizing and pluralizing
cultural identities.

REFERENCES

1. Kedia B. & Mukherji A. (1999) Global Managers, JWB, 34: 230-251;

2. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning.

3. Stiglitz J. (2002). The commanding Heights (p. 385), New York; Norton.

4. Toyne B. & Martinez Z. (2004), The meaning of international management, MIR, 44: 195 – 215

5. Woods N. (2006), ‘The Political Economy of Globalization Macmillan’ Borrowers Cornell University
Press.

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Question 2

Who benefits and who loses from a shift in job to low-wage economies? Consider this question from the
perspective of consumers, labour, technological change, firms, nation-state. Are the net benefits likely to
be positive?

Solution

INTRODUCTION

An economy is the sum total of all ‘commercial activities.’ It includes buying, selling, distributing, giving,
taking and such other activities. It does not include activities such as reading a book. But if you were reading
the book after paying a certain fee then this will be a part of economic activity. Similarly while gazing
soulfully at a landscape is not a part of the economy, it does become one if it is part of a paid tour.

But economy deals with things on the large scale. Economy would not concern itself with one person gazing
at a landscape, but it would concern itself with the tourism industry which facilitates such gazing.

A country’s economy is a fundamental pillar of its society. Its health is indicative of the country’s prosperity
and power (Einhorn & Jessica, 2001).

LOW-WAGE ECONOMY

Minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly wage that employers may legally pay to employees or
workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labor. Although minimum wage
laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion about the benefits and
drawbacks of a minimum wage. Supporters of the minimum wage say that it increases the standard of living
of workers and reduces poverty. Opponents say that if it is high enough to be effective, it increases
unemployment, particularly among workers with very low productivity due to inexperience or handicap,
thereby harming lesser skilled workers to the benefit of better skilled workers.

WHO BENEFITS OR LOSES FROM A SHIFT IN JOBS TO LOW-WAGE ECONOMIES: CONSUMERS; LABOUR;
TECHNOLOGY CHANGE, FIRMS; AND NATION-STATES?

It is assumed in this scenario that two economic situations are being dealt with. Furthermore, it is assumed
that the scenario is referring to jobs being shifted from high wage economy to a low wage economy. When
this happens there is the likelihood that a lot will be affected either positively or economy to a low-wage
economy would mean that workers will have to adjust to a new characteristic economy with low minimum
wages, salary, low business activities, poverty etc.

According to Williamson (1985), who loses or benefits in the change of economic environment from a high-
wage situation to a low-wage situation will be self judging. Therefore, a look at how they consumers, labour,
technological change, firms and the nation are likely to fair individually under a low-wage economy is
necessary.

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Labour

One of the characteristics of low-wage economies is that salaries are low. Labour movement from a high-
wage economy means workers will have to earn wages and salaries that are not exactly commensurate with
their expense. In addition, there will be pressure on even the already existing labour in the low-wage
economy because they are surely will be outclassed in expertise and technical abilities.

Consumers

A shift in jobs form a high-wage to low-wage economy means that workers will also have to shift with all
their expertise. When this happens consumers will now be enjoying a more quality goods and services than
they used to enjoy and this will lead to improvement in living standards and even health etc. it will mean
that highly trained people will now be available in the economy (low-wage) with their professionalism that
will reap to the benefits of the consumer.

Technological Change

A shift in jobs from one economy to another that is likely to be under utilizing technology means that
technology will not be of too much use and much appreciated.

To say whether technology will benefit or not is a very dicey situation. In a low-wage economy, technology
can also be appreciated due to how willing the economy is to advance in technology. However,
technological shift from a high-wage economy to a low-wage one will impliedly mean that technology itself
will have to adjust in order to suit the new situation.

Firms

Firms and businesses are likely to be embracing of this change. Reaching the fact that workers must shift will
all their technical abilities, expertise and professionalism to an economic that lacks such characteristics,
firms will gain the services of those who can deliver quality (skilled labour) and bring to the firm
improvement due to new ideas of going about business and manufacturing. They are also likely to benefit
from technological changes and advancement. However, the question will also remain that, can firms
reward these experts commensurately?

Nation-States

Nation or states in a low-wage economy are likely to be appreciative of the influx of jobs shift from a high
wage economics. The shift in job means highly skilled professional, other than those workers already in the
economy. The improvement of the economy due to improved way of going about business activities will
benefit the state too. The nation benefits and grows as aspects in it also improve. In conclusion, the
question as to who benefits or loses depends what one considers or regards as benefits or loses.

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THE NET BENEFITS

Whether the net benefits are likely to be positive can well be elaborated the implications of the shift in jobs
from a high-wage economy to the low-wage economy, and, in the context of consumers, labour,
technological change, firms and nation states. To consider benefits, it is prudent to consider the pluses and
the minuses of this shift on the economy. Once the pluses outweigh the minuses, the net benefits are
positive and vice versa. In this regard, consumers are likely to benefit of quality goods and services but in
some cases, must be ready or willing to pay a bit more. Labour is likely to suffer stiff competition from a high
skilled personnel, technology change is likely to be positive, firms are likely to high the services of
professionals and skilled labour but, must also be willing to pay more. Unskilled labour faces stiff
competition – creating unemployment. Whatever happens to the root apart from the state is likely to affect
the state; therefore, one can somehow safely say that the net benefits are likely to be positive.

REFERENCES

1. Acs, G. and Austin N. (2007), Low-Income Workers and Their Employers, Characteristics and
Challenges. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

2. Einhorn, Jessica. “The World Bank’s Mission Creep,” Foreign Affairs, September/October 2001. To
order the full article, visit www.foreignaffairs.org.

3. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning.

4. Williamson O. (1985) The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (p. 1-2), New York: Free Press.

Question 3

Identify and evaluate the sources of conflict between pressures on companies to operate globally and the
desire of governments to regulate companies and activities within their borders.

Solution

INTRODUCTION

Traditionally global business according to Peng (2009) is a business (firm) that engages in international
(cross-border) economic activities and or the action of doing business abroad.

Doing business abroad does not run smoothly as business men would like it. It always take place with strict
or full regard to international laws of the various countries that engage in business be it country to country
business or an organization in one country with another in another country. Apart from the numerous

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problems and barriers a companies face when trying to go global or international, government regulatory
policies regarding international trade are also sources of worry for the companies (Peng, 2009). However, in
the face of all these there is likely to be conflicts.

A conflict can simple be said to be a misunderstanding between two groups of people or persons with
opposing interest. Government regulation on the other hand in this context, is policies formulated or
existing that regulate how not to go about business as far as information trade is concerned.

Problem of international trade

Trade barriers are a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts
international trade. The barriers can take many forms, including the following terms that include many
restrictions in international trade within multiple countries that import and export any items of trade:
tariffs, import licenses, import quotas, subsidies, non-tariff barriers to trade, voluntary export requirements,
local content requirements etc.

Embargo

Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition of some sort of cost on trade that raises the
price of the traded products. If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a
trade war results.

Economists generally agree that trade barriers are detrimental and decrease overall economic efficiency,
this can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage. In theory, free trade involves the removal of
all such barriers, except perhaps those considered necessary for health or national security. In practice,
however, even those countries promoting free trade heavily subsidize certain industries, such as agriculture
and steel.

Other trade barriers include differences in culture, customs, traditions, laws, language and currency.

Free trade refers to the elimination of barriers to international trade. The most common barriers to trade
are tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers.

A tariff is a tax on imports, which is collected by the federal government and which raises the price of the
good to the consumer. Also known as duties or import duties, tariffs usually aim first to limit imports and
second to raise revenue.

A quota is a limit on the amount of a certain type of good that may be imported into the country. A quota
can be either voluntary or legally enforced.

The effect of tariffs and quotas is the same: to limit imports and protect domestic producers from foreign
competition. A tariff raises the price of the foreign good beyond the market equilibrium price, which

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decreases the demand for and, eventually, the supply of the foreign good. A quota limits the supply to a
certain quantity, which raises the price beyond the market equilibrium level and thus decreases demand.

Tariffs come in different forms, mostly depending on the motivation, or rather the stated motivation. (The
actual motivation is always to limit imports.) For instance, a tariff may be levied in order to bring the price of
the imported good up to the level of the domestically produced good. This so-called scientific tariff which to
an economist is anything but has the stated goal of equalizing the price and, therefore, “leveling the playing
field”, between foreign and domestic producers. In this game, the consumer loses.

A peril-point tariff is levied in order to save a domestic industry that has deteriorated to the point where its
very existence is in peril. An economist would argue that the industry should be allowed to expire. That way,
factors of production used by that inefficient industry could move into a new one where they would be
better employed.

A retaliatory tariff is one that is levied in response to a tariff levied by a trading partner. In the eyes of an
economist, retaliatory tariffs make no sense because they just start tariff wars in which no one-least of all
the consumer-wins.

Nontariff barriers include quotas, regulations regarding product content or quality, and other conditions
that hinder imports. One of the most commonly used nontariff barriers are product standards, which may
aim to serve as “barriers to trade.” For instance, when the United States prohibits the importation of
unpasteurized cheese from France, is it protecting the health of the American consumer or protecting the
revenue of the American cheese producer?

Why go international

According to Baggs & Brander (2006) companies do not go international just for the sake of it but, for
various reasons. Among some of these reasons are:

 Growth

Many companies look to international markets for growth. Introducing new products internationally can
expand a company's customer base, sales and revenue. For example, after Coca-Cola dominated the U.S.
market, it expanded their business globally starting in 1926 to increase sales and profits.

 Employees

Companies go international to find alternative sources of labor. Some companies look to international
countries for lower-cost manufacturing, technology assistance and other services in order to maintain a
competitive advantage.

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  Resources

Some companies go international to locate resources that are difficult to obtain in their home markets, or
that can be obtained at a better price internationally.

 Ideas

Companies go international to broaden their work force and obtain new ideas. A work force comprised of
different backgrounds and cultural differences can bring fresh ideas and concepts to help a company grow.
For example, IBM actively recruits individuals from diverse backgrounds because it believes it's a
competitive advantage that drives innovation and benefits customers.

 Diversification

Some companies go international to diversify. Selling products and services in multiple countries reduces the
company's exposure to possible economic and political instability in a single country.

SOME INFLUENCES OF GOVERNMENT THAT MILITATES AGAINST CROSS-BORDER BUSINESS (Czinkota et al,
2009)

Influence of Domestic Policy

Domestic policy can be subdivided into two groups of actions that affect trade and investment. The first
affects trade and investment indirectly the second directly.

The domestic policy actions of most governments aim to increase the standard of living of the country
citizens, to improve the quality of life, to stimulate national development, and to achieve full employer.
Clearly all of these goals are closely intertwined. For example, an improved standard of living is likely to
contribute to national development. Similarly, quality of life and standard of living are interlinked. Also, a
high level of employment plays a major role in determining standard of living. Yet all of these policy goals
also indirectly affect international trade and investment. For example, if foreign industries becomes more
competitive and rapidly increase their exports, employment in importing countries may suffer, likewise, if a
country accumulates large quantities of debt, which at some time must be repaid, present and future
standards of living may be threatened.

Policy affects trade and investment in more direct ways too. A country may pursue policy of increased
development that mandate either technology transfer from abroad or the exclusion of foreign industries to
the benefit of domestic firms. Also, governments officials may believe that import threaten the culture,
health, or standard of living of the country citizens and thus the quality of life. As a result, nations develop
regulations aimed at protecting their citizens.

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Influence of Foreign Policy

Nations also institute foreign policy measures that, while designed with domestic condemns in mind, are
explicitly aimed at exercising influence abroad. One major goal of foreign policy is national security. For
example, nations may develop alliances, coalitions, and agreements to protect their boards or their spheres
of interest.

Similarly, nations may take measures to enhance their national security preparedness in case of
international conflict. They may even take action to restrict or encourage trade and investment flows in
order to preserve or enhance the capability of industries that are important to national security.

Another goal of foreign policy may be improve trade and investment opportunities. To develop new markets
abroad an increase their sphere of influence, for instance, nation may give foreign aid to other countries.
Such aid may be long-term, such as the generous Marshall plan funds awards by the United States for the
reconstruction of Europe, or may serve as emergency measures. The United States is the world largest
single-country donor of foreign aid, providing $23.5 billion in 2006. In recent years, debt forgiveness has
played a major role in helping developing countries make advanced repayment of external public debt. For
the heavily indebted poor countries, the debt levels of 2006 are estimated to have come down to half the
level of five years ago.

Conflicting Policies

Each country develops its own domestic and foreign policies, and therefore policy aims vary from nation to
nation. Inevitably, conflicts arise. For example, full employment policies in one country may directly affect
employment policies in another. Similarly, the development aims of one country may reduce the
development sap ability of another. Even when health issues are concerned, disputes arise. One nation may
argue that is regulations are in place to protect its citizens, while other nations interpret domestic
regulations as market barriers. As described in the case that opens this chapter, U.S. Tariffs on Chinese steel
import aim to protect American steel producers by limiting a multi-billion dollar industry in china.

Ongoing disagreement between the U.S. Europe and china over the safety of Chinese produced toys is
another example. While the U.S. claims that levels of lead found in toys make them too dangerous for
children to play with china counters that the U.S. uses overly stringent safety standards to restrict imports.

Conflicts among national policies have always existed but have come into prominence only in recent
decades. The reason lies in the changes that have taken place in the world trade and investment climate.
These changes are discussed next.

Conflicts between global business activities or international trade have always existed but have come into
pronounce only in recent decades. The reason lies in the changes that have taken place in the world or
global trade and investment climate, and the desire of government to protect its citizen in every aspects of

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life, which is its responsibility, but it is worth noting that the degree of government role in global trade can
or nay be decided by the system of economic (pure market, Pure command and mixed economics) of that
country.

REFERENCES

1. Baggs J. & Brander J. (2006). Trade liberalization, profitability, and financial leverage, JIBS, 37: 196-
211.
2. Vernonn R. (1996) International Investments and international trade in product life cycle, QJE, May:
190-207.

3. Czinkota et al (2009), Fundamentals of International Business, 2nd edition, Wessex Inc. Bronxville, NY

Question 4

Account for the existence of counter trade in the world economy and explore the view that its influence
will continue as a solution to the problem developing countries face when attempting to export to western
markets?

Solution

INTRODUCTION

Counter Trade means exchanging goods or services which are paid for, in whole or part, with other goods or
services, rather than with money. A monetary valuation can however be used in counter trade for
accounting purposes. In dealings between sovereign states, the term bilateral trade is used. It also refers to
the reciprocal and compensatory trade agreements involving the purchase of goods or services by the seller
from the buyer of his product, or arrangements whereby the seller assists the buyer in reducing the amount
of net cost of the purchase through some form of compensatory financing.

Countertrade is the practice in international trading of paying for goods in a form other than by hard
currency (Oxford, 2002). It can also be described as an alternative means of structuring an international sale
when conventional means of payment are difficult, costly, or nonexistent (Hill, 2006).

In most cases counter trading takes place where a company in a country that has little foreign currency
wants to purchase goods from a company in another country. As the company cannot obtain the
appropriate currency to purchase the goods it wants, it offers goods in return for the goods it needs (Leader
et al, 1990).

Countertrade transactions are on the increase. According to West (2002), countertrade makes up an
estimated 20 percent of all world trade. Hence, a significant amount of international transactions now

14
involve some form of countertrade agreement. This is especially so in the communist countries and also
emerging markets where the availability of acceptable hard currency is poor (Reynolds, 2006).

Studies highlight the role that countertrade may play in helping foreign firms develop relationships with
developing countries. Developing business relationship in such countries may be hindered by their lack of
cash or poorly convertible currency. Foreign firms, however, may be keen to enter rapidly to gain first mover
advantages (Bridgewater et al, 2002).

According to Cateora et al, (2006), countertrade is a pricing tool that every international marketer must be
ready to employ, and the willingness to accept a countertrade will often give the company a competitive
advantage. If a company is unwilling to enter a countertrade agreement, it may lose an exporting
opportunity to a competitor that is willing to make a countertrade agreement.

Given the problems that many emerging markets have short of hard currency to pay for their purchases and
they want to pay with other items instead of cash, countertrade may be the only option available when
doing business in emerging markets. However, the drawbacks of countertrade agreements are substantial.

The main disadvantage in a countertrade transaction is that firms often find themselves handling products
with which they are not familiar. In addition to this, countertrade can be expensive and time-consuming
because of requirement of an in-house trading department to dispose of products profitability.

Countertrade is most attractive to large, diverse multinational enterprises that can use their worldwide
network of contacts to dispose of goods acquired in countertrading (Hill, 2006). Unlike large enterprises,
small and medium sized exporters should probably try to avoid countertrade deals unless they have no
other options because they lack the worldwide network of operations that may be required to profitability
utilize or dispose of goods acquired through them (Lecraw, 1989).

With its roots in the simple trading of goods and services for other goods and services, countertrade can be
categorized as four distinct transactions: barter, compensation deals, counter-purchase, and buy-back.
Barter is probably the oldest and best known example of countertrading, however others have also evolved
to meet the requirements of a more sophisticated world economy. Types of countertrade are as follows:

There are four main types of Counter Trade, and they are discussed below.

1. Barter

Barter is the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction (Cateora et al, 2006). This
type of countertrade occurs without a cash transaction. Although barter is the simplest arrangement in
international commerce, it is not common because the parties needs for the goods of the other seldom
coincide and because valuation of the goods may be problematic.

15
 2. Counter-purchase

Counter-purchase is also known as offset trade. In this situation, seller receives payment in cash but also
signs a second contract to purchase a certain amount of goods from the buyer also in cash. This might
be for exactly the same amount as the first deal therefore completely offsetting the cash handed over
for the first transaction, or it might only be for a proportion of the value of the first transaction
(Reynolds, 2006). This type of countertrade is quite common.

3. Buy-back

This type of agreement is made when the sale involves goods or services that produce other goods and
services, that is, production plant, production equipment, or technology. The buy-back agreement
usually involves one of two situations: The seller agrees to accept as partial payment a certain portion of
the output, or the seller receives full price initially but agrees to buy back a certain portion of output
(Cateora et al, 2006).

4. Offsets

This is the form of countertrade that is taking centre stage today. Suppliers of capital equipment such as
aircraft and telecommunications equipment, and more especially defence materiel, are obliged to offer
offsets in the form of licensing, co-production, joint ventures, technology transfer, training, research and
development and so forth, as part of the sales package.

Importance of Countertrading - Countertrade currently makes up approximately 20% of international trade.

Thus, exporters who neglect countertrading may be depriving themselves of entry into new markets and
expanding their exports to existing markets.

Hennart (1990) differentiated countertrade into two main contracts, each with a different purpose. The first
type, barter contracts, are undertaken to avoid using money or to having to set a money-price; while the
second type, consisting of offset, buybacks and counter-purchase, uses hard currency and involves
reciprocal commitments.

Export Problems

While the concept of countertrade may be simple, its implementation is not. Many problems identified in
the literature listed below often result in firms (regardless of size), reluctance to engage in countertrade. In
general, problems in countertrade may fall into any one of these categories: attitudinal, managerial,
marketing, and economic-political:

 Lack of countertrade knowledge and in-house expertise;

 An increase in costs, risks, and uncertainties;

16
  Complex and time-consuming negotiations often involving many and varied partners (i.e. either
between private firms and/or government agencies or state-owned enterprises, or between two or
more private firms);
 Legal concerns as two or more contracts have to be drawn;
 Added brokerage costs and facilities requirements;
 Difficulties in reselling products offered by customers;
 Customers can evolve as potential competitors;
 Pricing and the determination of product/ service value; and
 Lack of control over the quality of the merchandise traded.

More uncertainties and risks thus, exist in countertrade deals than in normal cash or credit trade
transactions. The risks, terms, and conditions of countertrade transactions vary on a case to case basis, for
example, between a firm that has a proactive countertrade strategy and another with a reactive
countertrade strategy.

The countertrade arrangement will also depend on the specific characteristics of the transaction being
negotiated i.e. financial arrangements involved, value, and length of time of the deal, and the type of
countertrade involved. By being aware of the problems and pitfalls of countertrade, small and medium-size
firms can be more judicious in their decision to countertrade, and in planning and developing their
countertrade strategy and policy.

Motivations: The motives to countertrade are the driving forces that influence firms to use countertrade to
meet their corporate goals and needs. A firm's countertrade behaviour and strategy however, maybe
influenced by the broader macro- country countertrade policy e.g. Australia's mandated offset countertrade
policy or Indonesia's national countertrade policy, leaving firms no alternative but to use countertrade if
they want to trade with the governments of such countries.

To measure countertrade success, small firms should understand the qualitative (or non-quantifiable)
motives that go into the decision to countertrade. Measuring countertrade success is difficult for two
reasons (Okoroafo 1994). First, some types (e.g. buyback and offset) involve a long time frame (more than a
year) hence, a typical determination of yearly performance cannot be made. Second, the long negotiations
and costs involved in switching products, transportation and storage of products, and the possibility of
unsold goods can cause enormous strain on company resources.

Consequently, those involved in the decision to countertrade should begin with “self-examination” of their
motivations to countertrade as these are the major determinants of "success or performance" rather than
the traditional business success measures such as sales, return-on-investment (ROI), or market share.

Firms' motivations to countertrade are grouped into four motives: strategic, marketing, economic-financial
and behavioural / managerial. By classifying micromotives into four groups, the author has expanded an

17
earlier study (Llanes 1994) using ten "stylised" or proven benefits drawn from perceptions of export firms
towards countertrade across five countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Korea and the United
Kingdom.

Strategic motive: drive a firm to integrate countertrade in the overall company strategy as a tool to increase
its long-term well-being, gain competitive advantage and maximise its opportunities in the international
trade arena. Examples of strategic motives are “to increase sales volume, improve competitiveness, and
growth/ profit goals". Often acceding to countertrade is the only option in obtaining a sale as in the former
CPEs, mostly Eastern European countries, and in most developing countries. In these countries,
countertrade is often treated as a "second-best" or last resort international trading mechanism.

In some cases, particularly in buy-back or compensation deals, firms are motivated to obtain long-term,
reliable and inexpensive supply of raw materials. This assures firms a fuller use of their productive capacity.
While technology transfer is often seen as a specific national goal as opposed to a firm's specific goal, some
Western firms find their ability to control the flow of technology and expertise critical in cushioning
government's intervention through mandated countertrade in inter-firm trade. Like forward contracts,
countertrade shifts the risks arising from fluctuations in exports by reducing uncertainties in export financing
and sales, and increasing certainty in the volume and time path of exports.

There are three distinct marketing motives to countertrade:

 Market expansion (e.g. to gain access to "close or difficult markets;" small/ stagnant domestic
market);
 Marketing advantages (e.g. to sell a unique product; to extend sale of declining or obsolete product,
conceal a price cut; to dispose surplus) and
 Relationship building (e.g. to foster long-term term relationship; to secure government contracts).

Economic-financial motive to countertrade grew out of adverse economic environments to provide

solutions to problems (e.g. indebtedness; currency shortage; blocked funds; trade restrictions) that often
characterize trade with "close" and less developing countries’ markets. In the 1950s, Eastern European
economies used countertrade to redress their lack of foreign "hard" currency needed to import Western
goods crucial for their economic development.

Economic-financial motives affect both the firms’ short-term and long-term operations (e.g. impact of non-
payment on production schedules and employment); and overall outcomes, the bottom line. Simpson
(1995) asserts that the dominating motivations for countertrade deals are economic in nature and other
motivations such as export market expansion are related back to liquidity conservation and value
maximization.

18
Behavioural/managerial motives play a role in influencing the extent (or promotion) of countertrade
activities of the firm. A positive attitude toward countertrade is important when considering to
countertrade, is often dependent on the decision-makers’ perceptions and expectations of the advantages/
disadvantages of countertrade, and commitment (personal and company resources). This attitude will
usually determine the firm’s countertrade strategy i.e. a proactive or a reactive strategy.

The distinction whether the firm is proactive or reactive is important because it identifies the nature of the
countertrade decision process, i.e. whether countertrade is entered into because it is mandated, “required”
for a sale to be made, or whether it is initiated on a voluntary basis. Being proactive or reactive also
indicates the extent the firm's commitment to use its resources to carry through the countertrade
arrangement.

In the absence of countertrade literature on the individual characteristics of countertraders, the author
borrowed from export literature to hypothesise that a distinct relationship exists between countertraders'
characteristics and their countertrade behaviour, i.e. likelihood to countertrade depends on the ability and
willingness of firms to countertrade. The rise of countertrade services and specialists, the spread of
countertrade information and involvement of more institutions to support countertrade such as banks,
lawyers, government agencies (as change agents) have driven many firms particularly SMEs to consider
countertrade as an international trading tool.

Small and medium firms thus, could employ countertrade as an innovative strategy to strengthen their
competitive advantage in the global business arena. As discussed, there are strong and compelling reasons
for firms to take up opportunities in countertrade deals.

REFERENCES

Bridgewater, S, and Egan, C. (2002), "International Marketing Relationships", Palgrave, p.231

Cateora, P.R., and Ghauri, P.N. (2006), "International Marketing", European Edition, McGraw-Hill,
p.250-273

Hill, C.W.L (2006), "International Business", 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, p.546-549

Leader, W.G., and Kyritsis, N. (1990), "Fundamentals of Marketing", 1st Edition, Hutchinson
Education, p.130

Lecraw D.J. (1989), "The Management of Countertrade: Factors Influencing Success", Journal of
International Business Studies, Spring, p.41-59

Reynolds, P. (2006), "Lecture Notes"

West, D. (2002), "Countertrade", Business Credit, April, p.48-51

19
Question 5

Analyze the likely impact on domestic markets of import restrictions via tariffs and quotas respectively.
Discuss the dynamic side effects that can arise from import protection

Solution

INTRODUCTION

For companies to survive and remain in business in the current global market they must engage in
international trade or go global. Going global usually comes with restrictions and problem partially from the
government of the country in the business. Among these are imports restrictions through tariffs and quotas.

Import Restrictions

Globally, most countries maintain at least a surface level of conformity with international principles.
However, many exert substantial restraints on free trade through import controls and barriers. Some of the
more frequently encountered barriers particularly common in countries that face deficit problems are
exercise duties, country quotas, advance import deposits, customs surcharges, licensing fears, global quotas
among many others. (Czinkota, 2009)

What are Tariffs?

Tariffs are taxes imposed by government, based primarily on the value of goods and services imported.

What are Quotas?

Quotas are restrictions on the number of foreign products that can be imported into a country. This is
primarily done to boost domestic production.

Impact of Tariffs and Quotas on the Domestic Market

The impact relatively minimal, one major impact of import restriction via tariffs and quotas on the domestic
market is either shortage of supply to consumers caused by quotas or large of patronage due to high prices
caused by high tariffs. The impact is usually in the region of costs and lack of the restricted goods and
services.

Conclusively, be conceded that, regardless of the various important reasons for restricting importation via
tariffs and quotas, the negative impact on the domestic market surpasses the positive.

IMPORT PROTECTION

Import protection is basically the imposition of tariffs that are intended to artificially in flute prices of
imports and protect domestic industries from foreign competition.

20
The Dynamic side effects that Arises from Import Protection

Import protection intended to protect local industries from foreign competition can have positive or
negative effects. Among some of those effects are discussed below:

Organization and policy makers are faced with several problems when imports are controlled. First, most of
the time such controls in the form of tariffs and quotas exact a huge price from domestic consumers. Import
restriction via tariffs and quotas mean that the most efficient sources of supply are not available. The result
is either second hand products or high cost of restricted supplies which in turn cause customer service
standards to drop and consumers pay significantly higher prices. Even though these costs may be widely
distributed among many consumers and are not very obvious, the social cost of these restrictions may be
quite damaging to the economy.

Secondly, tariffs and quotas as means of import controls can result in downstream change in the
composition of import. For example, if the importation of aluminum is restricted, via either quota or tariff,
the producing countries may opt to shift their production systems and produce copper wire instead, which
they can export. As a result, initially narrowly defined protectionist measure may snowball into to protect
our downstream in dusty or market after another. Downstream effects can hurt domestic industries and the
market environment.

Finally, another effect of import restriction via tariffs and quota is the issue of efficiency. Import controls
designed to provide breathing room to domestic industry so it can either grow or recapture its competitive
position often do not work. Rather than improve the productivity of an in dusty, such controls may provide it
a level of safety and a cushion of increased income, which cause it to lag even further behind the
technological advancement thereby making the benefits to the domestic market zero.

Moreover, corporations can circumvent import restrictions by shifting to foreign direct investment (FDI). The
result may be a drop in trade inflow, yet the domestic market or the industry may still be under strong
pressure from foreign firms.

REFERENCES

Czinkota et al (2009), Fundamentals of International Business, 2nd edition, Wessex Inc. Bronxville, NY.

Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning.

21
Question 6

In the light of the strategic significance of price discrimination between cross-border markets to firms,
evaluate the merits of anti-dumping measures

Solution

INTRODUCTION

Cross –border trade or marketing is involved with a lot of aspects. Starting from the point a business
conceives of or realizing the need to expand beyond local borders, one most important of the aspects apart
from; entry strategy and trade barriers is the issue of price of pricing. Price according to Peng (2009) “refers
to the expenditures that customers are willing to pay for a product.”

Pricing Strategies

The pricing strategy of your small business can ultimately determine your fate. Small business owners can
ensure profitability and longevity by paying close attention to their pricing strategy.

The pricing strategy has been the lowest price provider in the market. This approach comes from taking a
quick view of competitors and assuming you can win business by having the lowest price.

Having the lowest price is not a strong position for small business. Larger competitors with deep pockets and
the ability to have lower operating costs will destroy any small business trying to compete on price alone.

There are many ways to price a product. Below are some of the best policy/strategy in various situations.

Premium Pricing

Use a high price where there is uniqueness about the product or service. This approach is used where a
substantial competitive advantage exists. Such high prices are charge for luxuries such as Canards Cruises,
Savoy Hotel rooms, and Concorde flights.

Penetration Pricing

The price charged for products and services is set artificially low in order to gain market share. Once this is
achieved, the price is increased. This approach was used by France Telecom and Sky TV.

Economy Pricing

This is a no frills low price. The cost of marketing and manufacture are kept at a minimum. Supermarkets
often have economy brands for soups, spaghetti, etc.

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Price Skimming

Charge a high price because you have a substantial competitive advantage. However, the advantage is not
sustainable. The high price tends to attract new competitors into the market, and the price inevitably falls
due to increased supply. Manufacturers of digital watches used a skimming approach in the 1970s. Once
other manufacturers were tempted into the market and the watches were produced at a lower unit cost,
other marketing strategies and pricing approaches are implemented.

Premium pricing, penetration pricing, economy pricing, and price skimming are the four main pricing
policies/strategies. They form the bases for the exercise. However, it is worth noting that there are other
important approaches to pricing.

One of the most striking stylized facts of the international economy is the magnitude of cross-border price
differentials. First, even in regions with the longest track record of free trade, the empirical evidence shows
that the law of one price fails to hold for most types of goods and services. Although this law fails to hold
also within national boundaries, the deviations from it are much more dramatic at the international level –
leading some researcher to talk about a specific ‘border effect’ (i.e. the effect of switching currency across
jurisdictions) on prices of tradables. Second, prices seem to respond only mildly, if at all, to changes in the
nominal exchange rate. Exchange rate pass-through, quite low for consumer prices, is far from complete
also for international prices. To the extent that incomplete pass-through is due to destination-specific
markup adjustment by firms with market power, this is evidence of market segmentation. As firms ‘price-to-
market’ (henceforth PTM) buyers across national markets face systematically different prices for otherwise
identical goods, (Dedola, 2002).

Price Discrimination

Most businesses charge different prices to different groups of consumers for what is more or less the same
good or service! This is price discrimination and it has become widespread in nearly every market. This note
looks at variations of price discrimination and evaluates who gains and who loses?

Price discrimination especially between cross-border markets occurs when a firm charges a different price to
different groups of consumers for an identical good or service.

It is important to stress that charging different prices for similar goods is not pure price discrimination.

We must be careful to distinguish between price discrimination and product differentiation –

differentiation of the product gives the supplier greater control over price and the potential to charge
consumers a premium price because of actual or perceived differences in the quality / performance of a
good or service.

23
Conditions necessary for price discrimination to work

Essentially there are two main conditions required for discriminatory pricing:

1. Differences in price elasticity of demand between markets: There must be a different price
elasticity of demand from each group of consumers. The firm is then able to charge a higher price to
the group with a more price inelastic demand and a relatively lower price to the group with a more
elastic demand. By adopting such a strategy, the firm can increase its total revenue and profits (i.e.
achieve a higher level of producer surplus). To profit maximize, the firm will seek to set marginal
revenue = to marginal cost in each separate (segmented) market.

2. Barriers to prevent consumers switching from one supplier to another: The firm must be able to
prevent “market seepage” or “consumer switching” – defined as a process whereby consumers who
have purchased a good or service at a lower price are able to re-sell it to those consumers who
would have normally paid the expensive price. This can be done in a number of ways, – and is
probably easier to achieve with the provision of a unique service such as a haircut rather than with
the exchange of tangible goods. Seepage might be prevented by selling a product to consumers at
unique and different points in time – for example with the use of time specific airline tickets that
cannot be resold under any circumstances.

ANTI-DUMPING MEASURES

Anti-dumping measures can be referred to as actions that are taken by countries in the form of import
duties and tariffs and even quotas to curtail or even eliminate the effects of cheap imports from abroad into
the domestic market on the local industries.

Anti-Dumping Actions and Merits Implications

If a company exports a product at a price lower than the price normally charges on its own home market, it
is said to be “dumping” the product. Is this unfair competition? Opinions differ, but many governments take
action against dumping in order to defend their domestic industries. The WTO agreement does not pass
judgments. Its focus is on how governments can or cannot react to dumping — it disciplines anti-dumping
actions, and it is often called the “Anti-Dumping Agreement”.

The legal definitions are more precise, but broadly speaking the WTO agreement allows governments to act
against dumping where there is genuine (“material”) injury to the competing domestic industry. In order to
do that the government has to be able to show that dumping is taking place, calculate the extent of
dumping (how much lower the export price is compared to the exporter’s home market price), and show
that the dumping is causing injury or threatening to do so.

24
GATT allows countries to take action against dumping. The Anti-Dumping Agreement clarifies and expands
Article 6, and the two operate together (Czinkota et al, 2009). They allow countries to act in a way that
would normally break the GATT principles of binding a tariff and not discriminating between trading
partners — typically anti-dumping action means charging extra import duty on the particular product from
the particular exporting country in order to bring its price closer to the normal value or to remove the injury
to domestic industry in the importing country.

There are many different ways of calculating whether a particular product is being dumped heavily or only
lightly. The agreement narrows down the range of possible options. It provides three methods to calculate a
product’s “normal value”. The main one is based on the price in the exporter’s domestic market. When this
cannot be used, two alternatives are available — the price charged by the exporter in another country, or a
calculation based on the combination of the exporter’s production costs, other expenses and normal profit
margins. And the agreement also specifies how a fair comparison can be made between the export price
and what would be a normal price.

Anti-dumping measures can only be applied if the dumping is hurting the industry in the importing country.
Therefore, a detailed investigation has to be conducted according to specified rules first. The investigation
must evaluate all relevant economic factors that have a bearing on the state of the industry in question. If
the investigation shows dumping is taking place and domestic industry is being hurt, the exporting company
can undertake to raise its price to an agreed level in order to avoid anti-dumping import duty.

Detailed procedures are set out on how anti-dumping cases are to be initiated, how the investigations are to
be conducted, and the conditions for ensuring that all interested parties are given an opportunity to present
evidence. Anti-dumping measures must expire five years after the date of imposition, unless an investigation
shows that ending the measure would lead to injury.

Anti-dumping investigations are to end immediately in cases where the authorities determine that the
margin of dumping is insignificantly small (defined as less than 2% of the export price of the product). Other
conditions are also set. For example, the investigations also have to end if the volume of dumped imports is
negligible (i.e. if the volume from one country is less than 3% of total imports of that product — although
investigations can proceed if several countries, each supplying less than 3% of the imports, together account
for 7% or more of total imports).

The agreement says member countries must inform the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices about all
preliminary and final anti-dumping actions, promptly and in detail. They must also report on all
investigations twice a year. When differences arise, members are encouraged to consult each other. They
can also use the WTO’s dispute settlement procedure.

From the discussion above anti-dumping measures and actions, have a few merits or benefits to the local
market and the industry or the country:

25
 1. The imposition of import duties on the supposed dumped goods can accumulate revenue for the
country.

2. The market can set any price locally in order to achieve a lot of company and industry objectives
such as growth, Return on Investment (ROI), Profits etc.

3. Stiff competition for local industries is also narrowed and made healthy due to the curtailment of
cheap imports.

CONCLUSION

It’s worth concluding that dumping is a serious problem for most countries nowadays such that most
industries and companies have collapsed due to unchecked importation cheap goods. This has awakened
most governments today to urgently find means to alleviate the problem for this reason, anti- dumping
measures or actions. Some of these measures however are very strict unpalatable to the exporting
countries, are still beneficial to the importing countries thanks to price discrimination, across borders.

REFERENCES

1. Charles W.L. Hill and Thomas Mckaig (2006), Global Business Today, China translation & Printing
Services Ltd, China

2. Czinkota et al (2009), Fundamentals of International Business, 2nd edition, Wessex Inc. Bronxville, NY

3. Dollar, David, and Aart Kraay. “Spreading the Wealth,” Foreign Affairs, January/ February 2002. To
order the full article, visit www.foreignaffairs.org.
4. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning

Question 7

Outline the static and dynamic effects of a customs union and explain why regional integration blocs
composed of small economies are unlikely to be economically beneficial.

Solution

INTRODUCTION

As businesses have become increasingly dependent on export and overseas trade, it has become ideal and
imperative for countries to form partnerships or integrations based on economics rather than the free trade
Area, Customs Unions, the common Market and the Economic Union are available for countries that may
like to engage one or the other.

26
Economic integration involves agreement among countries to establish links they say may be weak or
strong, depending on the level of integration (free trade area, customs Union, common market and or full
economic union).

The discussion will focus on customs Union. Customs Union according to Czinkota et al. (2000) is
“collaboration among trading countries in which members dismantle barriers to trade in goods and service s
and also establish a common trade policy with respect to nonmembers.”

It is said to be one step further along the spectrum of economic integration and just like members of free
trade. Actually, these policies take the form of a common external tariff; imports from non members are
subject to the same tariff when sold to any member country. The revenues are then shared among members
according to a pre-specified formula. For example the southern African customs Unions is the oldest and
most successful of economic integration in Africa.

Effects of customs union

The formations of customs union by countries can both negative and positive effects on member countries.
In addition the effect can also be static or dynamic. Below are listed some of these effects:

Static effects of customs union

Trade Creation:

When trade between custom union partners increases, this implies a shift in the Union to more efficient,
competitive producers

Trade Diversion:

When imports from the less expensive world market are replaced by imports from a higher cost/less
efficient partner country within the customs union

Trade expansion:

When lower market prices in one partner country stimulates total domestic demand which is satisfied by
increased foreign trade with another partner country

Effects on Trade (dynamic)

To discover whether this new situation of a customs union has led to trade creation, trade diversion, trade
expansion or a combination of the three, it is necessary to define them. Trade creation will occur when
there is a shift from a higher cost to a lower cost producer, i.e. in country H demand will shift from the
expensive protected domestic product to the cheaper product from the partner country, implying a shift
from a less efficient to a more efficient producer (Peng, 2009). Trade diversion will occur when imports from

27
the efficient or cheap world producer are replaced with imports from a less efficient and higher cost partner
country. That country's product can be sold more cheaply in the home country than the world's products
because the customs union imposes a protective tariff on the imports from the world, while leaving the
imports of the partner country tariff free. Finally, trade expansion will occur if the lower market price in
country H stimulates total domestic demand which will be satisfied by foreign trade. In our diagram the
increase in total consumption can be seen by the area.

Determinants of gains from Customs Unions

Various factors exist which influence the occurrence of negative and positive effects of a customs union. I
will mention five of the most important, the first being the production structure. Two countries can be
complementary or competitive. If either country is a potential competitor of the other, specialization in the
products which either country can make best and cheapest is probable, and the advantages of a customs
union are likely to be relatively important. The opposite is true if the production structures are
complementary. The second factor is the size of the union. The more and the larger the countries
participating in the customs union, the larger are its share in the total world trade and the smaller the risk of
trade diversion. The third factor has to do with the level of the tariffs. If the initial tariffs of the trade
partners are higher, the inefficiencies will probably be worse and the welfare effects of the abolition of the
tariffs will be greater. Also the introduction of high tariffs against the world producers will reduce the
positive effects. The fourth factor is transportation and transaction costs. For increased trade we will need
efficient transport systems, the lack of which will replace tariffs as an obstacle for further specialization.
Clerical procedures at the frontier and linguistic differences in Europe also tend to make transaction costs
higher. Finally, the advantages of forming a customs union are greater if member countries can respond
more flexibly to new prospects.

A large Customs Union in the World Economy and Terms of Trade

Assuming the customs union is large there are two considerable implications for the total welfare of the
customs union. The larger the customs union, the larger the possibility that the most efficient producers of
various goods will be inside the customs union hence, the smaller the potential for trade diverting effects.
Secondly, when the large customs union fixes its common external tariff rate then the possibility of it
affecting its external terms of trade is increased and thus it can obtain an additional welfare gain.

So far I have assumed that the terms of trade relative to world producers will not be affected by the creation
of a customs union but for a large customs union like the EU this assumption is not appropriate. For a large
customs union a general tariff imposed on imports can lead to gains in the terms of trade which exceed the
negative welfare effects resulting from a decrease in imports to the benefit of the domestic production. This
is the rationale for the optimal tariff rates. I will illustrate this in a diagram.

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Long Term Restructuring Effects

Restructuring or dynamic effects occur with the creation of a customs union because firms, workers and
governments react to new situations and adapt the structure of production and the economy. Firms faced
with increased competition will try to lower their costs to stay in the market and increased technical
efficiency due to increased competition can have a welfare effect, exceeding many times the limited static
effect. An establishment which can produce larger quantities cheaper than smaller ones and is constrained
in its outlets by a market of limited size, would profit from the extension of the market, for example, by a
customs union. The justification for the creation of a customs union on the point of economies of scale
depends on the net effect for the entire customs union and their division between the partners.

Advantages of a customs union internal to the company depend on the size of the company, its growth rate
and its learning curve. The larger the company the more efficient is its production and the stronger is its
negotiating position. They are also more able to build up stable market positions in export countries. The
growth rate of companies tends to have a positive effect on efficiency. Fast-growing firms have the most up
to date machinery etc. but they tend to be less flexible in their response to entirely new markets. The
learning curve indicates that companies learn to produce more efficiently by the production of greater
numbers. Expansion permits producers to offer products of higher quality that are better adapted to specific
consumer needs and demand will increase. Also, when a customs union puts a company in a better position,
the positive influence is not confined to that company but extends to all related suppliers and buyers. That
effect will be greater the better the various parts of the economy are equipped to respond to the impulse.

As barriers such as tariffs, quotas etc. are eliminated; domestic producers have to reduce their price to the
level of the partner country. Excess profits will disappear and inefficiencies like overstaffing will have to be
reduced. Consumers gain from these price reductions as they obtain more goods at lower prices and
producers offset the loss by price reductions.

High Stakes for Europe: The 1992 Challenge

In the integrated Community market post-1992 a dramatically new environment awaits consumers and
producers alike. The removal of a whole range of non-tariff barriers, i.e. government protection in
procurement markets and a plethora of differing product standards leads to an immediate downward
impact on costs. More substantial gains will be generated by completion of the EU internal market. There
will be a new and pervasive competitive climate and firms can exploit new opportunities and make better
use of available resources.

There are four major consequences which are expected from the combined impact of the removal of
barriers and the subsequent boost to competition:

 A significant reduction in costs through the reorganization of business and economies of scale

29
  Improved efficiency within companies due to the downward pressure on costs due to more
competitive markets

 New patterns of competition since real comparative advantages will play a determining role in
market success

 Increased innovation because new business products will be generated by the dynamics of the
internal market

These effects will be spread over differing time spans but the overall effect will be an increase in the
competitiveness of business and the general economic welfare of the consumer.

The consumer will no longer be confronted with enormous price differences depending on their country of
residence, as is the case in today's Community. Due to the reduction in costs, the level of this price will be
on the downward journey. The consumer will also be faced with a wider choice as a result of market
integration and increased competition leading to differentiating products as well as economies of scale.

1992 has led to the end of firms relying on the national soft option. Those who are able to scale up their
performance to the demands of increased competition will have an outlook for sales and profits which is
dynamic but for others profits will be clearly squeezed by Europe's competitive renewal.

Strengthening European competitively leads to the reconquering of the European market, but failure to do
so will not mean that the challenges of the European market will not be mastered. They will, but not by the
Europeans.

EU, GATT and Customs Unions

The basis of the EU according to Article IX of the Treaty of Rome is a customs union. Articles XII to XXIX give
a detailed description of phasing out the internal tariff rates and establishing common external tariffs. In July
1968 a customs union for industrial goods had been realized. The idea of the customs union was to establish
a totally free internal commodity market in the EU. This goal has still not been fully realized due to the use
of non-tariff trade barriers such as technical trade barriers, government subsidies, etc. which became
increasingly important in the 1970s.

Customs unions are discriminating trade arrangements and hence violate the rules of GATT. Under GATT's
`principle of most favoured nation' member countries have to give each other the same favourable
treatment that they give to any other country. Customs unions between a limited number of countries is a
clear violation of the principle, but Article XXIV of the GATT treaty gives the right to form regional customs
unions if certain conditions are satisfied because the overall aim of GATT is to promote international trade.
When GATT was created in 1947, it was the widespread belief that customs unions were a step closer to free

30
trade and it was not until later that it became clear that customs unions could in fact be a form of
protectionism.

The creation of a customs union has some positive and some negative welfare effects. It can only be well
founded in economic terms if the former exceeds the latter. The welfare effects of the customs union as a
whole are uncertain. Only if it is possible for a customs union to affect the external terms of trade through
the optimal tariff is it possible for the union to achieve a gain in net welfare.

In relation to the short term effects which affect consumers, producers and governments, customs unions
tend to have more positive effects as production structures are more competitive, initial tariffs are higher
and also, as customs unions are larger transaction costs are lower. Competition and economies of scale are
long term effects and are better reasons for creating customs unions.

Regional integration Blocs

Regional integration blocs are types of intergovernmental agreements, often past of a regional
intergovernmental organization, where regional barriers to trade (especially tariff and non-tariff barriers)
are reduced or eliminated among the participating states, (Wikipedia, 2010).

Some of the trade blocs include:

European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) and Asia Pacific Economic co-operation
(APEC), all of industrial and developing economics.

Central American Common Market (CACM), Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and Caribbean
community and common market (CARICOM), all of Latin American and the Caribbean. Economic community
of West African states (ECOWAS)

Southern African Development Community (SACU), all of sub-Saharan Africa. Association of Southern Asian
Nations (ASEAN) and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), all of Middle East and Asia, (WTO data)

Reasons integration Blocs composed of small economies Lack Economic Benefits:

Regional blocs are formed by countries purposely is for their benefits either economically or politically.
However, apart from the benefits attached to the formation of trade blocs’ countries with small economies
that come into agreement form a bloc are unlikely to benefit economically in the long-run. Consider the
scenario below:

Burkina Faso—Côte d’Ivoire

Regional integration between two small low-income countries may offer some real opportunities for
benefits from increased cooperation on economic projects—such as water management, or development of
infrastructure, particularly between coastal and landlocked countries. As far as bargaining power goes, the

31
main potential benefit is that of “being noticed,” providing that the member countries are willing and able
to take a concerted position on world issues. “Lock-in” effects are unlikely to be strong; they require both
that the partner is it committed to reform, and that it has political capital to invest in securing reform in the
partner country.

Turning to economics, some sectors may benefit from scale and competition effects. Rationalization and
removal of inefficient duplication plants is a possible outcome, bringing with it efficiency gains. Market
enlargement may also bring an FDI inflow. As usual, these potential gains can easily be frustrated, and it is
also possible that even the combined market is too small for scale and competition effects to operate.

Against these gains are the costs. If external tariffs remain high then trade diversion is imminent. Related to
this, inward-FDI may be “tariff jumping,” in which case it is not necessarily beneficial. Both these effects will
be associated with loss of tariff revenue, likely to be a major source of government revenue.

It is also in relatively closed South-South RIAs that we think that the scope for uneven internal development
is greatest, with production concentrating in a few locations. If one region has a head start in
manufacturing— due perhaps to its location, endowment of factors of production, or simply due to
history—then this region may well expand at the expense of other regions (“Cote d’Ivoire” in table 4.1).
Linkages are likely to be strong, because of the paucity of the business infrastructure, and manufacturing as
a whole is sufficiently small that it will not run up against the “centrifugal” forces outlined in chapter 3. In
this case then, the effects of the RIA will be very different across the members; beneficial for some, but
possibly adverse for others.

The above scenario mans that irrespective of the benefits there are to regional integration blocs involving
countries with small economics, they are likely to suffer economically, especially when these countries are
likely to discriminate against economically vibrant countries that may be of great interims of trade and
economic building.

These development countries in agreement, may not be able to compete globally especially economically,
because they close their doors to developed economics that they tend to benefit interims of capital, qualify,
mutual partnership etc from.

It is therefore, advisable for countries with small economies form blocs or enters into partnership with
developed countries whose benefits are immense.

REFERENCES

1. Anderson E. & Coughlan A .T. International Market entry and entry and expansion via independent
or integrated channels of distribution (1987), American marketing Association, USA

32
 2. Richard P. (2001), Antitrust Law, Second Edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London
3. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning.

Question 8

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the joint venture over licensing as a foreign market entry
mode. Describe scenarios when licensing might be the preferable one of the two entry modes.

Solution

INTRODUCTION

When a firm is going to explore a foreign market, the choice of the best mode of entry will arise in the firm’s
expansion strategy. There are six essentially different entry modes, generally named as exporting, turnkey
projects, licensing, franchising, joint venture with a host country firm, and setting up a wholly-owned
subsidiary in the host country (Hill, 2007). All of them have their advantages for the firm to explore as well
as disadvantages which must be considered by the firm’s top management. In other words, the managers
should make the choice carefully because it directly affects whether the firm will succeed or not in its
foreign expansion. Regarding the choice of entry for a service company, licensing, franchising, joint-venture
with a host country firm or setting up a wholly-owned subsidiary are more suitable for these types of firms.
What’s more, the entry mode theory below is from Hill who wrote the book about foreign market entry
entitled International Business—competing in the Global Marketplace. (Hill, 2007)

Joint Venture

According to Hill (2007), a joint venture is a typical entry mode used world-wide. Literally, it means two or
more individual and independent firms join together in an alliance in order to achieve better position in the
market. Often the joint ventures are a 50/50 venture. It is a method that both sides hold relatively the same
percentage of shares in the venture. The joint venture’s operation is separate from both companies, and
often the same role is shared by both managerial teams. It could be possible that one firm invests more in
order to gain the larger percentage of shares and hold tighter control of the joint venture’s operations.
Likewise, a lower investment percentage will usually lead to less control.

A joint venture has a lot of advantages. Firstly, both of the firms share the costs as well as the benefits. Both
sides share the risk as well. By investing into and joining a local firm, the international firm could successfully
explore the foreign market with their assisting jointed firm. The international firm could thereby gain market
knowledge from the local firm. Especially considering the political and economic issues in the international
market today, it is an overwhelmingly popular way to enter foreign markets. The local firm might have a way
to influence the local government, which will smooth the market entry for its joint partner.

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The disadvantage is obvious in that the firm might have major conflicts with its partner. Regarding the
shareholding of the firms, it is often difficult to maintain a balanced relationship. Once one firm’s expansion
strategy is in conflict with the other party, it will by all means bargain about the relative share ownership in
order to have more control of the firm. Thus the partner with stronger bargaining power will continue to
lead an unsteady joint venture. As for the firm’s international expansion, giving up control of technology
could be very risky for the firm.

LICENSING

Licensing involves a licensee and licensor tied together by a certain agreement which stands to benefit both
sides. The licensor will sell its know-how right to the licensee, usually for a period of time. The know-how
refers to intangible properties such as patens, inventions, formulas, processes, designs, copyrights and
trademarks. The licensee needs to pay the royalty fee in order to have the agreement with the licensor (Hill,
2007).

Licensing is a primary stage for a firm which plans to enter a foreign market. Due to the uncertainty of the
foreign market, the political or economic situation, this instability will arouse the firm to consider developing
a licensee agreement. This agreement can help the firm to make their expansion in a more steady way. In
this manner the licensor firm, can collect a royalty fee from the licensee; this is especially a big benefit for a
licensor who has limited capital to establish full operations in a foreign country.

Thus the firm can decrease its expansion costs via licensing. Moreover, the country barriers make it difficult
for the firm to participate in a foreign market, which makes licensing a more suitable entry mode to explore
a new market. Last but not least, when the firm doesn’t expect entry into a new market with its intangible
property by themselves, having the foreign licensor may help the firm to improve its chance of a successful
patent application.

One drawback which is similar to exporting is that licensing gives the firm less central and tight control. For
the firm it is difficult to control their licensee through the agreement, except by establishing its own
subsidiary. The licensee could be a major disadvantage for the licensor because of the difficulty in
coordination. Technical knowhow is a competitive advantage for the firm; whereas by selling the know-how
the firm undertakes a huge risk of losing this asset to competitors. Because the licensor will receive the main
technology and make full use of it, the licensor loses control by selling it to licensee.

ADVANTAGES OF JOINT VENTURE OVER LICENSING:

Finance

There is joint financial strength in choosing joint venture as a market entry strategy whereby the partnership
between companies makes them strong financially as they share ideas and knowledge about financial

34
management. Licensing on the other hand leaves both the licensor and the licensee independent of each
other and hence, no financial partnership.

Source of supply

Joint venture is able and may be the source of production, distribution and supply of goods and services for
a third country, while in licensing there is the inability to engage in global coordination.

Risk and Technology

Sharing of risk, cost, profit and ability to combine the local in-depth knowledge with a foreign partner with
know-how in technology or process and also the benefits from a local partner’s knowledge of the host
country’s competitive conditions, culture, languages, while licensing faces the risk of nurturing competitors
for itself instead of sharing costs, profits and knowledge.

Means of entry

Joint venture may be the only means of entry into foreign market. In a case where political considerations
make joint ventures the only feasible entry mode and licensing laws very complicated, going into a joint
venture may be the only option.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF JOINT VENTURE OVER LICENSING:

Capital Recovery

It may be impossible to recover capital if need be in joint venture because of different interests; the case is
different with licensing.

Disagreement
Partners will always disagree due to conflicting interests leading to disagreement on various issues including
third party markets to serve; while in licensing both (licensor and licensee) can choose to expand any time
on their own.

Control

In the case joint venture, partners do not have tight control over subsidies that it might need to realize
experience curve or location economies; while in licensing both the licensor and the licensee have
independent control.
ENTRY MODE ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
 Benefit from local partner  Loss control of technology
Joint Venture  Share cost and risk  No tight control of partner
 Political considerations  Conflicts and battles
 Lower cost and risk  No tight control
Licensing
 Risk for losing know-how

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Partners in joint venture may have different views on expected benefits and this can breed conflicts,
whereas, a licensor or a licensee knows what to expect at any time without conflict with anybody.

It must be state however that both market entry modes can be very important individually depending on the
choice and convenience of the business and, the kind of market in question also determines which strategy
is suitable.

SCENARIOS THAT MAKE LICENSING PREFERABLE TO JOINT VENTURE

Even though all foreign market entry modes and strategies are left to the discretion and choice of the
business, some entry strategies may be preferable to other as the case maybe. There may be situations, and
scenarios that will call for the preference of one strategy to the other. Some of the scenarios or situations
that will cause Licensing as a mode of foreign market entry to be preferred to joint venture are discussed
below:

Risk and Costs Scenarios

There are certain businesses that do not have the capital to develop operations abroad. That is in a case
where a does not want to bear the development costs and risks associated with opening a foreign market. In
licensing the risk of other the licensor or the licensee is not shared, whereas, in joint venture, the risk is
shared.

Time and Competitive Scenarios

Licensing is also preferable when a firm possesses some intangible property that might have business
applications, but it does not want to develop those applications itself. Even though licensing is usually
considered as nurturing a competitor (i.e. franchise) who may cancel the licensing agreement and operate
on its own, it could also be used to the licensor’s advantage. Here, the licensor a who would like to distract a
competitor in a market in another country without being noticed and also curtail the amount of threat
posed to it locally, can choose to license it mode of operation and technology to a licensee in that country.
In this scenario, joint venture is not preferable due to the objectives of the entry by the licensor.

Political Scenarios

Licensing is the most advisable when a firm wishes to participate in a foreign market but is prohibited by
doing so by barriers to investment. Disagreement between countries due to political reasons can have great
negative effects on companies trying to go international. For example-as it happens in the case of Xerox
where the Japanese government prohibited it from wholly owning a subsidiary hence the formation of Fuji-
Xerox, where Xerox licensed its know-how to Fuji.

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Conflict of Expected Returns Scenarios

It may be preferable to license trademarks and other privileges to a foreign business for a fee in order to
avoid conflict of interest as to what to expect as a return on investment. In joint venture, partners in the
business may be expecting different refuse base on their own judgment. This can bring confusion when
returns do not much individual expectations- on the other hand,

The licensor or the license does not actually have any external influence after the agreement. This situation
of interest conflicts makes licensing a choice (better) over joint venture.

Control Scenarios

In order to make your decision count and active, you need total or an appreciable amount of control. In
scenarios whereby companies are in business and to make quickly decisions all the time without
interruption, the business control and independence from everybody. In licensing, a company in one country
only agrees to allow a country in another country to use its manufacturing , processing, trade mark etc. this
does not allow for interference what so ever; while in joint venture, two companies share ownership
(partial) and control over property right and operation.

REFERENCES

Ekeledo, I & Sivakumar, K 2004, ‘International market entry mode strategies of manufacturing firms and
service firms: A resource-based perspective’, International Marketing Review, vol. 21, issue 1, p.
68

Hill, Charles WL 2007, International Business-competing in the global market, McGraw- Hill
Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning

Richard P. (2001), Antitrust Law, Second Edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London

37
Question 9

International franchising is often regarded as a low-risk foreign market entry strategy. Does this view fully
reflect the attraction of international franchising as a market entry mode?

Solution

INTRODUCTION

Doing business today has become very competitive. It has taken a shift of paradigm from the old-fashioned
static and local way of production and distribution to a more mobile, relaxed and globalized manner.
Companies and organizations would now have to employ modern and “state of the art” ways of doing
business in order to survive. This has even forced businesses to form alliances and even go international.
Businesses try to expand in order to survive through what is called market entry strategy or mode. Some of
these strategies of entry into foreign markets are: Franchising, direct exports, Acquisitions, Joint Ventures,
Research and Development, Contracts etc.

FRANCHISING

Franchising is the practice of using another firm's successful business model. For the franchisor, the
franchise is an alternative to building 'chain stores' to distribute goods and avoid investment and liability
over a chain. The franchisor's success is the success of the franchisees. The franchisee is said to have a
greater incentive than a direct employee because he or she has a direct stake in the business, (Wiktionary,
2010).

However, it must be noted that, except in the US, and now in China where there are explicit Federal (and in
the US, State) laws covering franchise, most of the world recognizes 'franchise' but rarely makes legal
provisions for it. Where there is no specific law, franchise is considered a distribution system, whose laws
apply, with the trademark (of the franchise system) covered by specific covenants, (franchising.com, 2010)

International Franchising therefore can be said to be the practice of using an international or foreign firm’s
or company’s successful business model. This may come or can be made possible taking into recognition
international franchising laws.

According to Alon, international franchising has grown significantly since the 1960s because of both push
and pull factors. Domestic saturation, increased competition and diminishing profits at home have pushed
franchisors to examine their opportunities abroad, while favorable macroeconomic, demographic and
political conditions abroad pulled them into specific markets. The initial expansion of U.S.-based franchisors
was to culturally-similar, politically stable, and economically rich countries such as Canada and Western
Europe. In recent years, however, opportunities have diminished in these countries as well, and
international franchisors have begun to seek development opportunities in emerging markets.

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THE ADVANTAGES OF INTERNATIONAL FRANCHISING

International franchising always duels on costs and risks as its bedrock. Here the franchising firm (the
franchisor) is usually relieved of many of the costs and risks of opening a foreign market on its own. Instead,
the franchisee typically assumes those costs and risks. This creates a good incentive for the franchisee to
build a profitable operation as quickly as possible. Thus using a franchising strategy, a service firm can build
a global presence quickly and at relatively low cost and risk, as McDonald’s has (Hill and Mckaig, 2006).

INTERNATIONAL FRANCHISING AND OTHER MARKET ENTRY STRATEGIES

International franchising according to Peng is an agreement in which the franchisor sells the right to
intellectual property such as patents and know-how to the franchisee abroad for a royalty fee. Thus the
franchisor does not have to bear the full costs and risks associated with foreign expansion. On the other
hand, the franchisor does not have tight control over production and marketing. The franchisor’s fear only is
that it might have nurtured a competitor, as Pizza Hut found out in Thailand, thus, its long-term franchisor is
in Thailand, having learned the “tricks”, it terminated the franchising agreement and set up its own pizza
restaurant chain that tried to eat Pizza Hut’s lunch.

Direct exports entail the sale of products made by entrepreneurial firms in their home country to customers
in another country. This strategy treats foreign demand as an extension of domestic demand and the firm is
geared toward designing and producing for the domestic market first and foremost. Direct exports may not
be optimal when the firm has a large number of foreign buyers. suggest that the firm needs to be closer,
both physically and psychologically, to its customers, prompting the firm to consider more intimate overseas
involvement such as FDI. However, direct exports may provoke protectionism. For example, in 1981, the
success of direct automobile export from Japan led the US government to impose a Voluntary Export
Restraint (VER) agreement on Japanese export, (Peng, 2009).

Joint Venture according to Peng is a “corporate child” that is new entity given birth and jointly owned by
two or more parent companies.

There are five common objectives in a joint venture: market entry, risk/reward sharing, technology sharing
and joint product development, and conforming to government regulations. Other benefits include political
connections and distribution channel access that may depend on relationships. Such alliances often are
favorable when: the partners' strategic goals converge while their competitive goals diverge; the partners'
size, market power, and resources are small compared to the industry leaders; and partners' are able to
learn from one another while limiting access to their own proprietary skills.

The key issues to consider in a joint venture are ownership, control, length of agreement, pricing,
technology transfer, local firm capabilities and resources, and government intentions. Potential problems
include: conflict over asymmetric new investments mistrust over proprietary knowledge performance

39
ambiguity - how to split the pie lack of parent firm support cultural clashes if, how and when to terminate
the relationship. Joint ventures have conflicting pressures to cooperate and compete.

Strategic imperative: the partners want to maximize the advantage gained for the joint venture, but they
also want to maximize their own competitive position. The joint venture attempts to develop shared
resources, but each firm wants to develop and protect its own proprietary resources. The joint venture is
controlled through negotiations and coordination processes, while each firm would like to have hierarchical
control.

Acquisition can be said to the most important of the market entry strategies in terms of the amount of
capital involved (representing approximately 70% of worldwide FDI), Peng, 2009.

It is a method of investing directly in a foreign country. Two advantages enjoyed by acquisition are; adding
no new capacity and faster entry. For example, in less than a decade, two leading banks in Spain with little
prior international experience, Santander and Bilbao Vizcaya, became the largest foreign banks in Latin
America through some 20 acquisitions. However, acquisition also faces problem of post acquisition
integration and even slow entry speed sometimes.

Considering all the above discussion on market entry strategies and modes, it is self explanatory that they all
have their advantages and disadvantages, and the fact that much as international franchising is without full
risk bearing, joint venture and even some others are also without full risk and therefore, if there is recent
attraction for international franchising, it is a matter of convenience and expansion purposes. Moreover,
firms in practice are not limited by any single entry choice. For example, IKEA stores in China are joint
ventures and its store in Hong Kong and Taiwan are separate franchises. Also, entry modes may change over
time. Starbucks, for instance, first used franchising and later switched to joint ventures and, more recently,
to acquisitions.

REFERENCES

1. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning

2. W.L. Hill and T. Mckaig (2006), Global Business Today, China translation & Printing Services Ltd,
China

3. Woods N. (2006), ‘The Political Economy of Globalization Macmillan’ Borrowers Cornell University
Press

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Question 10

Under what circumstances would a BOT system make sense as an international marketing strategy?

Solution

INTRODUCTION

International marketing simply as the name implies means performing marketing activities in a country that
is outside one’s country borders. Businesses that are involved in international marketing would have to
formulate ways and strategies to succeed. One of those numerous tactics and means to employ is a Build-
Operate-Transfer (BOT) system.

BUILD-OPERATE-TRANSFER (BOT) SYSTEM

Build-Operate-Transfer is an option for organizations that want to have their own captive center, but do not
possess local expertise or extensive resources necessary to set up near shore operations using do-it-yourself
approach.

Build-Operate-Transfer is a project financing and operating approach that has found an application in recent
years primarily in the area of infrastructure privatization in the developing countries. For these countries,
financial markets are shifting the way in which debt capital is raised to fund the development

This concept is also one of the newest financial schemes for environmental projects, which is being used
increasingly worldwide as a project delivery system by which governments obtain the infrastructure projects
by private sector after a concession period free of charge.

Addressing medium- and long-term software development needs of businesses that for some reasons find
traditional project-based outsourcing model inappropriate, IIT Near shore Sourcing offers its services in
establishing near shore captive center in Ukraine by utilizing Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) model.

It is recognized from the very outset of cooperation that customer's ultimate goal is to have company-
owned near shore development center (subsidiary), including leased or bought out separate infrastructure,
respective legal business entity and transition of the employees.

Characteristics of a BOT System

The Build Operate and Transfer system is becoming the de-facto choice of many companies that wish to set
up IT infrastructures. Many companies are beginning to realize that setting up companies and getting them
up and running efficiently requires significant resource and time investment. BOT is hence emerging as a
popular choice.

The three stages of a BOT project are:

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Build: This stage involves setting up the facilities and infrastructures, staffing the development center, and
establishing knowledge transfer.

Operate: In this stage, the offshore organisation is managed. Program Management, Development, QA,
maintenance, enhancements, and product support are also part of this stage.

Transfer: It involves registering a new offshore subsidiary for the customer, transferring assets, and handing
over operations.

For example, some U.S. and European corporations are moving operational components offshore to India
and other locations, in many cases developing their own subsidiaries to better support worldwide
operations. This has primarily resulted from the various benefits they draw from such an arrangement.
These benefits include: Cost savings compared to third party vendor partnerships, direct control on hiring
and retention and ability to retain Intellectual Property Rights.

Unfortunately, many are not realizing their business goals, with some even forced to shut down due to
execution problems related to unforeseen, ‘in-country’ challenges. In such a scenario, The Build-Operate-
Transfer model offers an attractive alternative.

BOT offers attractive business benefits over the traditional offshore subsidiary path, including:

- Rapid, Seamless scaling of operations.

- Wider service offerings, quickly filling business model gaps.

- Lower infrastructure set-up costs.

- Reduced time of operations through utilization of knowledgeable third party management resources
responsible for: real estate and government rules and regulations and Cultural transition.

- IT infrastructure and procurement Security etc.

CIRCUMSTANCES THAT MAKE BOT PREFERABLE AS AN INTERNATIONAL MARKETING STRATEGY

Most Governments in the developing countries have resorted to BOT concessions for several reasons, such
as: Severe drops in foreign aid and investments in their economies, such as acute shortage of hard
currencies, growing national and foreign debt, limited economic and revenue resources, government budget
deficits, inefficient and costly state-owned enterprises, lack of modern facilities and technological advances,
accelerating demand for infrastructure facilities, bureaucracy, unemployment, and liquidity problems,
abounds.

BOT projects provide tremendous benefits to developing economies and their governments, such as:

 Attracting and enhancing more foreign investors and lenders;

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  Transfer of modern facilities, technology, and know-how of advanced countries at minimum costs to
governments;

 Minimizing government expenditures, financial burdens, and responsibilities;

 Meeting the growing needs for the country's infrastructure facilities and development projects at
minimum government involvement and costs;

 Employment opportunities, workers' training programs, and improving standards of living;

 Replacing the inefficient and failing state-owned enterprises, and eliminating their financial burdens
on government budgets;

 Developing the local and regional markets; and

 Guaranteeing continuing government dominance and monopoly of the country's strategic projects
by eventual transfer of BOT projects in a good condition to government-ownership

However, BOT schemes carry different types of critical risks. In water and sewerage BOT projects,
the World Bank identified major key risks, causes, steps to mitigate, who typically bears the
remaining risk, and steps to minimize risks. They are classified into the following categories, each
consisting of sub-risks:

 Design and development risk (design defects in water or sewerage plant);

 Construction risk (cost overrun, delay in completion, and failure of plant to meet performance
criteria at completion tests);

 Operating risk (operating cost overrun, failure or delay in obtaining permissions, consents, and
approvals, and shortfall in water quality or quantity);

 Revenue risk (increase in bulk water supply price, change in tariff rates, and water demand);

 financial risk (exchange rate, foreign exchange, and interest rate);

 Force majeure risk (force majeure, legal and regulatory, and political);

 Insurance risk (uninsured loss or damage to project facilities); and

 Environmental risk (environmental incidents).

Country experiences and case studies report practical problems that caused BOT projects to fail or be
aborted. Tam highlighted the various reasons of success and failure of BOT projects, emphasizing Thailand's
painful experience with its transportation projects. Certain countries (e.g., Tunisia) lack experience with BOT

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bidding processes, negotiations, legal and technical procedures, project financing, and guarantees for
sufficient foreign exchange (Aderson & Coughlan, 1987). Other countries (e.g., Colombia and Hungary) had
undertaken multiple BOT projects simultaneously which caused interruptions in construction as well as
supply, transportation, manpower, technical, environmental, exchange rate, inflation, maintenance, and
security problems. Lu et al. analyzed the BOT model and its complex interrelationships, concluding that the
critical success factor for a BOT project is the efficient and effective allocation of project risks and returns
among the government, the project sponsors, and the bank syndicate. Negotiations among the three parties
can be effective if there is an objective tool for bargaining, and proposed a quantitative model satisfying the
need to analyze a BOT project Wang et al highlighted the findings of an international survey on risk
management of BOT projects in developing countries, with emphasis on power projects in China. The
criticality of foreign exchange and revenue risks, which include exchange rate, convertibility risk, financial
closing risk, dispatch constraints risk, and tariff adjustment risk, is specifically discussed. The measures for
mitigating each of these risks were also discussed.

BOT Stakeholders and Economic Entities of BOT Projects

The idea of the BOT system is a consortium or syndication of private multinational financiers, contractors
and advisors joins together to finance, design, construct, and operate a facility such as a power station or a
toll road. The engineering, procurement and construction of BOT projects are usually carried out by local
and foreign entities. After a set period of time, typically 25 years, the consortium is expected to have
recovered the invested capital and earned a fair return, and the BOT assets are handed in a good condition
back to the government authority.

With Binary’s BOT Model, you get the benefit of a trusted local partner to setup your subsidiary efficiently
for a time period. After the completion of the decided span, we transfer the assets and handover the
operations along with manpower to you. In other words, we create a dedicated offshore development
center for your growing business requirements. Added to this, you also get support of innovative and cost-
effective solutions for your expansion plans.

Binary with its unparalleled flexibility and scalability has supported its various clients with the BOT model,
providing them with a quality package of people, process and technology. They ensure a swift start up of
operations in the most cost-effective and proficient method. Your subsidiary has access to amenities and
resources that reduces your attrition and increases your security.

Their center will become an extension of one’s business operations wherein you get all the benefits of
outsourcing with the option of retaining total control. They will execute one’s operations using the best
technology available and when one is ready, they gradually transfer the ownership of the complete
operations. One can control the projects and the allocation of skills – their skilled and competent

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technologists become ones employees, a permanent extension of one’s staff, fully integrated into your
corporate culture.

REFERENCES

1. Anderson E. & Coughlan A .T. (1987). International Market entry and entry and expansion via
independent or integrated channels of distribution, American marketing Association, USA

2. Peng M. W. (2009) Global Business; International Student Edition; Canada; South Western Cengage
Learning

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