…

DESIGNIN
G FOR
PEOPLE …
DATE: 06-12-
10
General Site Design Guidelines for Pedestrians:

There is no shortage of sources for site furnishings today. The industry

provides a range of well designed and durable materials in many styles
from which the designer may choose. Virtually all of these furnishings
comply with the accepted standards of human dimensions; however, it
remains the responsibility of the design professional to select and
specify the materials appropriate to the site.

Walkways:

All site plans proposing multiple buildings designed for residential

occupancy or business access shall connect building entrances to one
another and to pedestrian ways on adjacent public and/or private
streets. Public sidewalks may be considered part of the walkway
system if they provide convenient movement between structures.
Fences, landscaping and other site improvements shall be loc ated so
as not to impede safe and convenient pedestrian circulation.

On-site pedestrian ways shall be designed to connect to off-site

pedestrian way systems on adjoining properties and public and/or
private streets. On-site extensions of pedestrian circulation systems
shall align with existing pedestrian off-site links.

A fundamental element of design for

the pedestrian is the pathway or
sidewalk. The peak time for walking
is midday, and sidewalks should be
designed to account for this peak
time. Many localities have
predetermined minimum standards
for sidewalk development in
residential areas, but they do not
provide guidance for commercial
sites or other circumstances in which
minimums are not adequate. The sidewalk width must be designed to
provide the level of service suited to the user. The parameters of
sidewalk width are determined according to the anticipated volume of
foot traffic, the speed at which the pedestrians will be walking, and the
desired density of traffic
The width can then be determined as:

W = (M)/S
Where W _ the width of the pathway or sidewalk, ft
V _ the traffic volume, persons per minute
M _ the space module allowed per person, ft2
S _ the walking speed, ft/min

Walking speeds vary greatly among

people, but a normal average walking
speed of 4.0 ft/s is usually assumed. A
number of factors influence this speed.
For example, older people walk slower
than younger people, and most people
tend to walk faster in the middle of a
block and slow down at intersections.
The activity that walkers are engaged in
affects their speed as well—for example,
shoppers walk slower than commuters.
Men tend to walk faster than women.
Groups of people will walk slower than
individuals. Curbs, islands, circuitous
pathways, changes in grade, and even
ramps can present barriers of one sort or
another to various users.

Grades also affect walking speed, level of service, and safety.

Sidewalks should be designed with a minimum cross slope of 1 percent
to allow for drainage, but the cross slope should not exceed 3 percent.
A longitudinal slope of up to 3 percent is desirable, but slopes greater
than 5 percent should be avoided in areas where freezing may be an
issue. As a rule of thumb in areas where climate is a consideration,
any sidewalk with a slope in excess of 5 percent should be considered
and treated as a ramp with associated handrails. When incorporating
stairs into an outdoor design, there are often local standards to
consider; however, when such regulations are not in place, a rule of
thumb to determine tread width is the following:

2R _ T _ 26 to 27 in
Where R _ riser height, in
T _ treads width, in

Primary Walkways:

Primary walkways are those segments that link major generators of

pedestrian activity and carry the highest volume of pedestrian traffic
Primary walkways should:

• be at least eight feet wide to comfortably accommodate two-way

traffic;
• have hard surface paving to accommodate a high level of use of
all types;
• be well lighted for nighttime activity; and
• Be furnished at a relatively higher level with amenities such as
benches and trash receptacles.

Secondary Walkways:

Secondary walkways are those segments that link secondary

generators of pedestrian activity and carry moderate volumes of
pedestrian traffic. The majority of walkways on an installation should
fall into this category. Secondary walkways should:

• be at least six feet wide to comfortably accommodate two people

walking abreast and allow passing room;
• have hard surface paving to accommodate a moderate level of
use of all types;
• be well lighted along those segments that receive nighttime
activity; and
• Be furnished at a moderate level with amenities.
Tertiary Walkways:

Tertiary walkways are those segments that provide physical and visual
continuity within the pedestrian network but carry a low volume of
traffic. They are also used as recreational paths such as jogging trails
or fitness courses. Tertiary walkways should:

• be at least four feet wide to comfortably accommodate one-way

traffic;
• have hard or soft surface paving, depending on the volume and
type of use;
• have lower-level or no lighting; and
• Be furnished at a relatively lower level with amenities.
Design Considerations for Outdoor Stairways:

Pedestrian circulation requires attention to function as aesthetics.

Sometimes the efforts of the designer to define spaces by changing
their elevation is counter to unimpaired access to all site elements.
Steps should be grouped to improve their visibility. Changing the color
or texture of the steps also increases visibility. The height of the step
risers should be uniform along their
length. Step risers shorter than 5
inches or higher than 7 inches will
be uncomfortable for some users.
Outdoor stairs should be made
easier to use than indoor stairways
because people tend to be moving
faster when outdoors. The use of a
single stair should be avoided. A
minimum of three steps should be
used to clearly signal the change in
grade. Stair design should
incorporate visual signals to
indicate stair treads and edges.

To compensate for elevation

changes using steps landings and
ramps are provided. According to
the American Disabilities Act ramps
may slope at a maximum of 12:1
(8.3%) for not more than 30'. Five
foot long landings must be
provided at least every 30' for long
ramps with slopes greater than
20:1 (5%).

Careful design of stairs and landings is also necessary to protect the

more able bodied pedestrian. Landings should be provided in long
flights of stairs. The difference in the amount of space needed to
accommodate ramps compared to stairs is often challenging for the
designer working with a small site.

The American Disabilities Act requires that railings are provided in

specific configurations and heights. The diameter of the railing should
not exceed 1 1/2". Commit the information in this graphic to
memory.
Architectural elements or plants should be used to articulate building
entries to make destinations clear to pedestrians.

Steps meet the landscape more gracefully when they are contained
within walls called cheek walls.

Paving materials and design:

The choice of paving materials is broad and generally is determined by

the nature of the project under design and the preferences of the
designer and client. In general the characteristics of concern for paving
materials are the installation and life cycle costs, durability, slip
resistance, and appearance. Bricks and pavers for pathway and
sidewalk paving are described in ASTM C902 by grades and by type.
Type I brick is recommended for high-traffic areas such as driveways
or entranceways; type II brick is used on walkways and other areas of
moderate traffic, and type III brick is used in areas where low levels of
traffic are anticipated such as patios.

Open-Space Requirements:

It is common practice today to provide open space and recreation

facilities as part of residential and commercial projects. Many
communities do not have a coordinated or planned approach to
incorporating the additions into community life. Instead, the effect of
the ordinance may be to create pockets of playground equipment or
open space that is unrelated and unconnected to the development of
the community at large. Local ordinances are also often unclear as to
how to evaluate open space so that passive open space and active
open space are not differentiated or there is no qualification or
valuation of open space. Without a comprehensive plan, a community
may
Miss opportunities to serve its citizens with the best and most
appropriate use and type of open space. Not all open space is of equal
value. Sites along busy highways, commercial areas, or industrial
zones may not be desirable as open. Recreation and open space must
be planned with regard to the projected users, the physical space, and
the capability of a management entity to maintain the facility. These
considerations must be measured in the short and long terms.
The sizing of facilities is also very important. The proposed active open
space must be large enough to serve the user population but small
enough to be maintained by the responsible parties. An evaluation of
the appropriate size or number of facilities should include a projection
of the future users. As the population grows older or younger within a
community, the demand for facilities will change.

Open space for older user:

Make the walkway and park in general more users friendly. Texture
changes at breaks in grade or intersections may also assist elder who
may have reduced depth perception capability. Installing a handrail t a
sudden change in grade or a stair on an outdoor walk sends a clear
signal o the user and provides the information in a subtle fashion.
Where possible stairs and ramps should be provided; for many people,
walking down a amp is more difficult than using stairs. Walkways
should be visually interesting, but in general, encroachment by tress is
to be avoided.
The design open areas should give particular attention to way finding.
Large undefined areas may be confusing and underused rather than
providing opportunities or viewing activities in open-space areas.

Playgrounds:
The design of play areas and playgrounds should provide a variety of
play equipment and special areas for different age groups and
activities. The design should provide for shade and sunny areas and
places for quiet activity and observation as well as more physically
active play. Play areas for small children must include benches on
which parents may sit and observe their children, and the design
should allow for strollers, carriages, and the like. This may require
wider sidewalks or paved areas so that standing groups of parents do
not encroach onto the traffic pattern. Access to play area should be
limited for security purposes, although care should be given to avoid
an institutional feeling that would discourage use. As a rule of thumb,
playground equipment that requires participation should be located
toward the entrances of a playground because the presence of groups
contributes to the security of the facility.

Bicycle and Multiple-Use Paths:

Class I Bike Path:

A Class I Bike Path is intended for the exclusive use of bicycles. While
it may parallel a roadway, it is physically separated by distance or a
vertical barrier.

• A Class I Bike Path provides the safest and most efficient means
of bicycle travel and is the preferred option for bikeway
development.

• Crossings of a Class I Bike Path by pedestrians or automobiles

should be minimized.

• If a Class I Bike Path does not closely parallel a roadway, it

should be designed to provide appropriate bikeway gradient and
curvature.

• Class I Bike Paths require the greatest amount of space and

advanced planning to reserve land and assure appropriate
routing.

Class II Bike Lane:

A Class II Bike Lane shares the right-of-way with a roadway or
walkway. It is indicated by a bikeway pictograph on the pavement and
a continuous stripe on the pavement or separated by a continuous or
intermittent curb or other low barrier.

• Because some separation is provided for bicycle travel, a Class II

Bike Lane provides some level of safety for the bicyclist and
pedestrian.

• While crossings by pedestrians or automobiles are discouraged,

they are not as controllable as they are on a Class I Bike Path
because the Class II Bike Lane is adjacent to the walkway or
roadway.

• Because Class II Bike Lanes are tied to the adjacent roadway or

walkway, route selection is important to maintain appropriate
bikeway gradients and curvature.

• Class II Bike Lanes generally require less space than Class I Bike
Paths because they follow the alignment of and share the right-
of-way with a roadway or walkway.

Class III Bike Route:

A Class III Bike Route also shares the right-of-way with a roadway or
walkway. It is not indicated by a continuous stripe on the pavement or
separated by any type of barrier, but it is identified as a bikeway with
signs.

• Because no separation is provided, there is a higher potential for

safety conflicts between automobiles and bicycles and between
bicycles and pedestrians.

• Class III Bike Routes provide continuity within the bikeway

network and designate preferred shared routes to minimize
potential conflicts. To maintain safety for bicyclists and
pedestrians, Class III Bike Routes should be developed, if
possible, only where automobile and pedestrian traffic is
moderate to light.
 • Because Class III Bike Routes share the roadway or walkway,
route selection is important to maintain appropriate bikeway
gradients and curvature.

• Class III Bike Routes require the least space because they share
the pavement with a roadway or walkway.

Pavement Widths for Bicycles:

The basic minimum width for one lane of travel is four feet. This
should be adjusted based upon the bikeway classification and traffic
conditions.

• A minimum of eight feet of pavement should be provided for a

two-way Class I Bike Path. This width will also allow access by
maintenance vehicles on Class I Bike Paths that are isolated
from roadways.

• A minimum of 6'-6" of pavement should be provided for a one-

way Class I Bike Path or Class II Bike Lane. This width will allow
one-way travel with room for passing.

• Two-way bikeways are not recommended adjacent to roadways

because of the complications that would result at intersections.
Instead, opposing one-way lanes should be located on opposite
sides of the street.

• A minimum of four feet of pavement should be provided for a

one-way Class III Bike Route. Since a Class III Bike Route is not
separated from the adjacent roadway or walkway, a passing
bicycle can use the walkway or roadway pavement. If bicycle,
pedestrian, and/or automobile traffic makes passing in this
manner difficult or unsafe, a pavement width of 6'-6" should be
provided for a one-way Class III Bike Route.
Seating:

The Seating choice is determined by many factors that are project

specific such as the desired style, materials, durability, and availability
of the seating. A key concern is, of course, the comfort of the seat.
Site furniture is important for more than the convenience of passers-
by. The type of seating helps define the area. Benches facing each
other, for example, invite socialization and interaction and attract
people to common spaces. Seats near a playground or tot lot
encourage adults to bring children and to use the space, which in turn
increases surveillance of the play area.

Walls and Fences:

Fences and walls are common site and landscape features, and they
are used most often to increase privacy or security as well as to create
backgrounds and visual points of interest. For purposes of this
discussion, walls and fences will be treated separately Walls are
usually freestanding masonry structures while fences, more commonly
used than walls for residential or esthetic purpose son commercial
sites, are made of other materials, usually wooden. Security fences are
most often wire or metal and are generally not used for esthetic
purposes although many decorative security fences are available
Fences:

Fences should be selected based on

specific objectives for the
project.Fences and walls may be
important elements in designing for
community safety and security as well.
As barriers, they provide guidance to
pedestrians, direct traffic, and provide
clear demarcation of public and private
areas. Even low fences or walls
represent a psychological barrier for the
casual pedestrian. Whatever is
selected, the fence should be of the
proper scale and proportion to meet the
design objectives and remain
compatible with the project plan as a
whole.

Walls:
All freestanding walls must be
designed to resist overtopping
due to wind loads and subsurface
soil failures. When wind pushes
on the solid surface of the wall, it
causes the wall to act as a lever
turning on a pivot at ground
level. The wall is able to resist
overturning by virtue of its weight
and the extension of the length of

the lever by footer. Wind loads vary

across the nation and are provided or
dictated in many local building codes.
To check a wall for its resistance to
overturning, it is necessary to
determine the wind load for the area
in which the wall will be constructed.
Typically loads are determined for a
1-ft section of the proposed wall. To
determine the wind load pressure P,
multiply the height of the wall by the
wind load.

Signage:
For common signs such as those identifying designated handicapped
parking or restroom facilities, it may be best to rely on types of signs
that are familiar and in common use. The key element of signs is
readability at an effective reading distance. To determine readability, it
is necessary to understand the purpose of the sign. Signs that provide
direction or that are meant to draw a person’s attention from a
distance require larger lettering than signs describing a display or vista
that is immediately before the viewer. In many communities, sign and
lettering sizes are regulated in the zoning ordinances. In designing and
locating signs, it is important to remember that the farther away the
desired effective reading distance, the larger the letters should be and
the higher the sign.

Water Features:

A water feature can bring a great deal to a landscape of any size.

People are drawn to water features perhaps more than to any other
single landscape feature. One reason for these preferences that there
are clearly important psychological and emotional values in well-
designed water features. Whether it is the sound of falling water, the
turbulence of fountains or falls, or the cooling effect of spray and
evaporative cooling, water features are highly valued elements of both
the designed and natural landscape.

Pools and ponds:

Water features are used in many

forms in the landscape, ranging from
very natural appearing small ponds
to very formal precision water veils.
The possibilities are limited only by
the imagination and the physical
characteristics of water. For
purposes of this chapter, water
features will be discussed in terms of
small pools and ponds. Ponds are
illustrated in Figs. 4.67 through4.70.
Ponds include biotic features such as plants and perhaps fish whereas
pools have no biotic elements. The key to the water feature is the pool
or pond: The presence of fountains or falls or other features are
framed within the pool or pond. In the past, concrete has been the
most common and popular material for pond or pool construction, but
with the development of more plastics, fiberglass prefabricated pools
and fabric pond liners have become the most common choice.
Plazas and Patios:

The use of plazas or patios in the

site plan has become all but
essential in most projects. The
choices of materials and
approaches differ primarily by the
type of surface material. All such
areas should be designed to be
fairly level but with enough pitch to
provide adequate drainage.
Surfaces should be even and free
of trip or slip hazards. The base
should be sufficiently substantial to
resist loads from expected traffic and to resist frost damage. Surface
materials can range from poured concrete, pavers, flagstone, or brick.
While the dimension Tolerances and chip resistance are important, the
critical elements in selecting brick or pavers for a patio are the
durability and abrasion of the material.