ENCH 271 Chemical Engineering Laboratories 1

Boiler Heat and Mass Balance

Before this Experiment

Read and understand this briefing sheet

During this Experiment

Wear sensible clothing including sturdy shoes, safety glasses and a lab coat
You may not eat, drink or smoke

OBJECTIVES
• To obtain mass and energy balances over the oil-fired boiler and vacuum condenser in the
Mechanical Engineering Department.
• To compute the thermal efficiency of the boiler when operating at steady state.
• To gain experience manipulating large amounts of data.

1. PLANT AND APPARATUS

There are two major items of plant. The first is an oil-fired steam boiler capable of delivering
about 1.4 MW of heat as steam, using 200 l/hr oil. The second is a vacuum condenser which
can condense this steam to water at temperatures about 10 °C above ambient (the prevailing
temperature of the surroundings).
An isometric representation of the plant showing the piping in relation to the boiler and
vacuum condenser is presented on page 12.
1.1. Boiler
Page 13 shows a schematic diagram of the boiler which has three "passes" on the combustion
side. Note the details of the spinning cup oil feed to spray the oil into the combustion
chamber, the ignition system, and the recirculation water system when you do the experiment.
For a general discussion of steam boilers see Perry and Green (1984), Section 9, p. 64 - 74, or
Anon (1958).
1.2. Vacuum Condenser
This unit is a multipass heat-exchanger operating under vacuum. The steam is condensed on
the outside of the tubes and the cooling water has six passes on the tube side. A schematic
diagram and drawing is displayed in the Mechanical Engineering Department.
The vacuum is maintained by a steam ejector throttling steam from about 11 bars to
atmosphere pressure (1 bar). The ejector is two diverging-converging nozzles in series (see
Perry and Green (1983), p. 6 - 29, for details) and requires approximately 60 kg/hr of steam to
maintain a high vacuum (see page 14).
1.3. Operation
A flow sheet of the process is on page 15. The fuel is burned with air in a combustion
chamber or "fire tube". The hot combustion gases exchange heat with the water along the

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 1

"boiler passes" and are taken to atmosphere through the "stack" or chimney. The steam formed
passes along the steam lines to the condenser where it exchanges heat with the cold water in
the "cold water passes" of the condenser. The area and temperature of these passes is
sufficient to cool the steam to near ambient and the steam ejector prevents the accumulation of
any permanent gases in the system.

2. MEASUREMENTS
2.1. Flow Rates
(a) Boiler Feed Water
Two feed-water tanks are calibrated in gallons and the tank water level is monitored
with a stop watch. The flow of feed water to the boiler is cyclic and the pump is
activated by a level sensor.
The level fluctuates as below:

high level when pump switched off

Level of
water in
boiler
A B
low level when pump switched on

Time

During period A the pump is replenishing the water level in the boiler while at the same
time water is boiled off to form steam. During period B, the pump is off, the level falls
at a constant rate because the water is boiled off to form steam.
The flow of feed water to the boiler must be timed over a complete cycle (i.e. A plus B).
(b) Oil
Weigh with a platform balance, noting the time for 4.5 kg decrements with a stopwatch.
Note that the oil circulates through the feed system and only part is bled off and burnt.
(c) Condensate
Collect in a bucket for 1 minute and weigh on a balance.
(d) Flue Gas
In standard practice, the flue gas rate is determined from the flue gas analysis and the oil
feed rate, as these two sets of data are determined accurately. Combustion stoichiometry
is used to calculate the flue gas mass flow. We make an approximate check on this by
measuring the velocity of the flue gas by Pitot tubes. Note however, that the density of
the flue gas still has to be determined from combustion stoichiometry.
Pitot measurements: measure the pressure drop at four points in the flue-gas duct as
shown in the sketch, with the Pitot tube and manometer.

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 2

 x x
x x

For more detail see Appendix 1.

(e) Steam Ejector
Tests have shown (Mechanical Engineering Department) that the flowrate needed to
maintain a full vacuum is
m = 0.017 ± 0.001 kg/s
(f) Condenser and Ejector Cooling Water
The condenser and ejector cooling water flows can leave through a common line, or
separately as shown in the diagram.

Ejector
cooling water Condenser cooling water

Orifice plate
To drain

The orifice plate can thus be used to measure the total cooling water flow or that of the
condenser only.
The pressure drop across the orifice plate is measured using a differential pressure gauge
and the flowrate is then calculated from the orifice equation.
2 g ( ρ Hg − ρ w ) h
W = CD So ρ w
ρ w 1 − ( Do D ) 
4
 
where W = flowrate of water (kg/s)
CD = discharge coefficient (= 0.6)
So = area of orifice

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 3

 ρw = water density
ρHg = mercury density
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of mercury in manometer (m)
Do = orifice diameter (= 0.0402)
D = pipe diameter (= 0.078)

2.2. Temperature
(a) Feed Water
Measure at intervals in the main feed tank with a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
(b) Air
Measure the air temperature in front of the boiler and estimate the humidity of the air
with a whirling hygrometer.
(c) Oil
As the oil is electrically heated before it is sprayed into the boiler (this is to reduce the
viscosity), the oil temperature has to be obtained from reading the temperature gauge on
the oil feed system at intervals throughout the run.
(d) Boiler Surfaces
Measure the temperatures on the surfaces indicated on the accompanying sheet (page
16). Make five different measurements on each surface with a copper-constantan surface
thermocouple.
(e) Piping Surface and Condenser Surface
Measure temperature as indicated on the accompanying sheet as in part (d).
(f) Flue Gas
Measure the temperature with the mercury thermometer in the flue gas duct at the back
of the boiler. Because of the high temperatures it is necessary to correct for radiation
losses from the duct wall temperature which is measured with a copper-constantan
surface thermocouple.
(g) Condenser Cooling Water
The inlet and outlet temperatures of the condenser cooling water can be read off the
gauges on the control panel of the condenser. If the ejector water is combined with the
outlet condenser water, the temperature of the combined flow can be measured with a
thermometer in the line downstream of the orifice plate.

2.3. Compositions
(a) Oil Composition
The composition of the fuel is given as:
Carbon 85.9%
Hydrogen 12.5% (All in weight percentages)
Sulphur 1.6%
Incombustibles −

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 4

(b) Oil Calorific Value
The gross calorific value for the fuel oil is 43.6 MJ/kg at 25 °C.
(c) Flue Gas
The gases are analysed on a dry basis by the Orsat apparatus which cannot analyse for
the water-vapour present. This detects the presence of CO2, CO and O2. The remaining
volume analysed is to be assumed to be all N2. Checks are made on the CO content
using Drager tubes and the O2 is checked with a Beckman O2 meter. The sulphur oxides
(SO2 and SO3) content is estimated using a Drager tube. The full flue gas analysis
including water and carbon dioxide is then worked out using combustion stoichiometry.
(d) Steam
The steam will be assumed to be dry and saturated at the boiler gauge pressure, as it
leaves the boiler. There are several gauges on the line as cross-checks on the steam
pressure. There is a gauge on the boiler, one on the boiler room header and one on the
Engine Room header. The inlet steam pressure to the steam ejector is available.

3. CALCULATIONS
The raw data should be presented as taken and analysed as shown in the sheets on Report
Writing. Each set of readings must be averaged and the maximum likely error calculated.
The data, after analysis, should be neatly summarised in tables and placed in an appendix at
the back of the report.
Calculations should be done in S.I. Units as far as practical. The calculated results of all
balances and the thermal efficiency should be neatly tabulated in the results section.
3.1. Mass Balances (Basis: 1 second)
(a) Steam Side
(i) Boiler
The mass of water into the boiler is determined from the flow of water from the
calibrated tanks (ks/s) (≈ 0.3 kg/s).
For a balance:
mass of water into boiler = mass of water out as condensate
The amount of condensate collected can be compared with the feed-water rate and any
discrepancy noted. Use the condensate flow rather than the feed water flow for the
remaining calculations.
(ii) Steam Ejector
A certain amount of steam is drawn off before reaching the condenser to supply the
ejector to produce the vacuum in the condenser. This flow as noted previously (from
Mechanical Engineering data) is
m = 0.017 ± 0.001 kg/s
This steam flow is also collected as condensate.
(b) Combustion Side
(i) Flue Gas Flowrate
The mass of the flue-gas is calculated from its composition and the mass flowrate of the
oil burned. Perfect gas laws are assumed (the alternative is to look up densities in tables
- see Mills (1993). Because the flue gas is at a relatively high temperature and partial

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 5

 pressure less than one atmosphere, the assumption of perfect gas laws is correct to better
than 1% error.
See Appendix 1 for check on flue gas flowrate using Pitot tube measurements.
(ii) Overall Balance (Basis: 1 second)
To check the overall mass balance on the combustion-side we need to be able to
measure the amount of air entering the boiler.
However, this cannot be measured, but it can be calculated from the flue gas analysis
and the oil feed rate. Both these measurements are accurate, i.e.
mass of wet air in + mass of oil in = mass of wet flue gas out

Mass of
wet air in Combustion Mass of
Mass of chamber wet flue gas out
oil in

(c) Water Content of Flue Gas

The water in the flue gas arises from two sources: water vapour in the inlet air, water
formed during the combustion of combined H2 in the oil.
(i) Water in the Inlet Air
From the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature measurements the absolute humidity is
kg H 2 O
Yg
kg dry air
Yg can be read off the charts given in Perry and Green (1983), page 12-4, or from page
17 of this sheet. Hence:
mass of wet air in = (1 + Yg ) x mass of dry air (from part (b)(ii))

Yg
∴ amount of water in inlet air = x mass of wet air
1 + Yg
(ii) Water from Combustion of H2
This is calculated by stoichiometry.
(d) Conversion of Gas Analysis to Weight Basis
The combustion stoichiometry results (which will be given to you but which you should
check yourself) tell you the following.
From the weight of oil used basis:
(i) The weights of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur into the system.
(ii) The minimum kmol of dry air needed to burn this to CO2, H2O and SO2 from this
source alone can then be calculated from the gas analysis.
(iii) The kmol of dry air in excess of stoichiometric which were used in the
combustion.
From (i), (ii) and (iii) the weights of CO2, H2O, N2, SO2 and O2 which should be in the
flue gas must be calculated (there will also be some H2O from the entering air which is

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 6

 not "dry"). Also if the gas and fuel analyses are correct, the ratio of CO2 to O2 in the flue
gas as measured should correspond with that calculated by stoichiometry.
3.2. Energy Balances (Basis: 1 second)
(a) Reference Basis for Heat Flows
For the heat flows on the combustion side it is convenient to choose the air inlet
temperature as the reference basis.
(b) Heat Supplied to the Boiler
This is obtained from the heat of combustion of the fuel oil, i.e.
heat supplied = weight of oil in x gross calorific value of oil ( ≅ 1000 kW)
The following corrections must be applied.
(i) Because the gross CV is measured by combustion at 25 °C temperature at constant
volume, all water formed during combustion is condensed. Therefore the heat
used to evaporate the water produced at the reference temperature (use the British
Standard value of 2455 kJ/kg) must be subtracted.
(ii) A correction for non-combustion of some CO (obtained from Orsat and Drager-
tube analyses of flue gas) is calculated from the enthalpy of reaction of CO to
form CO2 at the reference temperature:
1
CO + O 2 → CO 2 ∆H = −1.096 x 10 2 kJ/mol
2
Only in exceptional circumstances is CO formed.
(iii) There is an added quantity of heat put into the boiler because the inlet oil
temperature is above the reference temperature:
Qcorrection = weight of oil x C p ,oil x (Toil ,in − Treference )

where Cp,oil = 1.95 kJ/kg K (Qcorrection ≅ 2 kW). Add this to the heat from
combustion.
(c) Heat Balance over the Boiler
(i) Heat Feed Water to Produce Steam
The heat required to produce the steam is calculated from the difference between
enthalpy of the feed water and the enthalpy of the steam at the gauge pressure indicated
on the boiler (assuming the steam is dry saturated), i.e.
Q = amount of feed water x ( enthalpy of steam - enthalpy of water )
≅ 850 kW
Obtain the enthalpy data from the steam tables.
(ii) Heat Lost in the Flue Gases
The boiler is regarded as a flow system with one boundary on the combustion side at the
air inlet and the other at the flue-gas outlet at the back of the boiler where the
temperature is monitored. Heat is lost up the flue because the gases are considerably
hotter than the reference inlet temperature. The heat lost is given by
Q = MC p (Tgas − Treference )

where M = mass of wet flue gas (kg/s)

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 7

 C p = weighted average specific heat of the flue gas (averaged over the
expected temperature range for the boiler. Calculate the mass of flue gas
from the gas analysis and stoichiometry) = 1.07 kJ/kg K
Tgas = flue gas temperature at the back of the boiler corrected as shown in
Section 2.2. (f)
A corrected specific heat will be supplied when the flue analyses are completed at the
time of the experiment.
(iii) Losses from Boiler Surfaces
The losses from the boiler surfaces are calculated from
Q = hA (Tsurface − Tsurroudnings )
where h = hc + hr = combined heat transfer coefficient for the convection and the
radiation losses from the surface. For the platework take h = 15 W/m K and for a lagged
2

surface take h = 12 W/m K (Q ≅ 25 kW). Assume h is correct within ± 20%.

2

(iv) Overall Balance

There is now sufficient information to perform an overall energy balance for the boiler.
For the balance:
corrected heat in = heat to produce steam + heat out in flue-gas + losses from boiler surface
Perform balance and note any discrepancy.
(d) Losses from Pipework to Condenser
The heat losses are calculated from the formula:
Q = hA (Tsurface − Tsurroudnings )

where A = areas given on the accompanying sheet.

The heat transfer coefficient:
h = hc + hr = 12 W/m 2 K

Calculate the loss for each length of pipework (total loss ≅ 10 kW).
(e) Condition of Steam at Engine Room Header
(i) Add the losses in the pipework together, from the boiler to the engine room header
inclusive (Q1).
(ii) Hence calculate the enthalpy of the steam at this point:
Q1
H g = H g ,boiler −
mass of steam
where Hg,boiler = enthalpy of the steam as it leaves the boiler.
(iii) Note the variation over the two pressure gauges for the steam and comment on
this in your discussion.
(iv) At various points around the plant we are interested in the condition of steam, i.e.
whether it is superheated, dry or wet. By knowing the enthalpy of the steam, Hg,
and the pressure, P, the condition can be calculated for each of the three cases as
follows:

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 • If Hg > (Hg,sat at P) then the steam is superheated. The amount of superheat can
be obtained from the tables for superheated steam. By examination of the
tables, find the amount of superheat (∆K) which gives the enthalpy Hg at the
pressure P.
• If Hg = (Hg,sat at P) then the steam is dry and saturated and the dryness fraction
x = 1.0.
• If Hg < (Hg,sat at P) then the steam is wet. The dryness fraction x can be
calculated from
xH g , sat + (1 − x) H f = H g
where Hf = enthalpy of saturated liquid at pressure P.
Hence:
Hg − H f Hg − H f
x= =
H g ,sat − H f H f ,g
where Hf,g = latent heat of vaporisation at pressure P.
(f) Energy Balance for Vacuum Condenser and Steam Ejector
(i) Calculate the heat lost from the piping between the engine room header and the
condenser (remember that not all of the steam goes through pipe No. 6 - condenser
feed). Hence calculate the enthalpy of the inlet steam to the condenser (Hg).
(ii) Calculate the heat removed from the steam to form water at the condensing
pressure for the condenser and then subcool the water.
Qs = m ( H g − H f )
where m = steam flowrate to the condenser
Hf = enthalpy of the condensate
(iii) Calculate the heat removed from the steam due to ejector feed pipe surface losses
and to form water at the condensing pressure for the ejector. Note that Hg for this
steam will be different from that entering the vacuum condenser.
(iv) Calculate the heat removed in the cooling water of the condenser and ejector.
Qw = mw x C p x (Tout − Tinlet )
where mw = cooling water flowrate
Cp = specific heat of water = 4.183 kJ/kg K
(averaged over the temperature difference)
Tout and Tinlet are given by readings off dial gauges
(Qw ≅ 700 kW)
(v) Calculate the heat lost from the outside shell of the condenser as for the boiler
surfaces.
(vi) Perform an overall balance for the condenser and ejector:
energy lost by the steam = heat removed in cooling water + heat lost from shell
and note any discrepancy.

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 9

(g) Overall Energy Balance on Water and Steam
(i) Calculate the enthalpy out in the condensate based on the feed water temperature
as the reference, i.e.
Qc = mc x C p x (Tcondensate − Treference )
where mc = mass of condensate
Cp = specific heat of condensate = 4.187 kJ/kg K
(Qc ≅ 7 kW)
(ii) Perform an overall balance:
total heat supplied heat out in condensate +
to the water to = total heat lost from pipework +
produce steam total energy lost in condenser +
energy lost in steam ejector
and note the discrepancy.

(h) Overall Steam-Raising Efficiency

heat supplied to water to produce steam
Efficiency η = x 100%
corrected heat supplied by combustion of oil
(η ≅ 70%)

4. DISCUSSION
At this stage in the report, the noted discrepancies in the calculated results can be examined
critically and discussed in full. This may entail discussion of assumptions, measurement
errors, and other factors.

5. REFERENCES
Anon (1958) “The Efficient Use of Fuel”, 2nd Edition, HMSO, London.
Mills A.F. (1995) “Basic Heat and Mass Transfer”, Irwin, Chicago, Appendix A.
Perry R.H. and Green D. (1984) “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook”, 6th Edition,
McGraw Hill, N.Y.

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 10

APPENDIX 1
Check of Flue Gas Rate Using Pitot Tube Velocities
The accurate measurement of flow in ducts of this cross section is difficult. BSS 1042
recommends at least 16 measurements across the area of the duct to obtain the mean flow. To
correct for the drop in velocity at the wall (boundary layer) in the readings near the wall
should be given more weighting than those in the centre. Time allows us only four
measurements which should be taken near the centre of the duct and should be treated as in
Equation (1) to give the best estimate of the mean flow across the duct.
9
Vtrue = Vmeasured Equation (1)
11
where V is the velocity given from the graph (page 18) by using:
 4 
2

 ∑ Pi 
∆PPitot =  i =1 
 4 
 
 
From the cross-sectional area of the duct (A) the volume flowrate F can be calculated and the
mass flowrate M is obtained by multiplying F by the density ρ, i.e.
F = AV m3 /s
where A = 0.077 + 0.004 m2
M = ρAV kg/s (≅ 0.6 kg/s) = mass of wet flue gas
From the Pitot tube measurements:
We have an approximate (± 4%) knowledge of the total mass flow of the flue gas. This should
be compared with the mass flow calculated by stoichiometry.

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 11

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 12
ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 13
ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 14
 Positions to measure boiler surface temperatures:

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 15

 Positions to measure boiler surface temperatures:

1 2 1

Front of boiler

4 5

Back and side of boiler

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 16

ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 17
ENCH 271 - Boiler Lab 18