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Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load ofthe
structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. The main
components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender
members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding
shallow soil of low bearing capacity. the main types of materials used for piles are Wood,
steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the
ground and connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load
transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly.
The purpose of pile foundations is:
To transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
To resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have
adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is
unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile
foundation may become considered. In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that
the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction
should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to
resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water.
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FRICTION PILE
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An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as a firm
clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate frictional
resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas.
This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the
firm layer to give an enlarged base.
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1. Driven Pile
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile
into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There may also
be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
2. Bored Pile
figure13.2
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Eurocode 7 discusses three methods of designing pile foundations, as summarized in the
table below. m
^The following sub-sections discuss in more detail
design by static load tests, calculation, dynamic impact tests, pile driving formulae, and
wave equation analysis.
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Pile load tests must be performed when there is no comparable experience of the
proposed pile type or installation method; the results of previous tests under comparable
soil and loading conditions are not available; theory and experience do not provide
sufficient confidence in the design for the anticipated loading; or pile behavior during
installation deviates strongly and unfavorably from that anticipated (and additional
ground investigations do not explain this deviation).
The load test procedure must allow the pile¶s deformation behavior, creep, rebound, and
± for trial piles ± the ultimate failure load to be determined. The test load applied to
working piles must not be smaller than thefoundation¶s design load; piles tested in
tension should be loaded to failure to avoid having to extrapolate the load-displacement
curve.
Eurocode 7 does not specify how many piles should be tested, leaving this decision to
engineering judgment. For trial piles, this must be based on ground conditions and their
variability across the site;
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The design of pile foundations is performed after application of the following principles:
- The calculation of unfavorable (destabilizing) actions and of the stabilizing actions and
resistances.
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- Establishing design values of actions or action effects× where and are
the design and characteristic values of action applied to the pile respectively and is the
partial factor for an action. That is, the calculated axial force, lateral load or moment
considered as characteristic values of actions applied to the structure have to be
multiplied by a factor in order to be applied in design.
These actions can be either , i.e. the loads transmitted from a structure directly
to the pile head or through a raft, or they may be . The latter are caused by
ground movements, for example axial compression loads on the embedded surface of a
pile caused by negative skin friction (drag-down); or tension loads caused by swelling of
the surrounding soil.
- Establishing design values of ground properties or soil parameters that are obtained
from soil investigation reports, and which are usually used in calculations of ground
stabilizing actions thus design value of ground property is , whereis the
characteristic value of a material (ground) property (example cohesion of soil) and is
the partial factor for the material property.
- Defining limit states that must not be exceeded, such as GEO and/or STR ultimate limit
states
- Setting up calculation models where is the design value of the sum of actions
and of the effects of them and is the design value of the resistance of ground and/or
structure.
- Showing that the limit states previously defined are not exceeded.
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- GEO; for a pile foundation subject to compression, Eurocode 7 requires the design
compressive action acting on the pile to be less than or equal to the design bearing
resistance of the ground:
×where
^ ; and are the characteristic permanent and
variable values of P respectively, is the characteristic self-weight of the pile, and
are the partial factors on unfavorable permanent and variable actions respectively.
It is important to note that in some cases where a consolidating layer exists in contact
with the pile, a down drag force is developed between the pile and the soil of the layer,
this force as is called applies compressive load on pile and drags it down; consequently it
must be added to .
;
and are the shaft and base resistance respectively of a pile
foundation for several kinds of soils as defined in section 3.4.1,
and are the partial
safety factors.
- STR; for a pile subject to compression, Eurocode 7 requires that acting on pile to be
less than the design resistance of the pile material in compression:
; is as defined above
; is the resistance of the material of the pile to compression given as the
product ofarea of the pile section and the strength of the pile material to compression.
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For a pile foundation subject to tension, Eurocode 7 requires the design tensile action
acting on the pile to be less than or equal to the design tensile resistance of the
ground:
×!"^
Where and are partial factors on !"permanent and variable actions and
×!"(= 1.0) is a partial factor on !"permanent actions.
DD
D D; represented by wind /wave pressure, mooring forces, seismic lateral actions.
D
×^in case of short piles, where ×is the ground strength
parameter knowing that the horizontal strength of a short pile depend only on the strength
of the ground. And for a long pile whose horizontal strength is a function of pile
properties and ground strength, we have D
×××&×'×&^.Can be
calculated using section 3.4.2.
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05 ^
05
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Where D is pile diameter, the 3rd part of equation is neglected due to its small
contribution.
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-&*-: bearing capacity factor by (!, ' and 0, .&: section area of
pile.
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1.
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4^
.&
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and
.&
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Where:!
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47!8
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&(!
^
056&^
92!
Where:
p = pile perimeter
Where:
12 .
1.
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Three of the presently accepted procedures are:
1. c method
2. 0 method
3. J method
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Where:
"/=
mean effective vertical stress for the
entire embedment length
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For Ê74%
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Where:
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Where:
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ö
= 2.5 - 4
ö
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<
< D < 2 m and with expanded at pile point
2 .5
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< No expanded at pile point
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3-DESIGN OF PILE GROUP
Introduction
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Among the different in situ tests, cone penetration test (CPT) is considered
the most frequently used method for characterization of geomedia. The CPT
is basically advancing a cylindrical rod with a cone tip into the soil and
measuring the tip resistance and sleeve friction due to this intrusion. The
resistance parameters are used to classify soil strata and to estimate strength
and deformation characteristics of soils. Different devices added to cone
penetrometers made it possible to apply this test for a wide range of
geotechnical applications.
The CPT is a simple, quick, and economical test that provides reliable in situ
continuous soundings of subsurface soil. Due to the soft nature of soil
deposits in Louisiana, the CPT is considered a perfect tool for site
characterization.
Due to the similarity between the cone and the pile, the prediction of pile
capacity utilizing the cone data is considered among the earliest applications
of the CPT. Cone penetration tests can provide valuable and continuous
information regarding the with depth. Therefore, the in situ
characteristics of the soil are available to the design engineers at a particular
point. The pile design methods that utilize the CPT data proved to predict
the pile capacity within an acceptable accuracy.