ADJECTIVUL POSESIV

TREBUIE UTILIZAT OBLIGATORIU CU:

1 Partile corpului
2 Obiecte de imbracaminte si incaltaminte
3 Alte obiecte din care are toata lumea

Exemple:

1. Ai ceva pe palarie.
There is something on your hat

2. Da-mi haina si te rog sa-mi dai inapoi umbrella.

Give me your coat and please give me back your umbrella.

3. M-ai calcat pe picior.

You stepped on my foot.

4. Ma doare capul.
My head aches.

a durea = to hurt ( in urma unei rani, dureri provocate din exterior)

to ache ( a simti o durere )

I have a head-ache.
I have an aching head.
I have a sore ( care doare) throat.= Ma doare gatul.

Gradele de comparatie

1) pozitiv = adjectivul nu se schimba

2) comparativ - de inferioritate (2.1.)

- de egalitate (2.2.)
- de superioritate (2.3.)

3) superlativ - relativ (3.1.)

- absolut (3.2.)

2.1. Comparativ de inferioritate

 pt adj scurte (mono si bisilabice) se formeaza din:

not so/not as + adj + as
Ex: This room is not so big as the bedroom.
sau
This room is not as big as the bedroom.

 pt adj lungi se formeaza:

less + adj + than
Ex: The chair is less comfortable than the bed.

2.2. Comparativ de egalitate

Atat pt adj scurte cat si pt lungi:

as + adj + as
Ex: The bed is as good as the chair.

Ideea de egalitate mai poate fi sugerata si prin constructia:

the same + subst + as
! as si nu like !!!
Ex: This room is the same size as the other one.

Schimbare de valoare gramaticala

Adjectiv Substantiv

big, small size (masura)

long, short length (lungime)
broad, narrow breadth (largime pt ceva concret)
wide, narrow width (largime pt ceva abstract)
high, low height (inaltime)
deep, shallow depth (adancime)
heavy, light weight (greutate)
strong, weak strength (putere)……..etc.

Constructii cu comparativul de egalitate:

as brave as a lion
as blind as a bat
as black as coal
as busy as a bee
as cool as a cucumber
as clear as daylight
as dry as a bone
as easy as ABC
as fresh as a daisy
as hairy as a gorilla
as mad as a hatter (palarier)
as poor as a church-mouse
as silent as a grave
as wise as Solomon
as soft as silk
as smooth as grass
as gentle as a lamb…….etc.

2.3. Comparativul de superioritate

- pt adj scurte
adj + er + than

Modificari ortografice:
1) daca adj se termina in “e”, se adauga doar “r”
Ex: nice – nicer

2) daca adj se termina in “y” precedat de consoana, se transforma “y” in “ier”

Ex: pretty – prettier
Exceptii: shy – shyer
sly – slyer
wry – wryer (stramb)

3) daca adj se termina in consoana precedata de vocala, dublez consoana finala

Ex: big – bigger

- pt adj lungi
more + adj + than
Ex: The book is more interesting than the movie.

Adj provenite din latina sunt urmate de “to” si nu de “than”

Ex: He is superior to me.

3.1. Superlativul relativ

the + adj +est
Ex: large – the largest
 silly – the silliest
Modificarile ortografice sunt la fel.

Pentru adj lungi:

the most+ adj
Ex: This is the most expensive thing.

! dupa superlativ urmeaza prepozitiile “of” sau “in”

Ex: He is the best of all/the best in my group.

! daca se face comparatie intre 2 elemente, comparativul implica superlativul:

the + comparativ
Ex: Between you and me, I am the older.

3.2. Superlativul absolut

very + adj
very poate fi inlocuit cu: extremely
exceptionally
tremendously
awfully

! nu toate adj au grad de comparatie, unele definesc ideea de unitate (own, complete, proper, perfect, marvelous, maximum,
minimum).
Altele au sufixe si prefixe:

extra – large
over – crowded
super – fine
ultra – short
priceless

Comparatia neregulata
good – better – the best
bad – worse – the worst
ill – worse – the worst
many – more – the most
much – more – the most
little – less – the least
near – nearer – the nearest (cel mai apropiat); next (urmatorul)
far – farther – the farthest (in spatiu)
far – further – the furthest (in timp)
late – later – the latest; the last (ultimul); the latter (ult din 2)
Dintre 2, primul este “the former”, nu “the first”.
up – upper – the upmost
in – inner – the inmost
out – outer – the outmost
fore – former – the foremost
old – older – the oldest
old – elder – the eldest (doar atributiv, pt membrii aceleiasi familii)
Ex: My elder brother is older than me. (fratele meu mai mare)
Constructii adjectivale

1) cu mult mai = much/ a lot + comparativ

Ex: It is much warmer today / a lot warmer today

2) de departe cel mai = by far + superlativ

Ex: This is by far the hottest day of the year.

3) din ce in ce mai = comp + and + comp

Ex: It is warmer and warmer

! pt adj lungi se repeta doar “more”

Ex: It is more and more interesting.

4) cu cat mai,… cu atat mai… (the + comparativ …the + comparativ)

! Expresia e obligatoriu sa se repete identic si verbul “to be” lipseste:
Ex: The more, the better (cu cat mai mare, cu atat mai bine)

! Mai multe adjective care determina acelasi substantiv se despart prin virgula. Daca nu apare virgula intre ele atunci cel care nu
este urmat de virgula este adverb.

! Ordinea adjectivelor care determina un substantiv va tine cont de cele subiective (primele expuse) si de cele obiective (imediat
langa substantiv).

! Un adjectiv poate sa determine si un verb. Verbul va fi obligatoriu “to be” sau orice alt verb de perceptie care poate fi inlocuit cu “to
be”.

Ex: I am intelligent
He looks happy sau He is happy.

Adjectivul demonstrativ

 anuleza articolul substantivului

 invariabil ca forma (M/F)
 se aseaza in fata substantivului pe care il determina
 daca nu determina un substantiv devine pronume demonstrativ

“this” – aceasta, acesta (singular apropiere)

“these” – acestea, acestia (plural apropiere)
ambele merg cu “here”.

“that” – acela, aceea (singular departare)

“those” – acelea, aceia (plural departare)
ambele merg cu “there”.

! Indepartarea in spatiu presupune si indepartarea in timp. Deci “that” si “those” se vor cupla cu trecutul.

Ex: This book is good. (this = adjectiv, book = substantiv)

This is a good book. (this = pronume)

Adjectivul posesiv

 invariabil ca forma si numar

 anuleaza articolul substantivului
 se aseaza in fata substantivului pe care-l determina
 forme: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
Ex: My book.

Adjectivul interogativ

 pozitie initiala in propozitie

 invariabil ca forma
 anuleaza articolul
 determina un substantiv
 forme: what, which, whose, how much, how many.

Diferenta: what./which
Which presupune selectie dintr-un numar limitat.
Ex: Which boy is your best friend?

What nu presupune selectie.

Ex: What days of the week do you know?
Diferenta how much / how many
How much presupune cantitatea si se foloseste pentru substantive nenumarabile.
Ex: How much money do you want?

How many inseamna numar si se foloseste la substantive numarabile.

Ex: How many books do you want?

Adjectivul relativ

 pozitie mediana
 introduce o propozitie secundara
 invariabil
 determina un substantiv anulandu-i articolul
 forme:
whatever (fara selectie),
whichever (selectie din numar limitat),
whose (a, al, ai, ale cui).

Ex: You may take 1/ whatever books you want 2/.

Adjectivul nehotarat

SOME = unii, niste, vreo, cativa

Utilizare:
1. In propozitia enuntiativa urmat de substantiv nenumarabil sau numarabil la plural.
Ex: I have some money / friends.

2. In propozitia interogativa in care se face o afirmatie sau o invitatie.

Ex: Would you like some coffee?

3. In propozitia in care stiu sigur ca primesc raspuns pozitiv.

Ex: Mother, can you give me some money?
Aici “some” pp o certitudine comparativ cu “any”.

4. In propozitia interogativa in care intrebarea nu se refera la “some”.

Ex: Why are there so many people in some restaurants?
Aici, cu sau fara “some” propozitia are aceeasi logica, ea nu se refera la “some”, important este “so many”

5. In propozitia negativa al carui sens este afirmativ.

Ex: I never go home without buying some chocolate.
Sensul real este: I always buy chocolate when I go home.

6. Cand poate fi inlocuitorul lui “certain”.

Ex: Certain people/some people believe they are the best.

ANY
Este inlocuitorul lui “some” in:

1. Propozitia interogativa la care nu stiu ce raspuns voi primi.

Ex: Is there any milk left?

2. In propozitia enuntiativa dar cu sensul de oricine, oricare, orice.

Ex: Any book is good for you.

3. In propozitia care contine un adverb negativ de genul: hardly, barely, scarcely (de abia, cu greu, deloc).
Ex: I hardly eat any bread (nu mananc paine aproape deloc)

4. In propozitia care contine “if”. (if = incertitudine)

Ex: If you find any books, buy them.

5. In propozitia care contine o expresie de indoiala: maybe, perhaps.

Ex: I doubt there are any good films in town.

6. In propozitia negativa in care verbul este negat.

Ex: I haven’t any friends here.

NO
Se foloseste numai in propozitia negativa in care verbul este la afirmativ.
Ex: I have no friends here.

EVERY (fara particularizare)

Ex: Every day I go to my office. (nu ma duc chiar in fiecare zi)

EACH – (cu particularizare)

Ex: Each person has a name. (fiecare, particularizare)

EITHER – (fiecare din doi)

NEITHER – (nici unul din doi)

! Dupa each, every, either sau neither rmeaza substantiv numarabil la singular iar acordul cu verbul se face la singular.

Expresii cu every si each

Each other = unul pe altul (pp reciprocitate)
Every bit/inch = fiecare bucatica
Every right = tot dreptul
Every now and than = din cand in cand
Every other day = alternativ
Every so often = la interval regulat de timp fara a sti exact cand.

SUCH (astfel)
Urmat de substantiv numarabil la plural sau nenumarabil.
Ex: I have such friends/information.

SUCH A
Urmat de substantiv numarabil la singular.
Ex: This is such a man of honor.

ALL
Urmat de substantiv nenumarabil sau numarabil la plural.
Ex: All books/information must be used.

WHOLE
Urmat de substantiv numarabil la singular.
Ex: I like the whole book.

! Pt perioade de timp se poate folosi si “whole” si “all”

Ex: I’m home all the morning/ the whole morning. (whole este cotat ca fiind mai puternic)
THE OTHER
Urmat de substantiv numarabil la singular sau plural.
Ex: The other child/children can swim.

Expresia “The other day” = some days ago, cere obligatoriu trecutul.
Ex: I was there the other day. (Am fost acolo acum cateva zile)

OTHER
Urmat de substantiv numarabil la plural.
Ex: Give me other examples.

Daca e precedat de “no” poate fi urmat si de numarabil la singular.

Ex: No other man is as good as you are.

ANOTHER
+ substantiv la singular (different, in addition)
Ex: Would you like another drink? = vrei inca unul (suplimentar) sau un altul (diferit)?

BOTH
+ substantiv numarabil la plural (pt. doi)
Ex: I like both kids -> acordul in plural
Both are intelligent.

SEVERAL
Mai multi intr-un numar nedefinit.
+ substantiv numarabil la plural.
Ex: We spent several days there.

MOST = majoritatea
+ substantiv numarabil la plural sau nenumarabil.
Ex: Most books/information can be read easily.

ENOUGH
! Daca e urmat de substantiv nenumarabil sau numarabil la plural are pozitie mobila.
Ex: I have enough money/money enough to be happy.

! Daca e urmat de substantiv numarabil la singular se aseaza dupa el.

Ex: He is man enough to understand me.

3.1. Forma adjectivului

Adjectivele sunt invariabile. Ele nu îsi schimba forma în functie de gen sau numar.
Ex.: A hot potato, some hot potatoes.

Pentru a sublinia sau accentua sensul unui adjectiv se pot folosi very, really:
Ex.: A very hot potato, some really hot potatoes.
3.2. Pozitia adjectivului
De obicei adjectivul se aseaza în fata substantivului determinat:
Ex.: A good movie.
Dupa verbe auxiliare ca to be, to become, to seem, to look, to taste, to appear, to feel, to keep, to make, to smell, to sound, to turn,
etc:
Ex.: The movie is good.
You seem upset.
This cheese tastes different.
Dupa substantiv în expresii fixe:
Ex.: the Princess Royal, the President elect, the court martial
Câteva adjective, ca de exemplu chief, main, poor (=unfortunate) stau numai în fata substantivului determinat:
Ex.: This is the main purpose of the meeting.
That poor woman was living in a garage.
Altele pot sta numai dupa un verb auxiliar: asleep, upset, awake, afraid, alike, alive, alone, annoyed, ill, well, sorry
Ex.: He's asleep.
I'm alone.
Unele adjective îsi schimba sensul în functie de pozitia pe care o ocupa. Adjectivele involved, present, concerned au sens diferit
daca sunt plasate în fata substantivului sau dupa acesta.
Ex.: These are the people involved / concerned. (the people who have something to do with the matter)
They had an involved discussion on the matter. (detailed, complex)
I am a concerned mother. (worried, anxious)
The list of the students present is outside, on the door. (students who were there)
The present status of the matter requires urgent attention. (current)
3.3. Functiile adjectivului

Adjectivul ne spune mai multe despre calitatile substantivul determinat. Adjectivele pot exprima:
Sentimente sau calitati:
Ex.: They make an original couple.
She is a single mother.
Nationalitatea sau originea:
Ex.: Ricardo is Spanish. His mother is Argentinean and his father is Canadian.
I bought him a Swiss watch for Christmas.
Diferite caracteristici ale unui obiect:
Ex.: The table is long.
The steel tray was a gift.
Vârsta:
Ex.: My hat is too old. I will buy another one.
He is still very young, almost a boy.
Dimensiuni, marime si masuri:
Ex.: "Gone with the Wind" is a very long film.
That boy is too tall.
Culoarea:
Ex.: I have a red jacket to go with my new white skirt.
Materie / material:
Ex.: He wore a cotton shirt.
It was a silver tray, not a steel tray.
Forma:
Ex.: A rectangular envelope.
A round table.
Judecati, pareri sau opinii:
Ex.: Grammar is fascinating.
The show was entertaining.
3.4. Ordinea adjectivelor

Atunci când se folosesc doua sau mai multe adjective pentru a descrie acelasi substantiv, ordinea lor depinde de functiile acestora.
Exista mai multe variante, dar cea mai obisnuita ordine este: Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material
Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming
Size small, huge, tiny
Age/Temperature old, hot, young, little
Shape round, square, rectangular
Colour red, blonde, black
Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
Material plastic, wooden, silver

Exemple:
a green round plastic bucket
an elegant little French clock
a small round wooden table
3.5. Gradele de comparatie ale adjectivelor
3.5.1. Formarea comparativului si superlativului

Exista trei grade de comparatie ale adjectivelor: pozitiv (înalt), comparativ (mai înalt), superlativ (cel mai înalt). În limba engleza,
comparativul si superlativul se formeaza astfel:
Numar de silabe (Pozitiv) Comparativ Superlativ
o silaba + -er + -est
tall taller tallest
Adjectivele formate dintr-o silaba [consoana + o vocala + consoana] vor dubla consoana finala:
fat fatter fattest
big bigger biggest
sad sadder saddest
doua silabe + -er SAU more + adj + -est SAU most + adj
+ Adjectivele terminate în: -y, -ly, -ow
+ Adjectivele terminate în: -le, -er sau -ure
+ Urmatoarele adjective: handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet
happy happier/ more happy happiest/ most happy
yellow yellower/ more yellow yellowest/ most yellow
simple simpler/ more simple simplest/ most simple
tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest/ most tender
Daca nu esti sigur, foloseste more + adj SAU most + adj.
Nota: Adjectivele terminate în -y ca de exemplu happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc. vor înlocui -y cu -ier sau -iest la forma
comparativa si superlativa:
busy busier busiest
trei sau mai multe silabe more + adj most + adj
important more important most important
expensive more expensive most expensive
Exemple:
a. A cat is fast, a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest.
b. A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the heaviest.
c. A park bench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is more comfortable, but a sofa is the most comfortable.
3.5.2. Forme neregulate

Urmatoarele adjective au forme de comparativ si superlativ total neregulate:

Pozitiv Comparativ Superlativ
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
old older / elder oldest / eldest
much / many more most
far further / farther furthest / farthest
3.5.3. Comparatia adjectivelor
the + superlative
Ex.: This is the oldest theater in London.
comparative + than - pentru a compara diferentele dintre doua obiecte, evenimente sau fiinte:
Ex.: He makes fewer mistakes than you do.
Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.
as + adjective + as - constructie folosita pentru a compara oameni, locuri, fiinte, evenimete sau obiecte, între care nu exista
diferente:
Ex.: Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John.
Ramona is as happy as Raphael.
A tiger is as dangerous as a lion.
not as + adjective + as - putem arata diferentele dintre doua substantive folosind contructia not so/as ...as:
Ex.: Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest.
Norway is not as sunny as Thailand

ARTICOLUL

Tipuri:
1. Hotarat
2. Nehotarat
3. Zero

1. ARTICOLUL HOTARAT
Are forma unica “the”

Utilizare:
1.1. Cand substantivul a fost pomenit anterior
Ex: I see a man. The man is tall.

1.2. Pt. unicitati

Ex. The Earth; the sky; the Moon; the Bible.

1.3. In apozitie (apozitie = grup de cuvinte pt. a lamuri)

Ex. The poet Eminescu

1.4. Cand defineste o categorie

Ex: The elephant is a big animal.

1.5. Substantive provenite din adjective

Ex. The reach; the poor; the blind.

1.6. Substantiv urmat de pronume relativ

Ex. This is the man that loves me. (man = substantiv; that = pronume relativ)

1.7. Cu nationalitati privite ca o entitate

Ex: The Romanians

1.8. Documente si perioade istorice:

Ex: The Middle Ages; The Declaration of Independence.
1.9. Dinastiile
Ex: The Tudors

1.10. Adjectivul la superlativ

Ex: The best

1.11. Numerarul ordinal

Ex. The first

1.12. Puncte cardinale

Ex: Turn to the East

1.13. Numele de familie le plural

Ex: The Browns

1.14. Instrumente muzicale daca sunt precedate de “play”the

Ex: I play the piano

1.15. Un singur continent

Ex: The Arctic

1.16. Tari formate din mai multe state

Ex: The United States of America

Exceptii: The Argentina; the Congo; the Sudan; the Emen; the Netherlands.

1.17. Arhipelaguri
Ex: The Philippines

1.18. Un singur oras

Ex: The Hague

1.19. O singura strada:

Ex: The High Street

1.20. Lanturile muntoase

Ex: The Alps; the Carpathians

1.21. Toate formele de relief

Ex: The Sahara desert

1.22. Toate apele cu exceptia lacurilor

Ex: The Black Sea; The Danube

1.23. Canalele
Ex: The Panama Channel

1.24. Numele de ziare (revistele nu: Cosmopolitan)

Ex: The Times

1.25. Numele de avioane

Ex: The Titanic, the Flying Dutch

1.26. Monumente si dotari celebre

Ex: The Pyramids

1.27. Orice substantiv care se doreste a fi subliniat

Ex: The Mary I see is not the Mary I like.

1.28. Toate institutiile de importante in oras (cinema, teatru, restaurant),

Exceptie: gara si aeroportul
Ex: The Sofitel Hotel (exceptie: Kennedy airport)

1.29. Institutiile de invatamant daca sunt precedate de “of”

Ex: The University of Cambridge/Cambridge University

1.30. Toate substantivele proprii compuse alcatuite din adjectiv + substantiv

Ex: The Central Park / Hyde Park
The Royal Palace / Buckingham Palace
2. ARTICOLUL NEHOTARAT

Are forma unica “a” care devine “an” atunci cand cuvantul care urmeaza incepe cu o vocala (an egg) sau “h” aspirat (an hour
ago).

! Cuvantul care incepe cu “u” va primi “a” si nu “an” daca “u” formeaza singur silaba.
“a u-ni-ver-si-ty”
“a u-ni-form”
diferit de “an um-bre-lla”

Aceeasi regula pentru cuvintele care incepe cu “eu”

A European Country

! In fata lui one avem intotdeauna “a” si nu “an”

A one hundred dollars bill.

Utilizare

2.1. Cand substantivul a fost pomenit pentru prima oara.

Ex: This is a house.

2.2. Ca inlocuitor a lui one.

Ex: A hundred dollars.

2.3. Cand caracterizeaza o intreaga categorie

Ex: A manager is a person who…

2.4. Cand e precedat de “as”

Ex: I am dressed as a pirate.

2.5. In propozitiile exclamative cand este precedat de “what” sau “such”

Ex: What a lovely dress. Such a beautiful night.

2.6. In apozitie
Ex: John a friend of my mother.

2.7. Cand e urmat de Mr., Mrs., sau Mss. + substantiv propriu si nu cunosc identitatea persoanei.
Ex. A Mss Brown wants to see you.

2.8. Cand e precedat de verbul “to be”; “to become”; “to remain” si urmeaza nationalitatea, sex, apartenenta politica,
religie sau ocupatie.
Ex: He is a doctor.
You are an English.

Exceptie: titluri si functii dobandite temporar de anumite persoane.

Ex: He is Vice president of a company.

2.9. Pentru unitatile de masura ca inlocuitor a lui “per”.

Ex: One hundred kilometers per hour.
One hundred kilometers an hour.

2.10. In fata lui “little” si “few” pentru a le schimba sensul din negativ in pozitiv.

Little = almost nothing (sens negativ folosit pentru substantive nenumarabile)

Ex: I eat little bread (Nu mananc paine aproape deloc).

A little = at least some (are sens pozitiv si se foloseste cu substantive nenumarabile)

Ex: I have a little money on me (Am ceva bani la mine).

Few = almost nothing (sens negativ pt. substantive numarabile)

Ex: I have few friends here (n-am aproape deloc prieteni aici)

A few = at least some (are sens pozitiv si se foloseste cu substantive numarabile)

Ex: I have a few books to give you (am ceva carti sa-ti dau).
3. ARTICOULU ZERO

Lipsa articolului

3.1. Folosit in enumerare

Ex: I like the books, flowers, chocolate, that you offered me.

3.2. Substantive legate prin “and” sau “or”

Ex: Give me the book and note book.

3.3. Parti ale corpului

Ex: Give me your hand (Da-mi mana).

3.4. Imbracamintea in relatie cu corpul (se prefera adjectiv posesiv)

Ex: Give me your coat (Da-mi haina).

3.5. Momentele zilei:

In the - morning
- afternoon articulate
- evening

At - dawn (zori)
- noon
- midday
- midnoonnearticulate
- night
- midnight
 dusk

3.6. Adevaruri universal valabile, legi (Water boils at 100 degrees).

3.7. Alimentele
3.8. Materialele si substantele
3.9. Zilele sapt., lunile anului, anotimpuri, sarbatori
3.10. Denumirile geografice precedate de: Lake, Cape, Mount

The Alps / Mount Everest

3.11. Stiinte, ob. de studii, nationalitati si limbi

Ex: We are Romanians.
I speak English / The Romanian you speak is very good.

3.12. Mesele zilei privite ca abstracte:

Ex: Breakfast is at seven / the breakfast is on the table.

3.13. Abstractiunile
I go to school. (la scoala ca studiu)
I go to bed. (ma duc sa ma culc).

3.14. Mijloace de locomotie daca sunt precedate de prepozitia “by”:

By car
By train
By sub
On foot (pe jos)

3.15. Structuri paralele:

Hand in hand
Face to face
Step by step
Arm in arm
Day after day

3.16. Structurile inchise (cap-coada):

From….to…
From sunrise to sunset
From right to left
From beginning to end
Pentru ca un substantiv sa capete înteles într-o propozitie oarecare, acesta trebuie sa fie însotit de un determinant substantival. Cel
mai des folosit determinant substantival este articolul. Articolele se pot clasifica dupa cum urmeaza:
Articolul hotarât - the
Articolul nehotarât - a / an
Articolul zero (forma implicita sau neexprimata)

Articolele sunt forme invariabile, adica nu se schimba în functie de numarul sau genul substantivului si se aseaza în fata
substantivului determinat.
2.1. Articolul hotarât (the)

Articolul hotarât se foloseste:

Înaintea unui substantiv care a mai fost mentionat în contextul respectiv
Ex.: An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose.
Atunci când atât vorbitorul cât si ascultatorul cunosc notiunea exprimata de substantiv, desi nu a mai fost mentionat în context.
Ex.: - Where's the bathroom? - It's on the first floor.
În propozitii sau fraze în care definim sau identificam anumite persoane sau obiecte:
Ex.: The man we met yesterday at the bus station. The girl in red is her neighbor.
Referitor la obiecte pe care le consideram unice:
Ex.: the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars
Ann is in the garden (the garden of this house).
Înaintea superlativului sau numeralelor ordinale first, second, thirds, etc si only:
Ex.: the best day, the first week, the last chapter, the only way
Înaintea unor adjective pentru a te referi în general la un grup de oameni care au în comun o anumita însusire (sunt frumosi, tineri,
batrâni, japonezi, etc):
Ex.: the young, the beautiful, the old, the best, the Japanese, the British
Nume de locuri geografice, oceane, râuri, mari, deserturi, munti, regiuni:
Ex.: the Caribbean, the Sahara, the Atlantic
Se foloseste înaintea unor nume proprii (muzee, institutii celebre, hoteluri, ziare, orchestre, grupuri muzicale, vapoare, nume de
famili la plural,etc):
Ex.: the National Gallery, the Royal Shakespeare, the Savoy, the Beatles, the Spice Girls, the Guardian, the Telegraph, the Daily, the
Titanic, the Tower of London, the House of Parliament, the Smiths
Decade, secole, grupe de ani:
Ex.: My parents went to University in the seventies.
2.2. Articolul nehotarât (a / an)

Se foloseste a înaintea substantivelor care încep cu o consoana si an înaintea substantivelor care încep cu o vocala (a, e, i, o, u)
Ex.: a boy, an apple, a car, an orange, a house, an opera
Exceptii:
An înainte de un h mut - an hour, an honor.
A înainte de u sau eu atunci când se pronunta ca you: a European, a university, a unit

Articolul nehotarât se foloseste:

Pentru a te referi la ceva pentru prima data:
Ex.: Would you like a drink? I've finally got a good job.
Pentru a te referi la un anume membru al unui grup sau clase:
Exemple:
cu nume de profesii: John is an engineer. Mary is training to be a nurse.
cu nationalitati si religii: John is an Englishman. Kate is a Catholic.
cu instrumente muzicale: Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived.
cu numele zilelor: I was born on a Thursday.
pentru a desemna un fel de, sau un exemplu de: The mouse had a tiny nose. It was a very strange car
cu substantice la singular, dupa cuvinte cum ar fi what si such: What a bluff! He is such a prodigious young man.
atunci când te referi la un singur obiect sau persoana, echivaleaza cu one: I'd like an orange and two lemons please. The burglar
took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting.
Retineti ca se spune a hundred, a thousand, a million.
2.3. a / an si one
Atunci când numeri sau masori timpul, distanta, greutatea, etc. se poate folosi fie a/an fie one pentru singular:
Ex.: a / one pound, a / one million pounds
You can take an/ one hour for lunch.
Dar a/an si one nu înseamna întotdeauna acelasi lucru:
Ex.: A box is no good. (We need a crate not a box).
One box is no good, we need two boxes.
2.4. Articolul zero

Nu se foloseste articol în urmatoarele cazuri:

Cu nume de tari (la singular)
Ex.: Germany is an important economic power.
He's just returned from Argentina.
(Însa: I'm visiting the United States next week.)
Cu numele limbilor:
Ex.: French is spoken in Tahiti.
English uses many words of Latin origin.
Cu numele meselor:
Ex.: Lunch is at midday.
Dinner is in the evening.
Breakfast is the first meal of the day.
Cu numele persoanelor (la singular):
Ex.: John's coming to the party.
George King is my uncle.
(Însa: We're having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.)
Cu titluri si nume:
Ex.: Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son.
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
Dr. Watson was Sherlock Holmes' friend.
(Însa: the Queen of England, the Pope.)
Dupa cazul posesiv format cu 's:
Ex.: His sister's car.
Laura's basket.
Cu numele profesiilor:
Ex.: Engineering is a useful career.
He'll probably go into medicine.
Cu nume de magazine:
Ex.: I'll get the card at Smith's.
Can you go to Boots for me?
Cu ani:
Ex.: 1948 was a wonderful year.
Do you remember 1995?
Cu substantive unice (uncountable nouns):
Ex.: Milk is often added to tea in England.
War is destructive.
Cu numele unor munti, lacuri si insule:
Ex.: Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska.
She lives near Lake Windermere.
Have you visited Long Island?
Cu majoritatea numelor de strazi , orase, statii pentru mijloacele de transport si aeroporturi:
Ex.: Victoria Station is in the centre of London.
Can you direct me to Bond Street?
She lives in Florence.
They're flying from Heathrow.
În unele expresii invariabile:
Ex.: by car, at school, at work, at University, in church, in prison, in bed, by train, by air, on foot, on holiday, on air (in broadcasting)

CONJUNCTIA

A. Dupa aspect

1. Simple: but, if, and.

2. Compuse: however, unless, otherwise.

3. De legatura: as…as, both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, whether…or .

4. Locutiuni: as well as, as if (de parca), as though (de parca), for instance, that’s why, so long as (atata timp cat).

B. Dupa functie

1. De coordonare
a) “and” - care leaga - propozitii intre ele
- parti de vorbire de acelasi fel
Ex: I go and stay there for a week

b) “as well as”

Ex: I work in a school as well as at home.

c) “neither…nor”
Ex: I am neither in the kitchen nor in the bathroom.

d) “not only…but also…”

Ex: I am not only intelligent but also pretty.

e) “as well”
Ex: He is calm and good as well.

f) “either…or”
Ex: They are either brother and sister or husband and wife.

g) “furthermore” (cu atat mai mult)

Ex: I speak English, furthermore I wood like to visit England.

h) conjunctii adversative: but, while, whereas (pe cata vreme, tinand seama de) – contrasteaza cu propozitia principala.
Ex: I am tall but fat.
I am talking while you are righting.

k) conjunctii disjunctive: or, else, or else (ori, cu alte cuvinte), otherwise (altfel).
Ex: Would you prefer coffee or tea?
Please put your coat else you get whet.
Learn your lesson otherwise you fail.
i) conjunctiile concluzive: consequently, on that account, so, then, that is why (iata de ce), therefore (de aceea).
Ex: I haven’t slept therefore/that is why I am tired.

j) conjunctii explicative: for example, for instance, namely, that is to say.

Ex: Only one friend of mine left Romania, namely Ela.
I like do a lot of thinks for instance/example reading, dancing, …

2. De subordonare – acelea care introduc o propozitie secundara. Unele dintre ele sunt specializate pe anumite tipuri de propozitii.
Ex: pt. concesive: through, although (desi)
pt. conditionale: if
pt. comparative: as if (de parca), as though
pt. predicative sau pt. subiective, completive directe, atributive

(1) Subordonate predicative – introduse prin:

a) “what”
Ex: The question is what I must read.

b) “who”
Ex: The question is who is he.

c) “where”
Ex: The question is were I go.

d) “when”
Ex: The question is when I can come.

e…) whatever, whoever, that, why

(2) Subordonate subiective – introduse prin:

a) “that”
Ex: It is necessary that you should understand this rule.

b) “what”
Ex: It doesn’t matter what you believe.

c) “who”
Ex: It hasn’t be decided who is the leader of the team.

d) which, whoever, whatever, whichever, when, how, why, where, if, whether.

(3) Subordonate completive directe (cele cu forma de complement): if, that, whether, whatever, whoever, wherever, why, whichever.
Ex: She sad that she was tired.
I don’t know if you leave Romania.
I don’t know whoever want’s my dog.
I do whatever you want me to do.
I may take whatever book you want.

(4) Subordonate indirecte – introduse prin: to whom, to what, to anyone, whoever.

Ex: I may give the flowers to whom you want.
You interpret whatever she says.
 (5) Subordonate prepozitionale – introduse prin: who, whom, whoever, whichever, how daca sunt precedate de o prepoziitie.
Ex: You depend on what I say.
You must approved of whatever she says.

(6) Subordonate atributive – introduse prin: whose, which, whom, were, why, when, that.
Ex: This is the woman who loves me.
This is the man whose wife is pretty.
This is the boy whom I greeted.

(7) Subordonate adverbiale – introduse prin: as, like, much as, how, in the manner, as if, as though, just.
Ex: No one speaks like you do.
They acted much as I told them. (= respectand majoritatea celor spuse de mine)

(8) Subordonate conditionale – introduse prin: if, on condition that, only if.
Ex: I shall come soon if/on condition that I find my passport.

Defini[ie.
Conjuncţia este partea de vorbire care exprimă:
a) Raporturi de coordonare sau subordonare =ntre dou] propozi[ii, raporturi de coordonare =ntre dou] p]r[i de propozi[ie sau =ntre o
parte de propozi[ie \i o propozi[ie.
b) Este neflexibil] din punct de vedere morfologic;
c) Nu îndeplineşte nici o funcţie sintactică în propoziţie, dar marchează raporturile de coordonare şi subordonare în cadrul propoziţiei
şi al frazei.

Not]
Pronumele relative who, which, that \i what, precum \i adverbele where, when, how \i why, leag] propozi[iile =ntre ele, dar, spre
deosebire de conjunc[ii, intr] =n =ns]\i structura propozi[iei (ca parte a propozi[iei).
Ex: I know the man that helped them. +l cunosc pe b]rbatul care i-a ajutat.

Clasificare.
Dup] form] conjunc[iile pot fi:
a) Simple (Simple), formate dintr-un singur cuvqnt: and (\i); or (sau); if (dac]); for (pentru); that (c]), sice (deoarece) etc.
Ex: A man came in and I had to open the door. A venit un b]rbat \i a trebuit s] deschid u\a.
b) Compuse (Compound), formate din dou] sau mai multe p]r[i de vorbire scrise =ntr-un singur cuvqnt: although (all + though) - de\i,
otherwise (other + wise) - altfel; however (how + ever) - totu\i etc.
Ex: He was a very bad man, nevertheless the Lord changed him into an honest man.
Era un om foarte r]u, totu\i Domnul l-a schimbat =ntr-un om cinstit.

c) Complexe (Complex) formate din dou] conjunc[ii sau conjunc[ii asociate cu adverbe sau prepozi[ii: as if/ as though (ca \i cqnd/
ca \i cum), as soon as (=ndat] ce, imediat ce), as long as (atqt timp cqt), so that (astfel =ncqt).
Ex: He was calm as long as David sang a psalm. El se calma atqta timp cqt David cqnta un psalm.

d) Corelative (Correlative): either ...or (sau...sau); neither ... nor (nici...nici); both ...and (atqt... cqt \i); no sooner....than
(deabia...cqnd).
Ex: No sooner has Mary started to pray than he began to sing.
Deabia s-a apucat Mary s] se roage, cqnd el a =nceput s] cqnte.

e) Locu[iuni conjunc[ionale (Conjunctional Phrases), construc[ii alc]tuite din p]r[i de vorbire combinate cu conjunc[ii sau cu alte p]r[i
de vorbire cu sens unitar \i valoare de conjunc[ie: on condition that/ provided that (cu condi[ia ca); in order that (ca s]); no matter
how (indiferent).
Ex: He started studying the Word in order that he would become a preacher.
El a =nceput s] studieze Cuvqntul, pentru a deveni predicator.

Dup] func[ie \i con[inut, conjunc[iile se =mpart =n:

1) Conjunc[ii coordonatoare (Coordinating Conjunctions)
2) Conjunc[ii subordontoare (Subordinating Conjunctions)

1) Conjunc[iile coordonatoare leag] dou] p]r[i de propozi[ie care au aceea\i func[ie sintactic] sau dou] propozi[ii de acela\i fel.
Acestea se sub=mpart =n:
a) conjunc[ii copulative (Copulative Conjunctions) indic] o no[iune care se adaug] alteia: and (\i), besides (pe lqng], afar] de); nor
(nici); as well as (precum \i); both ...and (atqt... cqt \i); not only...but also (nu numai ...ci \i).
Ex: Besides the old desk he also ordered a new lamp.
+n afar] de biroul cel vechi el a mai comandat \i o lustr] nou].

b) conjunc[ii adversative (Adversative Conjunctions) exprim] un contrast: but (dar, =ns]), whereas (=n timp ce), while (=n timp ce);
however (totu\i); yet, still (totu\i); only (numai c]).
 Ex: Luke likes playing the violin while his brother likes to swim.
Lui Luca =i place s] cqnte la vioar] =n timp ce fratelui s]u =i place s] =noate.

c) conjunc[ii disjunctive (Disjunctive Conjunctions), care exprim] alternativa: either ...or (sau...sau), or (sau), otherwise (altfel); else
(altfel); or else (sau dac] nu); neither ...nor (nici... nici).
Ex: I was waiting at the entrance but neither Sam nor his brother waited for me.
Am a\teptat la intrare, dar nici Sam, nici fratele lui nu m-au a\teptat.

d) conjunc[ii conclusive (Illative Conjunctions), exprim] o concluzie: hence (deci, prin urmare); so (a\adar); accordingly, conse`uently
(=n consecin[]); therefore (de aceea); that is why (de aceea).
Ex: It was a warm day therefore we decided to go to do some park evangelism.
Era o zi cald], de aceea ne-am hot]rqt s] mergem s] evangheliz]m prin parc.

2) Conjunc[iile subordonatoare (Subordinating Conjunctions) leag] propozi[iile subordonate de propozi[ia regent] de care
depind.
+n func[ie de raporturile pe care le stabilesc, conjunc[iile subordonatoare apar[in urm]toarelor categorii:
a) conjunc[ii de loc (Conjunctions of Place), care introduc subordonate circumstan[iale de loc: where (unde); wherever (oriunde);
whence (de unde); whither (=ncotro).
Ex: I will go wherever the Lord sends me. Voi merge oriunde m] va trimite Domnul.

b) conjunc[ii de timp (Conjunctions of Time), care introduc subordonate temporale: when (cqnd), after (dup] ce); till/ until (pqn]
cqnd); as soon as (=ndat] ce); as long as (atqt timp cqt); before (=nainte); while (=n timp ce); whenever (ori de cqte ori); ever since
(=ncq de cqnd); since (de (cqnd)).
Ex: I will be protected as long as I follow the Lord. Voi fi protejat atqta timp cqt +l urmez pe Domnul.
c) conjunc[ii de mod (Conjunctions of Manner), care introduc subordonate modale: as (a\a cum); just as (=ntocmai cum); exactly
as (exact cum); so far as (=n m]sura =n care).
Ex: Men will reap as they sow. Cum =[i a\terni a\a dormi.
d) conjunc[ii de cauz] (Conjunctions of Cause), care introduc subordonate cauzale; as, since, because, for (fiindc], deoarece, pentru
c], =ntrucqt); seeing that (dat fiind c]); now that (acum c]); considering that (avqnd =n vedere c]).
Ex: He did that for he knew his cause was right.
El a f]cut asta pentru c] a \tiut c] are o cauz] dreapt].
e) conjunc[ii de scop (Conjunctions of Purpose), care introduc subordonatele finale: so that (ca s]); in order that (ca s], cu scopul de
a); for fear that (de team] s] nu); in case, lest (ca s] nu, ca nu cumva s]).
Ex: We left earlier for fear that we could lose the plane.
Am plecat mai devreme de team] s] nu pierdem avionul.

f) conjunc[ii condi[ionale (Conditional Conjunctions), care introduc subordonate condi[ionale: if (dac]), on condition that, as long as/
so long as (cu condi[ia s]); unless (dac] nu).
Ex: I will not go unless all the others agree to join us.
Nu voi pleca dac] nu consimt \i to[i ceilal[i s] ni se al]ture.

g) conjunc[ii concesive (Conjunctions of Concession), care introduc subordonate concesive: though, although (cu toate c], de\i);
however (oricqt de); in spite of (=n ciuda faptului c]); even if/ even though (chiar dac]); no matter (indiferent).
Ex: In spite of being tired, I went to the library.
+n ciuda faptului c] eram obosit, m-am dus la bibliotec].

h) conjunc[ii consecutive (Conjunctions of Result), care introduc subordonate consecutive: (so)... that (astfel =ncqt); such.... that
(a\a =ncqt).
Ex: It was such a sunny day that I had to turn on the air conditioning.
Era a\a de cald c] a trebuit s] dau drumul aerului condi[ionat.

i) conjunc[ii comparative (Conjunctions of Comparison), care introduc subordonate comparative: than (decqt); as if, as though (de
parc], ca \i cum): as... as (tot atqt... cqt); not so... as (nu atqt...cqt).
Ex: My task is not so easy as it seemed in the beginning.
Sarcina mea nu este atqt de u\oar] pe cqt p]rea la =nceput.

Utilizarea conjunc[iilor
1) Conjunc[iile coordonatoare sunt folosite pentru a lega dou] sau mai multe unit][i sintactice de acela\i nivel (p]r[i de propozi[ie
sau propozi[ii =ntr-o fraz]).
Ex: John and his brother James followed the Lord Jesus.
Ioan \i fratele lui Iacov L-au urmat pe Domnul Isus.

Not].
Conjunc[ia and, de\i tipic copulativ], poate exprima \i alte raporturi, atqt de coordonare, cqt \i de subordonare. Iat] cqteva din acestea:
- Cu valoare adversativ];
Ex: He said he would follow Him and finally he didn’t.
El a spus c]-L va urma pe El \i pqn] la urm] nu L-a urmat.
- Cu valoare final].
Ex: Come to me all you who are weary and burdened and I will give you rest.
Veni[i la mine, voi care sunte[i osteni[i \i =mpov]ra[i \i v] voi da odihn].
Conjunc[iile either…or (sau…sau) =n propozi[ii afirmative \i interogative implic] alternativa.
Ex: Either myself or my wife will be at home at that time. Fie eu, fie so[ia va fi acas] la acea or].

+ntr-o fraz] alc]tuit] din dou] propozi[ii negative coordonate, conjunc[iile neither sau nor sunt utilizate =n cea de-a doua propozi[ie cu
schimbarea ordinii cuvintelor.
Ex: She couldn’t use her voice in the worship service, nor/ neither did she play the guitar.
Ea nu \i-a putut folosi vocea =n serviciul de =nchinare, nici nu a cqntat la chitar].

2) Conjunc[iile subordonatoare sunt folosite pentru a stabili raporturi =ntre propozi[iile subordonate \i propozi[iile regente dintr-o
fraz].
Unele conjunc[ii subordonatoare sunt universale, putqnd introduce mai multe tipuri de subordonate.
a) Conjunc[iile that \i whether pot introduce:
- subordonate completive directe
Ex: He told me that John was coming. Mi-a spus c] John urma s] vin].
- subordonate subiective
Ex: It is essential that he comes with me to the church. Este esen[ial ca el s] vin] cu mine la biseric].
- subordonate predicative
Ex: The problem is whether he would mind this change of schedule.
Problema e dac] el va avea ceva =mpotriva acestui program.
b) Conjunc[ia if poate introduce:
- subordonate condi[ionale
Ex: If I were you, I should go straight there now. Dac] a\ fi =n locul t]u, m-a\ duce direct acolo acum.

- subordonate completive directe

Ex: We wondered if he was a Christian. Ne =ntrebam dac] el este cre\tin.

- subordonate subiective
Ex: It is not known if she came here last night. Nu se \tie dac] ea a venit aici asear].

- subordonate predicative
Ex: The problem was if we could get the van we needed. Problema era dac] puteam face rost de microbuzul de care aveam nevoie.

c) Conjunc[ia as poate introduce:

- subordonate circumstan[iale de mod
Ex: Judge as you think fit. Judec] cum crezi c] e mai bine.

- subordonate circumstan[iale de cauz]

Ex: He decided to go to pay them a visit, as he missed them very much.
S-a hot]rqt s] mearg] s] le fac] o vizit], fiindc] =i era foarte dor de ei.

-subordonate circumstan[iale de timp

Ex: He thought itis best to solve it as he returned home.
S-a gqndit c] e cel mai bine s-o rezolve cqnd s-a =ntors acas].

Poziţia conjuncţiilor
1) Conjunc[iile coordonatoare sunt a\ezate =ntre unit][ile sintactice pe care le leag].
Ex: I saw Paul and June coming together at the office yesterday.
I-am v]zut pe Paul \i June venind =mpreun] la birou ieri.
2) Conjunc[iile corelative sunt alc]tuite din doi termeni a\eza[i =naintea p]r[ilor de vorbire cu aceea\i func[ie sintactic].
Ex: Either I or my wife will meet you at the airport. Fie te voi primi eu la aeroport, fie so[ia mea.
3) Conjunc[iile subordonatoare sunt a\ezate la =nceputul subordonatei care: a) precede sau b) urmeaz] propozi[ia regent].

a) MAIN CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION + SECONDARY CLAUSE

Ex: We are happy because the Lord granted us salvation.

Suntem ferici[i pentru c] Domnul ne-a promis mqntuirea.

b) CONJUNCTION + SECONDARY CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE

Ex: As he was on the wrong way, a Christian shared with him about Jesus.
Deoarece era pe drumul gre\it, un cre\

PREPOZITIA

Este de trei feluri: - de loc

- de miscare
 - de timp

1. Prepozitia de loc

Se foloseste cu verbe statice: to be/to stay/to exist/to stand, etc.

in – in, la, pentru spatii mari Ex: I live in Bucharest.

at – in, la, pentru spatii reduse Ex: I live at Sinaia.

within – in cadrul, pentru suprafete restranse Ex: A lot of words have been said within these walls.

against – rezemat Ex: The man is against the wall.

– impotriva Ex: We are against them.

on – pe (pozitia pe o suprafata) Ex: The book is on the table.

Pentru apropiere:
 imediata: next to, close to, beside
 apropiere: near, near by, by

Pozitia pe verticala:

over – deasupra
under – dedesubt (fara raportare la un punct fix)

above – deasupra
below – dedesubt (cu raportare la un punct fix)
Ex: above zero, below the water level

underneath – punctul cel mai de jos

on top of – punctul cel mai de sus (prin atingere)
Ex: The green book is underneath. (este cea mai de jos carte)

Pozitia pe orizontala:

in front of – in fata
behind – in spate (pentru lucruri pentru a indica pozitia)
Ex: The tree is in front of the house.

after – dupa
before – inainte (pentru oameni, pentru a indica ordinea)
Ex: I’m before you at the queue.
(to queue = a se aseza la coada)

between – intre 2
among – printre (mai mult de 2)

2. Prepozitia de miscare

se foloseste numai cu verbe de miscare

to – la, catre (pp atingerea punctului) Ex: I go to school.

towards – la, catre (nu pp atingerea punctului) Ex: I go towards office.

Into – in (pp patrunderea intr-un spatiu) Ex: Put the bag into the house.

Onto – pe (pp miscarea pe o suprafata orizontala;se pune “on”daca sta)The cat is running onto the floor.

along – de-a lungul (pp miscarea pe o suprafata plana si lunga) Ex: I’m walking along the beech.

through – prin (pp traversare si patrundere) Ex: I walk through the park.

across – traversare (nu si patrundere) Ex: I run across the street.

about – prin (arata o miscare nedefinita) Ex: I walk about town (prin oras, fara un tel precis)

around – in jurul (pp o miscare circulara) Ex: I dance around the fire.

out of – pp iesirea dintr-un volum Ex: Get out of my house.

off – pp desprinderea de o suprafata Ex: The plane takes off.

up-and-down – in sus si in jos pe un plan vertical Ex: The children run up-and-down the stairs.

from – de la, de pe, din Ex: Take it from my bag.

past – langa (pp apropierea imediata prin miscare)

Ex: I drive past the university (si nu near the university!, pt ca sunt in miscare)

3. Prepozitia de timp

in – pentru ani, lunile anului, anotimpuri, perioade ale vietii (in my childhood),
in anumite momente ale zilei (in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening)

at – pentru ora (at 10 o’clock), in anumite momente ale zilei (at noon, at midday, at midnight, at dusk), pentru varsta (at the age
of 15), mesele zilei (at lunch time), cu week-end (at the week-end) si in sarbatori (at Christmas)

on – cu zilele saptamanii (on Sunday), data (on the 15th of June) si sarbatorile (on Christmas day –
cand este vorba de ziua de Craciun, nu de toata perioada)

before si after – inainte si dupa, cu raportare la un punct fix

by – nu mai tarziu de Ex: Try to arrive by ten.

during – in timpul

over – in timpul, dar pe perioade scurte Ex: Read it over the week-end.

throughout / althrough – de-a lungul, dar pe o prioada lunga de timp Ex: Althrough the years.

Diferentiere intre prepozitii

in time on time
cu ceva timp inainte la fix

in the end at the end

finally, in cele din urma la capatul (urmeaza un substantiv)

in with
pentru ceva cu care esti imbracat pentru o trasatura fizica
Ex: A woman in trousers. A woman with long hair.

as like
pentru rol, functie, pozitie pentru comparatie
Ex: I work as a teacher. Ex: I talk like a teacher.
(I am a teacher) (I am an engineer)
on about
in legatura cu, folosit academic despre
Ex: Give me a book on Economics. Ex: Let’s talk about sex.

due to owing to
datorita (doar dupa “to be”) datorita (restul inafara de “to be”)
Ex: My success is due to her. Ex: Owing to my work I succeeded.

over across
pp traversarea peste un obstacol traversare pe jos
Ex: I’m over the ocean. (cu avionul) Ex: I’m across the ocean. (cu barca)

despite in spite of
dupa urmeaza CD (niciodata sub.) dupa urmeaza genitiv
Ex: Despite the bad weather I left. Ex: In spite of the bad weather I left.
made of – recunosc materialul Ex: made of gold
made from – deduc ceva elemente Ex: the cake is made from cocoa
made with – recunosc 1 element Ex: a chocolate made with milk (dar laptele nu este elementul de baza)

in – in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening

at – at dawn, at midnight
on – pentru orice moment al zilei atunci cand exista un atribut

Ex: In the morning dar On a fine day

At night dar On a starry night

Pentru mijloace de locomotie

by – cu orice mijloc de transport, daca nu este determinat

Ex: by car, by bus, by plane (dar on foot!)

in – pentru autovehicule, daca sunt determinate

Ex: in my father’s car, in the car that you bought me

on – pentru toate celelalte in afara de autovehicule daca sunt determinate

Ex: on my father’s plane, on the tube/subway/underground

1.1 Felul substantivelor

Substantivele în limba engleza se pot împarti în patru categorii:

substantive comune: cat, girl, lamp
substantive proprii: England, London, Mr Smith, Mary
substantive abstracte: beauty, love, courage, fear, joy
substantive colective: crowd, group, team
1.2. Genul

Substantive de genul masculin sunt fiintele si animalele de sex masculin:

Ex.: man, boy, lion, dog

Substantivele de genul feminin sunt fiintele si animalele de sex feminin:

Ex.: woman, girl, cat, giraffe

Substantive de genul neutru sunt lucrurile, plantele, animale sau fiinte al caror sex nu este cunoscut (pronume: it/they):
Ex.: world, peace, house, mouse, baby
Exceptii: tarile, navele, în majoritatea cazurilor si autovehiculele sau alte vehicule sunt de genul feminin.

Substantivele de genul comun sunt o particularitate a limbii engleze. Substantivele care intra în aceasta categorie au aceeasi forma
pentru ambele sexe:
Ex.: child (copil, copila), cook (bucatar, bucatareasa), teacher (profesor, profesoara).

Unele substantive au forme diferite pentru genul masculin si cel feminin:

Ex.: boy - girl, husband - wife, brother - sister, father - mother, son - daughter, uncle - aunt, dog - bitch, bull - cow, king - queen
1.3. Numarul

Numarul este forma pe care o ia un substantiv pentru a arata ca ne referim la unul sau mai multe obiecte sau fiinte.
Singularul coincide cu forma de baza a unui substantiv: dog, girl, wife, world, storm
Pluralul substantivelor se formeaza prin adaugarea unui s la forma de singular:
Ex.: cat+s=cats, day+s=days, world+s=worlds
Pluralul substantivelor teminate în ch, o, sh, s, x se formeaza adaugând es la singular.
Ex.: church+es=churches, bush+es=bushes, class+es=classes, potato+es=potatoes, bush+es=bushes, box+es=boxes
1.3.1. Pluralul neregulat
Substantive terminate în consoana+y fac pluralul în ies:
Ex.: company - companies, factory - factories, baby - babies
Unele substantive terminate în o fac plural prin adaugarea unui s.
Ex.: soprano - sopranos, piano - pianos, photo - photos
Unele substantive terminate în f sau fe vor suferi la plural schimbarea în ves.
Ex.: leaf - leaves, half - halves, wife - wives, life - lives, self - selves, wolf - wolves
Exceptii: roof - roofs, handkerchief - handkerchiefs, gulf - gulfs, wharf - wharfs/ wharves
Câteva substantive formeaza pluralul prin schimbarea unei vocale interne
Ex.: foot - feet, man - men, tooth - teeth
Pluralul substantivului child este children.
Unele substantive ramân identice la plural Ex.: aircraft, deer, series, sheep, species, fish
1.3.2 Pluralul substantivelor compuse
În cazul substantivelor compuse numai ultimul cuvânt va trece la plural.
Ex.: boy-friends, break-ins, travel agents
Exceptii: substantivele compuse al caror prim element este man sau woman vor primi semnul pluralului pentru ambele substantive
componente.
Ex.: men drivers, women teachers, men servants
În cazul substantivelor compuse formate din constructii de genul substantiv + prepozitie / adverb + substantiv, substantivul de baza
va primi semnul pluralului.
Ex.: sisters-in-law, passers-by, men-of-war, hangers-on, lookers-on, runners-up
Abrevierile sau initialele vor forma pluralul prin adaugarea unui s
Ex.: MPs (Members of Parliament), VIPs (very important persons)
1.4. Substantivele unice (uncountable nouns)

Sunt substantive care nu se pot numara (uncountable) deoarece reprezinta fie unicate, obiecte puternic individualizate, notiuni
abstracte.
Nume de substante: bread, coffee, gold, paper, cloth, glass, oil, stone, wood
Abstractiuni: earth, paradise, nature, the present, advice, death, help, information, news, beauty, experience, horror, knowledge,
friendship, theory, literature
Alte substantive: baggage, damage, shopping, reading, luggage, parking, weather

Substantivele unice sunt întotdeana la singular si vor lua un verb la singular:

Ex.: This coffee is cold. The weather was dreadful.

Nu sunt precedate de a/an; pentru a exprima o unitate din aceste substantive se foloseste: some, any, no, a little, bit, piece of, slice
of, etc.
Ex.: I do not want any help. I need some information. This slice of bread is hard. The piece of advice you gave me helped.

Nota: Multe dintre substantivele unice pot avea si sensuri care se pot numara, astfel devenind substantive comune si comportându-
se ca atare (primes a/an la singular, pot avea plural).
Sens Unic / Sens Comun

Her hair is black. (Parul ei este negru.)

She found a hair in the milk. (A gasit un fir de par în lapte.)
Their house was made of wood. (Casa lor este din lemn.)
We picnicked in the woods. (Am mers la picnic în padure.)
1.5. Forma posesiva
Se adauga 's la forma de singular a substantivelor care nu se termina în s:
Ex.: a child's voice, the people's choice, a horse's mouth, women's clothes
Vom folosi doar apostroful (') cu formele de plural ale substantivelor care se termina în s.
Ex.: a boys' school, the Johnsons' residence
Numele proprii terminate în s vor primi fie doar apostrof ('), fie 's
Ex.: Mr Jones's / Mr Jones' car, Yeats's / Yeats' poems
În cazul substantivelor compuse si a titlurilor ultimul cuvânt va primi 's
Ex.: My father-in-law's guitar, Henry the Eighth's wives
's se foloseste si dupa initiale sau abrevieri.
Ex.: The CEO's assistant, the PM's speech
Forma posesiva se foloseste în general când vorbim de oameni, animale, tari. Se foloseste de asemenea în urmatoarele cazuri:
În expresii temporale
Ex.: yesterday's newspaper, in five years' time, ten minutes' break
În expresii construite dupa modelul bani + worth
Ex.: ten dollars' worth of bananas, a shilling's worth of stamps
În alte expresii uzuale:
Ex.: for heaven's sake, a winter's day, the water's edge, the plane's wings, the train's departure
În cazul anumitor substantive folosite la posesiv, este uzuala omisiunea substantivului urmator atunci când sensul comunicarii este
clar (magazine, birouri, oficii, casa, locuinta).
Ex.: You can buy this at the baker's (shop). Mary bought her tickets at the travel agent's (office). The kids went to Bobby's (house).
Ideea de posesie se poate exprima si cu ajutorul constructiei of+substantiv. Aceasta constructie se foloseste mai ales pentru lucruri
sau fiinte umane sau animale atunci cand acestea sunt urmate de o propozitie subordonata.
Ex.: the walls of the town, the roof of the church, the keys of the house
I took the advice of the girl I met on the bus and went to buy the book.

NUMERALUL

Este de doua feluri:

 cardinal (1)
 ordinal (2)

1. Numeralul cardinal
Arata numarul, cantitatea

Numeralul zero
1) zero = pentru calcul matematic si pentru exprimarea temperaturii
Ex: It’s ten degrees above zero.

2) love = zero pentru exprimarea scorului la tenis (15-0 = fifteen-love)

3) nil = (nothing) = zero pentru exprimarea scorului la fotbal
4) naught = zero cand face parte din partea zecimala a unui numar
5) oh = zero pentru numere de telefon

De la 1 la 12 avem forme distincte

De la 13 la 19 avem (numeral simplu + “teen”), la care accentul cade pe sufix si “i”-ul este lung.

De la 20 la 90 avem (numeral cardinal + “ty”), care este scurt si cu accentul pe prima silaba.
Ex: 40 = forty (nu mai are “u”!)

Numeralele compuse se scriu cu cratima

Ex: 42 = forty-two

One hundred = 100

Ca numeral nu poate avea plural, dar are ca substantiv. Este substantiv cand:

a) este urmat de “of”:

Ex: hundreds of pages

b) nu determina alt substantiv:

Ex: hundreds are here

Numeralul compus peste suta se scrie cu prepozitia “and” la englezi si fara la americani.
Ex: 210 = two hundred and ten

One thousand = 1,000

Aceleasi reguli ca la suta.

One million = 1,000,000

Fara “s” la TOEFL, dar este corect si cu “s” (2 millions) in engleza.

One billion = 1,000,000,000

Americanii zic milliard.

Utilizarea numeralului cardinal:

1) pentru exprimarea temperaturii (cu verbul “to be”)

2) pentru calcule matematice:
Addition (to add = a aduna)
2 + 3 = 5 two plus/and three is/are/equals five
(acordul se face in sg si in pl)

Subtraction (to subtract = a scadea)

5 – 3 = 2 five minus/take away is two
(acordul se face doar in sg)

Multiplication (to multiply = a inmulti)

2 x 3 = 6 two multiplied by three/twice three/3 times 2 is/are/equals six
(acordul se face in sg si in pl)

Division (to divide = a imparti)

6 : 3 = 2 six divided by three is two
(acordul se face doar in sg)
“reminder” = rest
 Root = radical - cube root = radical de ordinul 3
- square root = radical de ordinul 2

Power = putere
More than = >
Less than = <
Equal to = egal
Unequal to = diferit de
Parallel to = paralel
Perpendicular to = perpendicular
Angle = unghi
Right angle = unghi drept
Straight angle = unghi de 180 grade
Circle angle = unghi de 360 grade

Even = par
Odd = impar

3) pentru exprimarea unitatii monetare:

coin = moneda
bill/note = bancnota
nickel = 5 centi
dime = 10 centi
quarter of a dollar = 25 centi
half of a dollar = 50 centi

4) pentru unitati de masura – la timpul potrivit (cand primim I20) !!!

5) pentru exprimarea anilor: se citesc cifrele 2 cate 2, iar anii formati din mai putin de 4 cifre se citesc ca un numeral.

! zero nu se citeste in cadrul acestor 4 cifre ale anilor

Ex: 1907 = nineteen seven

 era noastra (e.n.) = a.d. (ante domini) sau in the year of Lord
 inaintea erei noastre = b.c. (before Christ)

6) pentru exprimarea numerelor zecimale (“decimal fractions”), intregul se citeste ca atare, punct in loc de virgula, iar partea
zecimala cifra cu cifra
Ex: 20.03 = twenty point naught three

! daca intregul este <1, nu se citeste

Ex: 0.1 = point one

7) pentru exprimarea varstei (cu verbul “to be”)

Ex: I’m twenty (years old) / I’m twenty years of age.
sau
I’m aged twenty.

Aproximarea varstei se face cu: almost, about (around), over, under

Ex: I’m in my twenties (am douazeci si)
I’m mid-twenty (25 ani)

8) pentru exprimarea numerelor de telefon

to dial = a forma un numar
figure = cifra
slot = orificiu pentru ban
booth = cabina telefonica
receiver = receptor
long-distance call = convorbire la distanta
call collector = convorbire cu taxa inversa
operator = centralista
extension = interior
to be through = a avea legatura
to hang on = a ramane pe fir
to hang up = a inchide
Numerele de telefon se citesc cifra cu cifra cu exceptia cifrei repetate daca este la inceputul sau la sfarsitul numarului. Regula nu se
aplica pentru zero.
Ex: 223700 – double two, 3, 7, oh, oh

9) pentru exprimarea orei:

 formal
 informal
Ex: What’s the time?
What time is it?
What’s the time by your watch?
My watch is fast = ceasul meu e inainte
My watch is slow = ceasul meu e in urma
My watch is wrong = ceasul meu nu merge bine
My watch is broken = ceasul meu e stricat
face = cadran
belt = curelusa
hand = limba de ceas (minutes hand, seconds hand)

Pentru ora exacta:

a) It’s seven o’clock sharp PM/AM
b) 00.00 = midnight
12.00 = midday
c) It’s half past … (e si jumate)
d) It’s a quarter past/to … (e si un sfert/ fara un sfert)
e) It’s ten minutes past/to (e si/fara zece)

Ora oficiala: 08:00 = oh eight hundred hours

23:24 = twenty three twenty four

Numerale speciale:
couple = 2 (pt oameni si pt timp); couple of minutes = 2 minute
pair = 2 pereche (pt imbracaminte, incaltaminte, unelte cu structuri paralele)
Ex: a pair of shoes
yoke = team = 2 pentru animale
Ex: a yoke of cattle = 2 vite
a team of oxen = 2 boi
brace = 2 pentru vanat
Ex: I have brace duck (am 2 rate salbatice)
score = 20
half a score = 10
dozen = 12
gross = 144 (12 duzini)

2. Numeralul ordinal
Se formeaza din:
the + numeral cardinal + th
Exceptii: the first (primul)
the second (al doilea)
the third (al treilea)
+
toate celelalte numerale compuse care contin una din aceste exceptii
(21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, … 101, 102, 1001, 1002, etc)

Prescurtari: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, …21st, 22nd, etc.

! “th” se aplica doar ultimei cifre !

Modificari ortografice:
five – the fifth
eight – the eighth
nine – the ninth
twelve – the twelfth
twenty – the twentieth (+ toate cele terminate in “ty”)
Utilizarea numeralului ordinal:
1) exprimarea datei (in 2 forme)
a) luna/zi/an
b) zi/luna/an

2) exprimarea ordinii intr-o insiruire

Ex: Henry the eighth
the first floor
the second World War

3) pentru numeralul fractionar (common fraction/vulgar fraction)

numerator = numaratorul (cardinal)
denominator = numitorul (ordinal)
Ex: 1/3 = one third

! daca numaratorul > 1, numitorul va fi in plural

Ex: 2/3 = two thirds

Intregul = the whole

Fractia pe 100 = per cent
Procentaj = percentage

Numeralul distributiv
Arata distributia lucrurilor:
One by one = unul cate unul
Two at a time = 2 odata
By twos / in twos = cate 2

Numeralul adverbial
Arata de cate ori se repeta o actiune:
once = o data
twice = de 2 ori
3 times
4 times, etc.

! nu exista “twice more”, ci “twice as much as” = de 2 ori mai mult

Numeralul multiplicativ
Arata de cate ori creste o cantitate:
double = twofold = indoit (de 2 ori)
tenfold = inzecit

ADVERBUL

 Determina un verb in sensul lui concret, de baza

 Determina un adjectiv

Ex: He runs quickly because he is extremely quick.

In general adverbul este terminat in “ly”, dar nu tot ce are “ly” este adverb.
De regula se formeaza din adjectiv + “ly”.

Modificari ortografice:
1) daca adjectivul se termina in “e”, acesta se pastreaza “ely”
Ex: nice – nicely
Exceptii:
due – duly (datorat)
true – truly
whole – wholly

2) daca adjectivul se termina in “le”, se transforma “e” in “y”/ “ly”

Ex: capable – capably
3) daca adjectivul se termina in “ll”, se adauga doar “lly”
Ex: full – fully

4) daca adjectivul se termina in “ic”, se adauga “ally”

Ex: automatic – automatically

5) daca adjectivul se termina in “y”, indiferent daca este precedat de vocala sau de consoana,
se transforma in “i” si se adauga “ily”
Ex: pretty – prettily
gay – gaily
Exceptii:
shy – shyly
wry – wryly
coy – coyly (sfios)

6) adjectivul “good” face adverbul “well”

! ca sa verific L-urile unui adverb, il desfac in adjectiv + ly
Ex: usually = usual + ly
bitterly = bitter + ly
awfully = awful + ly

Adverbe care au 2 forme cu acelasi inteles (oricare din ele este corect)
1. bright = brightly
2. sound = soundly
3. fair = fairly
4. tight = tightly (sunt echivalente)
5. dear = dearly
6. dead = deadly
7. cheap = cheaply
Ex: The sun shines bright / brightly.

! forma in “ly” se va prefera totusi cand adverbul determina un adjectiv

Ex: He is deadly tired. (si nu “he is dead tired”).

Adverbul cheap se va folosi in loc de cheaply doar pentru a caracteriza activitati comerciale (to buy, to sell, to get)
Ex: She bought it cheap.
dar
We traveled cheaply.
Adverbe cu 2 forme cu 2 intelesuri diferite

clean = complet
cleanly = intr-o maniera curata

clear = exact
clearly = intr-o maniera clara

close = apropiat
closely = indeaproape

deep = adanc
deeply = profund

direct = direct
directly = imediat

due = spre (la busola) Ex: They went due South.

duly = punctual

easy = usor Ex: Take it easy!

easily = intr-o maniera lejera

free = gratis
freely = pe sleau, deschis
full = complet
fully = pe scara larga, intr-o maniera extinsa

hard = greu
hardly = de-abia, cu greu, aproape deloc

high = sus
highly = foarte

just = tocmai
justly = asa cum se cuvine

late = tarziu
lately = in ultima vreme
large = extins
largely = pe scara larga

most = majoritatea
mostly = cu precadere

near = langa
nearly = aproape ca

pretty = foarte
prettily = intr-o maniera draguta

right = exact
rightly = cu precizie, clar

sharp = fix
sharply = intr-o maniera taioasa

short = brusc
shortly = imediat

Adverbe si adjective cu aceeasi forma si inteles

fast
far
early
alike
alone
past
solo
straight
next
little
outside

! daca adjectivul se termina in “ly”, el devine adverb prin contructia

in a + adj + manner

Ex: He is a friendly person.

adj
He speaks to me in a friendly way / manner.
adv

coward = las (substantiv)

cowardly = las (adjectiv)
in a cowardly manner = cu lasitate (adverb)

Gradele de comparatie

Se construiesc astfel:

1) daca adjectivul si adverbul au aceeasi forma, se comporta ca un adjectiv scurt (gradele se fac cu “er” si “est”)
Ex: I run fast / not so fast as / as fast as / faster than / the fastest of all / very fast

2) daca adverbul se obtine din adjectiv + ly, face gradele de comparatie ca un adjectiv lung (cu “more” si “the most”)
Ex: He runs quickly / less quickly than / as quickly as / more quickly than / the most quickly of all / very quickly

Comparatia regulata

well – better – the best

badly – worse – the worst
much – more – the most
far – farther – the farthest
– further – the furthest
near – nearer – the next
little – less – the least
late – later – the last

Adverbe de timp

ago – se foloseste cand raportarea se face fata de un moment prezent

Ex: I saw her one hour ago.

! daca raportarea se face fata de un moment trecut, in loc de ago se pune before
Ex: I told her that I had met her one hour before.

for – arata durata unei actiuni fara a prezenta momentul de inceput si sfarsit al actiunii. Este specific prezentului perfect
simplu si continuu si trecutului perfect continuu.
Ex: I haven’t met her for two years.

! se poate intalni si cu timpul trecut

Ex: I was a student for two years (I’m no longer a student).

! pentru perioade lungi de timp (for ages, for centuries)

! nu se pune “for” dupa verbele:

to last
to take
to wait
to spend
to stay
Ex: I’ve been waiting ten minutes, (si nu I’ve been waiting for ten minutes).
It lasts five seconds, (si nu it lasts for five seconds).

since – arata inceputul perioadei fara a preciza durata si momentul final. Este specific prezentului perfect simplu si continuu
si trecutului continuu.
Ex: I haven’t met her since Monday.

Locutiuni adverbiale

subst + after + subst

day after day

year after year
month after month

during – urmat intotdeauna de substantiv. A nu se confunda cu while (in timp ce), care presupune actiuni paralele.
During poate fi inlocuit cu “in” daca se refera la perioade de timp
Ex: during my life = in my life

from … to – poate fi inlocuit cu till, dar niciodata cu until, pentru ca until nu presupune cunoasterea momentului de sfarsit al
actiunii
Ex: I work until I die. (nu stiu cand)
I get up at 8 o’clock and work till 10 o’clock.
! until nu poate fi cuprins in expresia from … to in loc de “to”

Adverbul de mod

fairly – foarte, dar nu extraordinar

Ex: Your story is fairly interesting.
Fairly se cupleaza intotdeauna cu adjectivul la gradul pozitiv.

quite – este mai puternic decat fairly. Se foloseste cand vreau sa fac o apreciere favorabila.
Ex: This car is quite cheap.

! cand se refera la adjective sau adverbe care nu au grade de comparatie, “quite” capata sensul de absolut, complet, de-a dreptul.
Ex: Your dress is quite unique.

rather – se foloseste cand am de facut o apreciere nefavorabila si sensul este = foarte, neasteptat de. Se foloseste numai cu
caracteristici negative.
Ex: This car is rather expensive.

Poate fi precedat si urmat de articolul “a”

Ex: This is a rather difficult exercise.
This is rather a difficult exercise.
pretty – foarte (familiar, intre prieteni)
Ex: I’m pretty tired.

very – Este cel mai cunoscut si se cupleaza cu orice (pozitiv, comparativ sau superlativ)
Ex: I do my very best.
He is very much faster than I am.

much / a lot = se cupleaza cu comparativul

Ex: He is much faster than I am.

by far = se cupleaza cu superlativul

Ex: He is by far the fastest of all.

too – se cupleaza cu pozitivul

Ex: He is too fast.

enough – se cupleaza cu pozitivul, dar se aseaza dupa el

Ex: He is fast enough for a champion.

so – se cupleaza - cu much, many, little, few + substantiv

- cu adjectiv / adverb la pozitiv
Ex: It is so difficult.
I have so many friends / so much money.
There is so little time left.

such – urmat de - substantiv numarabil la sg precedat de “a”

- de constructia adjectiv + substantiv la pl
Ex: He is such a man.
They are such interesting persons.

Adverbele sunt cuvinte care ne spun mai multe despre cum , unde, când, cât de frecvent sau în ce măsura are loc o actiune.
4.1. Functia adverbelor

Astfel, adverbele determina în general verbe:

Ex.: The bus moved slowly. (cum?)
I am going home tomorrow. (când?)
Adverbele pot determina si adjective: You look absolutely fabulous!
Sau alte adverbe: She played the violin extremely well. You're speaking too quietly.
Sau chiar propozitii intregi: Perhaps we'll see you again next year.
4.2. Forma adverbelor

4.2.1. Adverbele se formeaza de cele mai multe ori prin adaugarea unui -ly la forma de singular a adjectivului:
Adjectiv Adverb
(Adjectiv + ly) Exemple
careful carefully He carefully picked up a tie.
quick quickly Time goes quickly.
slow slowly He walked slowly to the door.

Modificari ortografice:
Daca adjectivul se termina in -y, acesta se va inlocui cu -i + -ly.
Ex.: easy - easily, angry - angrily, lucky - luckily
Când avem un -le terminal (-able, -ible, -le), dispare -e si este inlocuit cu -y.
Ex.: probable - probably, terrible - terribly, gentle - gently
Adjectivele terminate in -ic adauga -ally.
Ex.: basic - basically, economic - economically, tragic - tragically
Exceptie: public - publicly
Forme neregulate
Ex.: true - truly, due - duly, whole - wholly

4.2.2. Unele adverbe au aceeasi forma ca si adjectivele:

Ex.: early, fast, hard, high, late, near, straight, wrong

Compara:
This is a hard exercise. (adjectiv)
He works hard. (adverb)
We saw many high buildings. (adjectiv)
The bird flew high in the sky. (adverb)

4.2.3. Unor adjective le corespund doua forme adverbiale, care au sensuri diferite:
Adjectiv Forme adverbiale Exemple
deep 1. deep
2. deeply He looked deep into her eyes. (adanc)
She is deeply in love. (profund, pâna peste cap)
direct 1. direct
2. directly You can dial New York direct. (în mod direct)
He went there directly. (direct, fara întârziere)
first 1. first
2. firstly My mother came in first, then my brothers and sisters. (întâi)
Firstly, I would like to welcome you here. (în primul rând)

Alte exemple: hard, light, just, last, late, most, near, prett, right, round, short, wrong.

Well / Good
Well este adverbul care corespunde formei adjectivale good.

They are good swimmers.

They swim well.

She is a good pianist.

She plays the piano well.
4.3. Gradele de comparatie ale adverbelor

Adverbele formeaza comparativul si superlativul la fel ca si adjectivele (vezi: 3.5. Gradele de comparatie ale adjectivelor):
Adauga -er pentru comparativ si -est pentru superlativ la adverbele dintr-o singura silaba: hard - harder - hardest
Adauga more pentru comparativ si most pentru superlativ la adverbele formate din doua sau mai multe silabe si la cele terminate in
-ly: seriously - more seriously - most seriously
Unele adverbe au forme neregulate la comparativ si superlativ: badly - worse - worst, little - less - least, well - better - best, much -
more - most

De retinut! Uneori most poate avea sensul de very:

We were most grateful for your help.
I am most impressed by this application.
4.4. Clasificarea adverbelor
Adverbe de mod
Adverbe de loc si directie
Adverbe de timp, durata si frecventa
Adverbe de probabilitate
Adverbe de grad
4.4.1. Adverbe de mod

Adverbele de mod ne arata cum, in ce mod are loc o actiune. Ele se aseaza in propozitie dupa verb sau dupa complementul
acestuia.
Exemple:
He swims well. (dupa verb)
He ran... rapidly, slowly, quickly.
She spoke... softly, loudly, aggressively.
James coughed loudly to attract her attention.
He plays the flute beautifully. (dupa complement)
He ate the chocolate cake greedily.

1. Adverbul de mod nu se aseaza între verb si complement:

Incorect: He ate greedily the chocolate cake.
Corect: He ate the chocolate cake greedily.

2. Pozitia adverbului în propozitie este foarte importanta mai ales atunci când exista mai multe verbe în propozitie. Daca adverbul
este asezat dupa o propozitie, atunci acesta modifica întregul sens exprimat în propozitie.
Observa diferentele de sens în functie de locul adverbului în propozitie:
He quietly asked me to leave the house. (= cererea lui a fost facuta în liniste)
He asked me to leave the house quietly. (= plecarea a fost facuta în liniste)
4.4.2. Adverbe de loc si directie

Ne arata unde are loc actiunea verbului. Se aseaza in general dupa verbul principal sau complementul sau.
Exemple:
Dupa verb:
I looked everywhere.
John looked ...away, up, down, around...
I'm going ...home, out, back...
Dupa complement:
They built a house nearby.
She took the child outside.

A. Here / there. Cu verbe de miscare, here exprima ideea de înspre/ cu / împreuna cu vorbitorul, iar there contrariul, departe, fara
participarea vorbitorului:
Ex.: Come here (= spre mine)
It's in here (= vino impreuna cu mine sa vezi)
Put it there (= departe de mine)
It's in there (= du-te singur sa vezi)

Expresii cu here/ there: down here, down there, over here, over there, under here, under there, up here, up there.

B. Adverbele de loc terminate în -wards - exprima ideea de miscare într-o anumita directie:
Ex.: backwards, forwards, downwards, upwards, inwards, outwards, northwards, southwards, eastwards, westwards, homewards,
onwards.
Cats don't usually walk backwards.
The ship sailed westwards.

De retinut! Towards este prepozitie, nu adverb, astfel încât va fi întotdeauna urmat de un substantiv sau pronume:
Ex.: He walked towards the car. She ran towards me.

C. Adverbe care exprima atât locul cât si directia: ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoors, outdoors.
4.4.3. Adverbe de timp, durata si frecventa

Arata cand a avut loc o actiune dar si durata sau frecventa actiunii.
Ex.:
Când: today, yesterday, later, now, last year
Durata, pentru cât timp: all day, not long, for a while, since last year
Cât de frecvent: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly

De obicei, adverbele de timp se aseaza la sfârsitul propozitiei sau emfatic, la începutul ei:
Ex.: One of my children wrote to me yesterday.
Later the boy understood the story.
Adverbele care indica durata se aseaza la sfarsitul propozitiei:
Ex.: She stayed in the house all day.
My mother lived in France for a year.

De retinut! For este intotdeauna urmat de o expresie de durata: for three days, for a week, for several years, for two centuries.
Since este intotdeauna urmat expresia unui moment punctual în timp: since Monday, since 1997, since the last war.

Adverbele de frecventa exprima frecventa unei actiuni si se aseaza de obicei in fata verbului principal, dar dupa verbele auxiliare
(cum ar fi be, have, may, must):
I often eat vegetarian food. (in fata verbului principal)
You must always fasten your seat belt. (dupa verbul auxiliar must)
I have never forgotten my first kiss. (dupa verbul auxiliar have si in fata verbului principal forgotten)

Unele adverbe de frecventa exprima regularitatea incidentei unei actiuni si se plaseaza la sfarsitul prepozitiei:
This magazine is published monthly.
He visits his mother once a week.

Adverbe de fecventa: frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, often, regularly, sometimes, usually.

De retinut! Yet se foloseste in propozitii interogative sau negative:

Have you finished your work yet? No, not yet.
They haven't met him yet.
Still exprima ideea de continuitate. Se foloseste in propozitii pozitive sau interogative.
I am still hungry.
Do you still work for the BBC?

Ordinea adverbelor de timp

Daca este nevoie de mai multe adverbe de timp in aceeasi propozitie ordinea lor va fi:
Ordinea Exemple
1: adverbe de durata
2: adverbe de frecventa
3: adverbe de timp 1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day.
2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.
1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.
4.4.4. Adverbe de siguranta si probabilitate

Acestea exprima cat de sigur este vorbitorul de actiunea sau evenimentul pe care il relateaza: certainly, definitely, probably,
undoubtedly, surely, maybe, obviously, perhaps, possibly, really. Se aseaza in propozitie intre verbul auxiliar si verbul principal.
Ex.: He has certainly forgotten the meeting.

Pentru o formulare emfatica sau o reliefare a afirmatiilor, se aseaza în debutul frazei:

Ex.: Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.

De retinut! Surely asezat la inceputul propozitiei inseamna ca vorbitorul este convins de adevarul unei afirmatii, dar incearca sa
obtina o confirmare: Surely you've got a bicycle?
4.4.5. Adverbe de grad

Aceastea exprima intensitatea sau gradul de indeplinire a actiunii unui verb, adjectiv sau adverb: almost, nearly, quite, just, too,
enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.

Locul lor in propozitie este fie in fata adjectivului sau adverbului pe care il determina, fie in fata verbului principal:
Ex.: The water was extremely cold.
He was just leaving.
She has almost finished.

Enough, very, too

Enough inseamna "pana la punctul necesar pentru a..." si se plaseaza dupa adjectiv sau adverb:
Is your coffee hot enough? (adjectiv)
He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)
Too = "mai mult decat este necesar pentru..." si se aseaza in fata adjectivului sau adverbului:
This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
He works too hard. (adverb)
Very intareste sensul unui adjectiv sau adverb si se aseaza in fata acestora:
The girl was very beautiful. (adjectiv)
He worked very quickly. (adverb)

De retinut! Exista o diferenta importanta intre too si very:

Very exprima un fapt: He speaks very quickly.
Too sugereaza existenta unei probleme: He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).
Alte adverbe asemanatoare lui very: extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not
particularly.

IMPERATIVUL

- nu se poate forma decat pentru persoana a II-a sg si pl din infinitivul scurt al verbului
- nu are nevoie de subiect
- pentru celelalte persoane se formeaza din
let + pronume personal in AC + V infinitiv scurt

- imperativul negativ are in fata negatia “don’t”

- pentru subliniere se poate pune “do” si la persoana a II-a
Ex: Do sit down! (stai dracului jos!)

! propozitiile impersonale care contin un pronume nehotarat (somebody, someone, etc.) ca subiect, vor putea pune subiectul si in
fata si dupa verb
Ex: Someone give us a helpful hand!
Answer the phone, someone!

! orice propozitie imperativa are tag question in viitor

Ex: Listen carefully, won’t you?

Tag-ul se poate folosi si in afirmativ

Ex: Just write your exercise, will you?

! orice propozitie imperativa devine in vorbirea indirecta infinitiv lung

Ex: Come here! => He told me to come.

PASSIVE VOICE (DIATEZA PASIVA)

- in diateza activa, subiectul face actiunea

- in diateza pasiva, actiunea facuta de subiect se repercuteaza asupra acestuia

Subiectul din diateza activa devine complement de agent, iar CD din diateza activa devine subiect in pasiva.
Ex: 1) I write the letter.
S CD

2) The letter is written by me.

S C agent

Diateza pasiva presupune un verb “to be”, iar verbul de baza va fi la forma:
V III + by + C agent

! o propozitie care are atat CD cat si CI are 2 forme de pasiv, fiecare complement devenind pe rand subiect
Ex: I give him my book.
CI CD
devine
The book is given to him by me.
S
He is given the book by me.
S
Aspectul si timpul predicatului din activa se mentin in pasiva.
! complementul de agent poate sa lipseasca daca este un pronume
Ex: I read the book.
The book is read (by me). – poate sa lipseasca

! daca subiectul este impersonal (somebody / someone), el poate de asemenea sa lipseasca

DIATEZA ACTIVA DIATEZA PASIVA

1) I eat an egg. An egg is eaten.

2) I am eating an egg. An egg is being eaten.
3) I have eaten an egg. An egg has been eaten.
4) I have been eating an egg. -
5) I ate an egg. An egg was eaten.
 6) I was eating an egg. An egg was being eaten.
7) I had eaten an egg. An egg had been eaten.
8) I had been eating an egg. -
9) I shall eat an egg. An egg will be eaten.
10) I’m going to eat an egg. An egg is going to be eaten.
11) I am to eat an egg. An egg is to be eaten.
12) I’m about to eat an egg. An egg is about to be eaten.
13) … I should eat an egg. … an egg would be eaten.
14) I shall have eaten an egg. An egg will have been eaten.

! atentie la prepozitiile care se aseaza la final (vor rezulta 2 prepozitii una dupa alta)
Ex: They sent for the doctor.
The doctor was sent for by them.

Everybody laughed at him.

He was laughed at by everybody.

! anumite verbe (to eat, to feel, to wear, to wash, to sell, to read, to perform) nu pot avea forma pasiva cand vrei sa spui ca sunt de
foarte buna calitate / se vand singure / se poarta singure, etc.
Ex: These books sold quickly. (si nu have been sold)
The shoes wore comfortably. (si nu have been worn)

! verbul “to grow” nu poate avea sens de diateza pasiva pentru ca este de la sine

INFINITIVUL

Este de 2 feluri:
a) – scurt (fara “to” in fata) – care este prezent (to come) si perfect (to have come)
b) – lung (cu “to” in fata)

Utilizare:
1) dupa verbele modale
Ex: I can do it.
2) dupa verbele de perceptie (to see, to hear, to feel) + (to make, to let, to help, to get)
Ex: Let her go!

3) dupa expresiile
had best
had better
would rather
had rather
would sooner
had sooner
need hardly
! conditia este sa fie acelasi subiect ca sa punem infinitivul scurt
Ex: I would rather go there.
He would rather go there.
diferit de
I would rather you didn’t go there.

4) alte utilizari ale infinitivului

a) pronume/subst in AC + infinitiv - se foloseste dupa

1) verbe de perceptie
Ex: I saw her cross the street.

2) verbe de dorinta (to want, to desire, to intend, etc.)

Ex: I want you to understand the lesson.

3) verbe care arata o activitate mentala (to believe, to consider, to expect)

Ex: I imagine him to be right.
I know her to live in this flat.

4) verbe care exprima permisiunea (to allow, to order, to warn, to oblige)

Ex: My mother allowed us to leave.
5) in constructii impersonale (it is difficult, it is important, it is necessary)
Ex: It is difficult to understand this problem.
It is difficult for her to understand this problem.

6) dupa verbele (to advise, to convince, to choose, to enable, to challenge)

Ex: She advised me not to leave.

b) pronume/subst in N + infinitiv - se foloseste dupa

1) anumite verbe in diateza pasiva
to believe
to expect
to hear
to imagine
to know
to notice
to say
Ex: You are known to be a very good teacher.
2) anumite verbe in diateza activa
to chance
to appear
to happen
to prove
to seem
Ex: You happened to be there.
You seem to know the answer.

3) in constructiile impersonale
to be lucky
to be unlucky
to be fortunate
to be unfortunate
to be likely
to be sure
to be negative / positive
Ex: I’m lucky to be your friend.

Alte ulitizari ale infinitivului

1) in ordine / comenzi
Ex: Go and close the window!

2) pentru a exprima un scop

Ex: I went to the doctor to cure my desease.

3) dupa adjective (brave, curageous, foolish, generous, kind)

Ex: It’s kind of her to say this.

4) dupa numeralul ordinal

Ex: He is the first to come.

5) dupa adjectiv la superlativ

Ex: He is the best to do it.

6) dupa adjectivele de genul (dangerous. hard, difficult)

Ex: It si difficult to get there.

7) dupa “the only”

Ex: He is the only person to understand me.

8) dupa “too”
Ex: It’s too hot to breathe there.

9) dupa “enough”
Ex: You are clever enough not to do it again.

10) in proverbe
Ex: To forgive is to forget.

11) in vorbirea indirecta (dupa imperativ)

GERUNZIUL
Forma: V + ing
Are mai multe valori:
1) substantiv
Ex: Reading is important.

2) participiu prezent (in constructia timpurilor continue)

Ex: I’m doing my homework.

3) gerunziu
Ex: Reading, I understood all my problems.

Urmatoarele verbe cer gerunziu:

admit
advise
anticipate
avoid
begin
consider
continue
delay
denny
detest
dislike
enjoy
escape
excuse
finish
forgive
forget
hate imagine
intend
involve
like
love
mind
miss
omit
postpone
practise
recollect
remember
regret
resist
risk
save
start
stop
suggest
try
understand
Expresii cu verbe:
accuse of
aim at
agree with
approve of
consist in
count on
excuse from
insist on
prevent from
rely on
result in
succeed in
think of
be afraid of
be agreeable of
be annoyed at
averse to
be capable of
be intent on
be interested in
be responsible for
be suitable for
be surprised at
be tired of
get used to / be used to
get accustomed to / be accustomed to
go on
keep on
give up
put off
can’t help
can’t stand
it’s no good / it’s no use
be looking forward to
be worth
feel like

Expresii cu substantive:
appology for
art of
change of
dissapointment at
experience in
habbit of
necessity of
objection to
opportunity of
pleasure of
possibility of
process of
reason for
right of
skill in
surprise at
way of

Dupa prepozitiile:
as
than
like
as well as
Ex: Living here is like dying little by little.

Atentionari / indicatoare:
no parking / no smoking

CORESPONDENTA TIMPURILOR
1) daca in principala avem prezent, in secundara putem avea orice
Ex: I know she is / will be / was here.

2) daca in principala avem viitor, in secundara avem prezent

a) simplu – daca depinde de un program
b) continuu – daca depinde de subiect
c) perfect – daca a inceput intr-un moment anterior
3) daca in principala avem trecut, in secundara avem 3 raporturi:
a) simultaneitate (actiuni paralele) => in secundara avem trecut
Ex: While I was dancing, he took my hand.
b) anterioritate => in secundara avem past perfect
Ex: I told him I had met her before.
c) posterioritate => in secundara avem future in the past
Ex: I told him I should go there.
! pt adevaruri universal valabile nu se respecta regula cu trecutul
Ex: He told me that the sun rises from East.

CONCORDANTA TIMPURILOR
    Concordanta timpurilor se aplica, desigur, nu in propozitii, ci in fraze. Ea consta in aceea ca folosirea unui
anumit timp in propozitia principala obliga la folosirea unui timp adecvat in propozitia secundara. Ce inseamna
„un timp adecvat" se va vedea in continuare.
Propozitia principala
1. un timp „present"
    Present Tense Simple, Present Tense Continuous, Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Continuous
Propozitia secundara
    Orice timp cerut de sens
Propozitia principala
    2. un timp „past"
    Past Tense Simple, Past Tense Continuous, Past Perfect Simple, Past Perfect Continuous
Propozitia secundara
    Orice alt timp „past"
    Ex. a) Past Tense – actiune simultana – Past Tense
    He said he was ill.
    (El a spus ca este bolnav.)
    He said he was going to school.
    (El a spus ca merge la scola.)
    b) Past Tense – actiune anterioara – Past Perfect
    He said he had returned home a week before.
    (El a spus ca se intorsese acasa cu o saptamâna inainte.)
    I arrived home after it had stopped raining.
    (Am ajuns acasa dupa ce incetase ploaia.)
Nota 1: Daca intr-o fraza exista doua propozitii secundara cu actiunea
anterioara celei din principala, se poate folosi Past Perfect in mod
repetat.
    Ex. She said she had forgotten where she had put her glasses.
    (Ea a spus ca uitase unde si-a pus ochelarii.)
    c) Past Tense – actiunea posterioara – Future-in-the-Past
    He said he would leave the next day.
    (El a spus ca va pleca a doua zi.)
    She promised her mother she would help her.
    (Ea i-a promis mamei sale ca o va ajuta.)
Nota 2: Daca intr-o fraza exista doua propozitii secundare cu actiune
posterioara celei din principala, dintre care una este temporala sau
conditionala. Future-in-the-Past se poate folosi numai o singura data,
dupa care (in temporala sau conditionala) se intrebuinteaza Past
Tense (pentru simultaneitate) sau Past Perfect (pentru anterioritate).
    Ex. He said he would come to see me when he had time.
    (El a spus ca va veni sa ma vada când va avea timp.)
    He said he would come to see me after he had finished work.
    (El a spus ca va veni sa ma vada dupa ce va termina lucrul.)
    He said he would buy a car if he had money.
    (El a spus ca va cumpara o masina daca va avea bani.)
1. un timp „future"
Teoretic se poate folosi orice timp cerut de sens, cu exceptia propozitii temporale sau conditionale,
care nu pot include un verb la viitor.
Situatiile cel mai des intâlnite sunt urmatoarele:
a. Future – actiune simultana – Present
  I will read this book when I have time.
(Voi citi aceasta carte când voi avea timp.)
I will have finished studying when you come home.
(Voi fi terminat de studiat când vei veni tu acasa.)
b. Future – actiune anterioara – Present Perfect
 I will go to England after I have received a visa.
(Voi merge in Anglia dupa ce voi obtine viza.)
Exceptii de la concordanta timpurilor

1. când propozitia secundara exprima un adevar general valabil.

Ex. The teacher told the pupils water boils at 100 oC.
Profesorul le-a spus elevilor ca apa fierbe la 100 oC.

2. când propozitia secundara este atributiva.

Ex. The book I am reading now was given to me by my brother.
Cartea pe care o citesc acum mi-a fost data de fratele meu.

3. Când propozitia secundara este comparativa.

    Ex. Last year I worked more than I have done this year.
     Anul trecut am muncit mai mult decât anul acesta.
Nota: In limba engleza contemporana, se poate observa uneori o oarecare tendinta de a
nu se respecta concordanta timpurilor atunci când verbul din propozitia principala este la
trecut. Se poate intâlni, de exemplu, o formulare de tipul: „He said he loves me". Este
posibil ca ceea ce apare acum ca tendinta, cu timpul, sa ajunga regula. Pentru moment
insa, sfatuim pe vorbitorii români de limba engleza sa respecte regulile de concordanta a
timpurilor asa cum sunt prezentate mai sus.

SUBORDONATA CONDIŢIONALĂ

- este introdusă prin “if” sau “unless”;

- ATENŢIE ! unless nu se f oloseşte decât cu verbul la afirmativ;
- există 3 tipuri principale de astfel de subordonate:

Tipul subordonatei Principală Secundară

I. Condiţie posibilă si realizabilă Viitor Prezent

Prezent
Imperativ

If you know, you will tell me. = Dacă vei şti, îmi vei spune.
If you know, you tell me. = Dacă ştii, îmi spui.
If you know, tell me. = Spune-mi, dacă ştii !

Obs. În mod inedit poate apărea “should” cu sau fară inversiune (“dacă cumva” sau
“dacă din întâmplare”):
Should I meet him, I will tell You. = Dacă cumva o să-l vad, o să-ţi spun.
If I should meet him, I tell you.

II. Condiţie ipotetică, realizare ipotetică Condiţional Past Tense

prezent
If I knew, I would tell you. = Dacă aş şti ţi-aş spune.
- se poate face inversiunea, dispare “if”: Did I know I would tell you.
Where I you I would stay home. = Dacă aş fi in locul tău, aş sta acasă.

III. Condiţia nu s-a realizat Condiţional Past

trecut Perfect
If I had been there, I would have told you. = Dacă aş fi fost acolo ţi-aş fi spus.
Had I bought the house, I would have been disappointed. = Dacă aş fi cumpărat casa aş fi
fost dezamăgit.

Observaţii:
1) tipurile II si III la negativ pot lua şi forma “but for” + subst, pronume, vb+ing
But for Mary, I would have joined you. = Dacă n-ar fi fost Mary, te-aş fi insotit.

If it hadn’t been for Mary

But for their coming, I would help you. = Dacă n-ar veni te-aş ajuta.
2) alte subordonate condiţionale mascate ar fi:
a) Weather permiting we will swim. = Dacă vremea va fi bună vom înota.
b) The wind blowing I wouldn’t be able to fly the kite. = Dacă va sufla vântul
nu voi putea să înalţ zmeul.

Propoziţia condiţională .

Tipul 1 :

În propoziţia principală avem future tense , iar în propoziţia condiţională avem present simple . ( exprimă
situaţii reale )
Exemple :
If you keep driving like that you will have an accident .
If Mary goes home now she will have enought time to get dresses .
Observaţie :
În locul lui if poate să apară should .
Should it rains I will take my umbrela .
If it rains I will take my umbrela .

Tipul 2 :

În propoziţia principală avem would ( la persoana 1 poate apărea şi should ) , în propoziţia condiţională
avem past simple . ( exprimă situaţii imaginare )
Exemple :
If I knew the answer I would tell you .
If he were here he would solve your problem . – Dacă ar fi aici ţi-ar rezolva problema ( dar nu este ) .
I wouldn’t call you unless I needed you . – Nu te-aş chema dacă n-aş avea nevoie de tine .
If I were you I wouldn’t eat that food . – Dacă aş fi în locul tău n-aş mânca mâncarea asta .

Tipul 3 :

În propoziţia principală avem would have + V 3 , iar în propoziţia condiţională avem past perfect .
( exprimă situaţii ipotetice )
Exemple :
If I had known you were caming I would have met you at the station .
Everybody could have understood the lesson if you had explained it more clearly . / Toată lumea ar
fi putut învăţa lecţia dacă ai fi explicat-o mai clar .
Observaţie :
But for poate înlocui construcţia if not .
But for your help we would have been in trouble .

If poate fi omis şi se poate face inversiunea subiect – verb auxiliar .

Had I known you were coming …

Cazuri speciale :

Condiţionalul present în principală poate fi folosit alături de subjonctivul perfect în subordonată , atunci
când este însoţit de still , now , at present …
If he had been here you should find a note . – Dacă ar fi fost aici ar trebui să găseşti un bileţel .

Should folosit în propoziţia subordonată sugerează că acţiunea este foarte puţin probabil să se
întâmple în viitor .
If mother should come tell her that I will be back soon . – Dacă s-ar întâmpla cumva să vină mama
spune-I că mă întorc curând .

Would folosit în propoziţia subordonată poate avea fie sens de verb modal ( a voi ) , fie de
construcţie politicoasă .
If he would come now I could give him the money . – Dacă ar vrea să vină acum i-aş da banii .
If you would sit down we could talk for a while . – Dacă aţi vrea să luaţi loc am putea sta un pic
de vorbă .

Conjuncţiile care introduce propoziţia condiţională :

IF – dacă ; poate avea şi nuanţa ori de câte ori , întrucât , deoarece , în caz că .
If I have money I like to buy a good book . – When I have …
If you haven’t written your homework I can’t correct it . – Since you haven’t …

UNLESS – dacă nu ( if…not ) ; introduce în special propoziţii în care există şi alte elemente negative ( decvi if…
not nu poate fi folosit )
They wouldn’t have come unless you had invited them . – if you hadn’t invited them …

IN CASE – dacă ; introduce o propoziţie care exprimă o precauţie faţă de ceea ce s-ar putea întâmpla în
viitor . ( este urmat întotdeauna de un verb afirmativ ) .
He is taking a coat in case it is cold later on .
He will take a coat if it is later on .

ON CONDITION – PROVIDED ( that ) / cu condiţia ca .

Tom can lend me his bicycle on condition/ provided that I bring it back today .

Iregular Adjectives

Pozitiv Comparativ Superlativ

good as good as the best
not so good as very good
better than
bad as bad as the worst
not so bad as very bad
worse than
many (pt subst care se numără) as many/ much as the most
much (invers) not so many/ much as very many/ much
more than
little as little as the least
not so little as very little
less than
far as far as the farthest/ the furthest
not so far as very far
farther than (mai departe decât) /
further than (în plus/ suplimentar faţă
de)
near as near as the nearest/ the next
not so near as very near
nearer than
old as old as the oldest/ the eldest
not so old as very old
older than/ elder than
late as late as the latest (cel mai recent) / the last
not so late as (ultimul şi nu mai urmează nimic!)
later than (mai târziu)/ latter than very late
(ultimul dintre 2)

Ex: This is a house and this is a cottage

The latter was repaired last year

His latest book was a success (recent)

His last book was a success (a murit şi nu mai publică

MODUL CONDITIONAL SI FRAZELE CONDITIONALE

Present Conditional (conditional prezent)

    Se formeaza cu should si would la persoana I si would la persoanele II si III, la care se adauga infinitivul
prezent al verbului de conjugat.

Afirmativ

I should/would go We should/would go
 You would go You would go
He/she/it would go They would not go

Negativ

I should/would not go We should/would not go

You would not go You would not go
He/she/it would not go They would not go
Forme prescurtate: shouldn’t, wouldn’t.

Interogativ

Should I go? Should we go?

Would you go? Would you go?
Would he/she/it go? Would they go?

    Se traduce cu conditionalul prezent din limba româna (as merge, ai merge, ar merge etc.).

Past Conditional (conditional trecut)

    Se traduce cu should/would la care se adauga infinitivul trecut (have + forma III a verbului de conjugat).

Afirmativ

I should/would have gone

    You would have gone
He/she/it would have gone
We should/would have gone
You would have gone
They would have gone

Negativ

I should/would not have gone

You would not have gone
He/she/it would not have gone
We should/would not have gone
You would not have gone
They would not have gone

Interogativ

Should I have gone? Should we have gone?

Would you have gone? Would you have gone?
Would he/she/it have gone? Would they have gone?

    Se traduce cu conditionalul trecut din limba româna (as fi mers, ai fi mers, ar fi mers etc.).

    Frazele conditionale (If-Clauses)

    Exista trei tipuri de fraze conditionale:

 
    Tipul 1
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Future Present
    I will go to the seaside if the weather is fine.
    (Voi merge la mare daca vremea va fi buna.)
    I will stay at home if it rains.
    (Voi sta acasa daca va ploua.)
 
    Tipul 2
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Present Conditional Subjonctiv cu forma de Past Tense
    I would go to the seaside if the weather were fine.
    (As merge la mare daca vremea ar fi buna.)
    I would stay at home if it rained.
     (As sta acasa daca ar ploua.)

Nota 1: Trebuie sa se tina seama ca subjonctivul folosit in propozitia

secundara are forma lui Past Tense Simple la toate verbele, cu
exceptia verbului „to be", unde se intâlneste forma „were" la toate
persoanele.

    Tipul 3
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Past Conditional Subjonctiv cu forma de Past Perfect
    I would have gone to the seaside if the weather had been fine.
    (As fi mers la mare daca vremea ar fi fost buna.)
    I would have stayed at home if it had rained.
    (As fi stat acasa daca ar fi plouat.)

Nota 2: – if poate fi inlocuit de provided (that), providing, supposing,

suppose, in case.

    What shall we do, supposing he is late?

    (Ce vom face presupunând ca el intârzie?)

o if not poate fi inlocuit cu unless

I won’t go shopping unless you come with me.
I won’t go shopping if you don’t come with me.
Nota 3: should + infinitiv poate fi folosit la tipul 1, in loc de Present
Simple, atunci când actiunea din secundara este posibila, dar
improbabila. Acest tip de secundara este adesea combinat cu
imperativul. In acest caz, should se traduce cu: in caz ca, daca s-ar
intâmpla ca.
    Ex. If she should ring up, tell her I am out.
    In caz ca telefoneaza, spune-I ca nu sunt acasa.
    De asemenea, should poate fi folosit in secundara la tipul 2 de fraza conditionala.
    Ex. If the police should find out the truth, we would be fined.
(In caz ca politia ar afla adevarul/ Daca s-ar intâmpla ca politia sa afle adevarul,
noi am fi amendati.)
Nota 4: Atunci când if este urmat de un verb auxiliar (ex. were, had, should),
este posibila omiterea lui if, si in acest caz se inverseaza ordinea subiect –
auxiliar.
    Ex. – if he were here – were he here
– if it had rained – had it rained
– if he should come – should he come

VORBIREA DIRECTA SI INDIRECTA

     Vorbirea directa: John said: „She is not at home"

     Vorbirea indirecta: John said she was not at home.
    Pentru a trece o propozitie de la vorbirea directa la vorbirea indirecta, trebuie respectate o serie de reguli.

1. Atunci când verbul din propozitia principala este la trecut, ceea ce se intâmpla in majoritatea cazurilor, in propozitia
secundara se schimba timpurile dupa cum urmeaza:

 Present past

Present perfect past perfect

Past past perfect

Future future-in-the-past
Ex. – He said „I am ill". He said he was ill.
o He said „I have been working hard. He said he had been working hard.

o He said „I was ill". He said he had been ill.

 o He said „I will do the exercise". He said he would do the exercise.

1. Se schimba pronumele, in functie de sens.

 

 
 
 

Ex. He said: „She gave me a book".

He said she had given him a book.

2. Se schimba o serie de cuvinte in functie de sens.

Ex. today that day

yesterday the day before/the previous day

the day before yesterday two days before

tomorrow the next day/the following day

the day after tomorrow in two days’ time

next week the next/the following week

two years ago two years before

now then

this that

these those

here there

Ex. He said: „I’ll be at home today". à He said he would be at home on that day.
He said: „I am going to do this traslation tomorrow". à He said he was going to do that translation the
next day.

3. Frazele conditionale sunt trecute la vorbirea indirecta in modul urmator:

 o tipul 1 devine tipul 2:
"If it rains, I will stay at home."
He said if it rained he would stay at home.
o tipurile 2 si 3 nu se schimba:
"If it rained, I would stay at home."
He said if itrained he would stay at home.
"If it had rained, I would have stayed at home."
He said if it had rained he would have stayed at home.

1. Verbele modale would, should, ought to, could, might ramân neschimbate la vorbirea indirecta.
    Ex. He said: „I might be late"
    He said he might be late.
Modalitati de introducere a propozitiilor secundare
in vorbirea indirecta

1. Afirmatii: cu that (care se poate omite)

Ex. He said: „I am ill". à He said (that) he was ill.

2. Comenzi: cu infinitivul (afirmativ sau negativ)

    Ex. He said „Go out". à He told me to go out.
    He said „Don’t go out" à He told me not to go out.
    3. Intrebari
    Exista doua tipuri de intrebari: generale si speciale. Intrebarile generale sunt cele care incep cu un verb, iar
raspunsul poate fi da sau nu.
    Ex. Where have you been?
    I’ve been away, on holiday.
    Intrebarile generale se introduc cu if sau whether (daca).
    Ex. He asked me if I liked music.
    Intrebarile speciale se introduc cu cuvntul interogativ respectiv. Ex. He asked me where I had been.
    In cazul intrebarilor speciale trecute la vorbirea indirecta, trebuie acordata atentie ordinei cuvintelor din
propozitia secundara. Intruct aceasta propozitie incepe cu un cuvnt interogativ, exista tentatia de a folosi
ordinea cuvintelor din propozitiile interogative, ceea ce este o greseala.
    Ex. He asked me: „What is the time?"
    Corect: He asked me what the time was.
    Incorect: He asked me what was the time.

Pasivul se formeaza conjugnd verbul to be la timpul cerut de sens, la care se adauga forma III (participiul
trecut) a verbului de conjugat.
    Ex. I am asked.
    I have been asked.
    I was asked.
    I had been asked.
    I will be asked.
    In limba romna, trecerea de la diateza activa la diateza pasiva se face prin transformarea complementului
direct in subiect.
    Ex. Activ: Directorul m-a chemat pe mine.
    Pasiv: Eu am fost chemat de director.
    In limba engleza, exista trei tipuri de complemente care pot deveni subiect in transformarea de la activ la
pasiv: complementul direct, complementul indirect si, in unele cazuri, complementul prepozitional.
    Ex. Activ: I gave him a book.
    Unde complementul direct este a book, iar complementul indirect este him. Ambele complemente pot deveni
subiecte in cazul trecerii la pasiv. Desigur, subiectul va fi trecut la cazul nominativ.
    Complement direct à Subiect
    A book was given to him. (by me)
    Complement indirect à Subiect
    He was given a book. (by me)
    In propozitia: In this office they insist on punctuality, punctuality este un complement prepozitional, care, de
asemenea, poate deveni subiect in cazul folosirii diatezei pasive: In this office punctuality is insisted on (by
them).
    Un alt exemplu de complement prepozitional care poate deveni subiect.
    Activ: She looked after the child.
     Pasiv: The child was looked after (by her).
    In multe cazuri, pasivul se foloseste atunci cnd nu este important cine face actiunea. In aceste situatii, se
omite formularea by, de la sfrsitul propozitiei.
    Ex. In this office punctuality is insisted on.

Nota: Se poate folosit aspectul continuu al diatezei pasive numai la Present Tense si Past
Tense.

    Ex. While I am in hospital, my flat is being painted.

    While I was in hospital, my flat was being painted.

MODURILE NEPERSONALE
SI CONSTRUCTIILE VERBALE

    In limba engleza, modurile nepersonale sunt urmatoarele: infinitivul, forma -ing (gerunziul si participiul
prezent) si participiul trecut.
    Infinitivul poate avea aspect, diateza si timpuri.
    Diateza activa

o infinitiv prezent simplu: to call

o infinitiv prezent continuu: to be calling

o infinitiv perfect simplu: to have called

o infinitiv perfect continuu: to have been calling

    Diateza pasiva
o infinitiv prezent simplu: to be called

o infinitiv perfect: to have been called

    Forma -ing. Atât participiul prezent cât si gerunziul se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -ing la infinitivul
verbelor (to call – calling). Participiul prezent si gerunziul pot avea timpuri si diateza.
    Diateza activa
o nedefinit: calling

o perfect: having called

    Diateza pasiva
o nedefinit: being called

o perfect: having been called

    Participiul trecut se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -ed la verbele regulate; in cazul verbelor
neregulate, el reprezinta forma a III-a:
o to call – called – called

o to go – went – gone
Constructii cu infinitivul

1. Acuzativ cu infinitiv
    Consta dintr-un verb urmat de un pronume sau substantiv in acuzativ + un verb la infinitiv.
    Ex. I want you to go now.
    (Vreau ca tu sa pleci acum.)
    Exista câteva tipuri de verbe care accepta acest tip de constructii:

a. Adverbe exprimând dorinta sau vointa: to want, to wish, to like, to dislike, to hate.
Ex. I’d like him to come with me.
(As vrea ca el sa vina cu mine.)
I want John to do this.
(Vreau ca John sa faca aceasta.)

b. verbe exprimând perceptia senzoriala: to see, to hear, to feel, to watch. Aceste verbe sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt (fara
to).
Ex. I saw him leave the room.
(L-am vazut ca paraseste camera/parasind camera.)

c. verbe exprimând un ordin, o permisiune sau o cauzalitate: to make, to cause, to allow, to order. Verbele to make si to let
sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt (fara to).
Ex. I made him study English.
(L-am facut sa invete engleza.)
I let him go out and play.
(L-am lasat sa iasa afara sa joace fotbal.)
He ordered the door to be locked.
(El a ordonat sa se incuie usa.)

d. verbe exprimând perceptia mentala: to think, to suppose, to expect, to consider, to understand, to know, to believe.
Ex. I consider him to be a good student.
(Consider ca el este un bun student.)
I expected him to come in time.
(M-am asteptat ca el sa vina la timp.)

e. verbe declarative: to state, to declare, to admit.

Ex. He admitted the news to be false.
(El a recunoscut ca stirile erau false.)
They declared him to be the man of the year.
(Ei l-au declarat a fi omul anului.)

f. cu anumite verbe urmate de prepozitii obligatorii: to rely upon/on, to count upon/on .

    Ex. I rely on you to do this.
    (Ma bazez pe tine sa faci aceasta.)

1. Nominativ cu infinitiv
    Consta dintr-un subiect in nominativ + un verb la diateza pasiva sau activa + un verb la infinitiv.

a. folosit cu verbe la diateza pasiva: to see, to hear, to know, to say, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to make, to consider.

Ex. He is said to be a good writer.

(Se spune ca el este un bun scriitor.)
Sunt situatii in care Nominativul cu Infinitivut exprima o formulare pasiva a Acuzativului cu Infinitiv:
Ex. I made him study English.
He was made to study English.
I consider him to be a good student.
He is considered to be a good student.
He considered the news to be false.
The news was considered to be false.
They declared him to be the man of the year.
He was declared to be the man of the year.

b. cu verbele: to happen, to prove, to turn out, to seem, to appear

o la diateza activa:
    Ex. He proved to be a good journalist.
    (El s-a dovedit a fi un bun jurnalist.)
    I happened to meet him in the street.
    (S-a intâmplat sa-l intâlnesc pe strada.)
    If I happen to meet him, I will tell him where you are.
    (Daca se va intâmpla sa-l intâlnesc, ii voi spune unde esti.)
Nota: Trebuie remarcat faptul ca expresia impersonala din limba româna se intâmpla sa
este, de obicei, tradusa cu o expresie personala in limba engleza.

a. cu expresiile: to be sure / likely / unlikely / certain

    Ex. She is sure to come in time.
    (E sigur ca ea va veni la timp.)
Nota: Din nou avem in limba engleza o expresie personala care se traduce in româneste
cu o expresie impersonala. Daca vrem sa traducem expresia personala: „Ea e sigura ca va
veni la timp" o redam in modul urmator: „She is sure the she will come in time".
1. For – phrase
    Consta din propozitia for + un substantiv sau pronume in acuzativ + un verb la infinitiv.
    Ex. It is easy for me to do this.
    (E usor sa fac asta.)
    This remains for him to decide.
    (Aceasta ramâne sa o decida el.)
    It is impossible for him to come.
    (Este imposibil ca el sa vina.)
    It is necessary for me to go there.
    (Este necesar ca eu sa merg acolo.)
Nota: Ultimele doua propozitii se se pot reda in limba engleza si cu ajutorul subjonctivului.
    Ex. It is impossible that I (should) come.
    It is necessary that I (should) go there.
Constructii cu participiul prezent

1. Acuzativ cu participiu
Se foloseste cu verbe exprimând perceptie senzorial: to see, to hear, to watch, to smell, precum si cu verbele to find, to leave.
Ex. I saw him leaving
(L-am vazut plecând.)
I heard her singing.
(Am auzit-o cântând.)
I left / found her crying.
(Am lasat-o / gasit-o plângând.)
In cazul verbelor de perceptie, aceasta constructie este asemanatoare cu Acuzativul cu Infinitiv. Diferenta de sens intre cele doua
constructii este urmatoarea: folosirea acuzativului cu infinitiv pune accentul pe actiunea propriu-zisa, in timp ce acuzativul cu
participiu arata actiunea in desfasurare.
Astfel: I saw her leave s-ar putea traduce Am vazut-o ca pleaca sau Am vazut-o plecând. In timp ce I saw her leaving se poate
traduce numai Am vazut-o plecând.
 

2. Nominativ cu Participiu
Este pasivul constructiei Acuzativ cu Participiu:
Ex: He was seen leaving.
(El a fost vazut plecând.)
She was heard singing.
(Ea a fost auzita cântând.)
 

3. Nominativul absolut
    Este o constructie participiala care are un subiect al ei propriu.
    Ex: The classes being over, we went home.
    (Orele fiind terminate, am mers acasa.)
    Weather permitting, we shall go to the beach.
    (Daca vremea va permite, vom merge la plaja.)
Constructie cu participiul trecut
    Este formata din verbul to have sau to get + un complement + participiul trecut.
    Ex: I must have/get mz shoes repaired.
    (Trebuie sa-mi dau pantofii la reparat.)
    I will have my hair done.
    (Voi merge sa ma coafez.)
    Aceasta constructie arata ca actiunea este facuta de catre altcineva spre avantajul sau la ordinul persoanei
reprezentate de subiect.
    Este de asemenea sa apara situatii in care actiunea exprimata de participiul trecut este facuta de altcineva in
detrimentul persoanei exprimate de subiect.
    Ex. She had two sons killed in the war.
    I-au fost ucisi doi fii in razboi.
    I had my bedroom window broken.
    Cineva mi-a spart geamul din dormitor.

CONCORDANTA TIMPURILOR

    Concordanta timpurilor se aplica, desigur, nu in propozitii, ci in fraze. Ea consta in aceea ca folosirea unui anumit timp in
propozitia principala obliga la folosirea unui timp adecvat in propozitia secundara. Ce inseamna „un timp adecvat" se va vedea in
continuare.
 Propozitia principala

1. un timp „present"
    Present Tense Simple, Present Tense Continuous, Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Continuous
Propozitia secundara
    Orice timp cerut de sens
Propozitia principala
    2. un timp „past"
    Past Tense Simple, Past Tense Continuous, Past Perfect Simple, Past Perfect Continuous
Propozitia secundara
    Orice alt timp „past"
    Ex. a) Past Tense – actiune simultana – Past Tense
    He said he was ill.
    (El a spus ca este bolnav.)
    He said he was going to school.
    (El a spus ca merge la scola.)
    b) Past Tense – actiune anterioara – Past Perfect
    He said he had returned home a week before.
    (El a spus ca se intorsese acasa cu o saptamâna inainte.)
    I arrived home after it had stopped raining.
    (Am ajuns acasa dupa ce incetase ploaia.)
Nota 1: Daca intr-o fraza exista doua propozitii secundara cu actiunea anterioara celei din
principala, se poate folosi Past Perfect in mod repetat.
    Ex. She said she had forgotten where she had put her glasses.
    (Ea a spus ca uitase unde si-a pus ochelarii.)
    c) Past Tense – actiunea posterioara – Future-in-the-Past
    He said he would leave the next day.
    (El a spus ca va pleca a doua zi.)
    She promised her mother she would help her.
    (Ea i-a promis mamei sale ca o va ajuta.)
Nota 2: Daca intr-o fraza exista doua propozitii secundare cu actiune posterioara celei din
principala, dintre care una este temporala sau conditionala. Future-in-the-Past se poate
folosi numai o singura data, dupa care (in temporala sau conditionala) se intrebuinteaza
Past Tense (pentru simultaneitate) sau Past Perfect (pentru anterioritate).
    Ex. He said he would come to see me when he had time.
    (El a spus ca va veni sa ma vada când va avea timp.)
    He said he would come to see me after he had finished work.
    (El a spus ca va veni sa ma vada dupa ce va termina lucrul.)
    He said he would buy a car if he had money.
    (El a spus ca va cumpara o masina daca va avea bani.)
1. un timp „future"
Teoretic se poate folosi orice timp cerut de sens, cu exceptia propozitii temporale sau conditionale, care nu pot include un
verb la viitor.
Situatiile cel mai des intâlnite sunt urmatoarele:
a. Future – actiune simultana – Present
 

I will read this book when I have time.

(Voi citi aceasta carte când voi avea timp.)
I will have finished studying when you come home.
(Voi fi terminat de studiat când vei veni tu acasa.)

b. Future – actiune anterioara – Present Perfect

I will go to England after I have received a visa.
(Voi merge in Anglia dupa ce voi obtine viza.)
Exceptii de la concordanta timpurilor
1. când propozitia secundara exprima un adevar general valabil.
Ex. The teacher told the pupils water boils at 100 oC.
Profesorul le-a spus elevilor ca apa fierbe la 100 oC.

2. când propozitia secundara este atributiva.

 Ex. The book I am reading now was given to me by my brother.
Cartea pe care o citesc acum mi-a fost data de fratele meu.

3. Când propozitia secundara este comparativa.

    Ex. Last year I worked more than I have done this year.
     Anul trecut am muncit mai mult decât anul acesta.

LECTIA III
MODUL CONDITIONAL SI FRAZELE CONDITIONALE

Present Conditional (conditional prezent)

    Se formeaza cu should si would la persoana I si would la persoanele II si III, la care se adauga infinitivul prezent al verbului de
conjugat.

Afirmativ

I should/would go We should/would go
You would go You would go
He/she/it would go They would not go

Negativ

I should/would not go We should/would not go

You would not go You would not go
He/she/it would not go They would not go
Forme prescurtate: shouldn’t, wouldn’t.

Interogativ

Should I go? Should we go?

Would you go? Would you go?
Would he/she/it go? Would they go?

    Se traduce cu conditionalul prezent din limba româna (as merge, ai merge, ar merge etc.).

Past Conditional (conditional trecut)

    Se traduce cu should/would la care se adauga infinitivul trecut (have + forma III a verbului de conjugat).

Afirmativ

I should/would have gone

    You would have gone
He/she/it would have gone
We should/would have gone
You would have gone
They would have gone

Negativ

I should/would not have gone

You would not have gone
He/she/it would not have gone
We should/would not have gone
You would not have gone
They would not have gone

Interogativ

Should I have gone? Should we have gone?

Would you have gone? Would you have gone?
Would he/she/it have gone? Would they have gone?

    Se traduce cu conditionalul trecut din limba româna (as fi mers, ai fi mers, ar fi mers etc.).
    Frazele conditionale (If-Clauses)

    Exista trei tipuri de fraze conditionale:

 
    Tipul 1
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Future Present
    I will go to the seaside if the weather is fine.
    (Voi merge la mare daca vremea va fi buna.)
    I will stay at home if it rains.
    (Voi sta acasa daca va ploua.)
 
    Tipul 2
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Present Conditional Subjonctiv cu forma de Past Tense
    I would go to the seaside if the weather were fine.
    (As merge la mare daca vremea ar fi buna.)
    I would stay at home if it rained.
    (As sta acasa daca ar ploua.)
Nota 1: Trebuie sa se tina seama ca subjonctivul folosit in propozitia secundara are forma
lui Past Tense Simple la toate verbele, cu exceptia verbului „to be", unde se intâlneste
forma „were" la toate persoanele.
    Tipul 3
    Propozitia principala Propozitia secundara
    Past Conditional Subjonctiv cu forma de Past Perfect
    I would have gone to the seaside if the weather had been fine.
    (As fi mers la mare daca vremea ar fi fost buna.)
    I would have stayed at home if it had rained.
    (As fi stat acasa daca ar fi plouat.)
Nota 2: – if poate fi inlocuit de provided (that), providing, supposing, suppose, in case.
    What shall we do, supposing he is late?
    (Ce vom face presupunând ca el intârzie?)
o if not poate fi inlocuit cu unless
I won’t go shopping unless you come with me.
I won’t go shopping if you don’t come with me.
Nota 3: should + infinitiv poate fi folosit la tipul 1, in loc de Present Simple, atunci când
actiunea din secundara este posibila, dar improbabila. Acest tip de secundara este adesea
combinat cu imperativul. In acest caz, should se traduce cu: in caz ca, daca s-ar intâmpla
ca.
    Ex. If she should ring up, tell her I am out.
    In caz ca telefoneaza, spune-I ca nu sunt acasa.
    De asemenea, should poate fi folosit in secundara la tipul 2 de fraza conditionala.
    Ex. If the police should find out the truth, we would be fined.
(In caz ca politia ar afla adevarul/ Daca s-ar intâmpla ca politia sa afle adevarul, noi am fi amendati.)
Nota 4: Atunci când if este urmat de un verb auxiliar (ex. were, had, should), este posibila omiterea
lui if, si in acest caz se inverseaza ordinea subiect – auxiliar.
    Ex. – if he were here – were he here
– if it had rained – had it rained
– if he should come – should he come

VORBIREA DIRECTA SI INDIRECTA

    Vorbirea directa: John said: „She is not at home"

    Vorbirea indirecta: John said she was not at home.
    Pentru a trece o propozitie de la vorbirea directa la vorbirea indirecta, trebuie respectate o serie de reguli.

1. Atunci când verbul din propozitia principala este la trecut, ceea ce se intâmpla in majoritatea cazurilor, in propozitia
secundara se schimba timpurile dupa cum urmeaza:

 Present past

Present perfect past perfect

Past past perfect

Future future-in-the-past
Ex. – He said „I am ill". He said he was ill.

o He said „I have been working hard. He said he had been working hard.

o He said „I was ill". He said he had been ill.

o He said „I will do the exercise". He said he would do the exercise.

1. Se schimba pronumele, in functie de sens.

 

 
 
 

Ex. He said: „She gave me a book".

He said she had given him a book.

2. Se schimba o serie de cuvinte in functie de sens.

Ex. today that day

yesterday the day before/the previous day

the day before yesterday two days before

tomorrow the next day/the following day

the day after tomorrow in two days’ time

next week the next/the following week

two years ago two years before

now then

this that

these those

here there
Ex. He said: „I’ll be at home today". à He said he would be at home on that day.
He said: „I am going to do this traslation tomorrow". à He said he was going to do that translation the next day.

3. Frazele conditionale sunt trecute la vorbirea indirecta in modul urmator:

o tipul 1 devine tipul 2:

"If it rains, I will stay at home."
He said if it rained he would stay at home.

o tipurile 2 si 3 nu se schimba:
"If it rained, I would stay at home."
He said if itrained he would stay at home.

"If it had rained, I would have stayed at home."

He said if it had rained he would have stayed at home.

1. Verbele modale would, should, ought to, could, might ramân neschimbate la vorbirea indirecta.
    Ex. He said: „I might be late"
    He said he might be late.
Modalitati de introducere a propozitiilor secundare
in vorbirea indirecta

1. Afirmatii: cu that (care se poate omite)

Ex. He said: „I am ill". à He said (that) he was ill.

2. Comenzi: cu infinitivul (afirmativ sau negativ)

    Ex. He said „Go out". à He told me to go out.
    He said „Don’t go out" à He told me not to go out.
    3. Intrebari

    Exista doua tipuri de intrebari: generale si speciale. Intrebarile generale sunt cele care incep cu un verb, iar raspunsul poate fi da
sau nu.
    Ex. Where have you been?
    I’ve been away, on holiday.
    Intrebarile generale se introduc cu if sau whether (daca).
    Ex. He asked me if I liked music.

    Intrebarile speciale se introduc cu cuvântul interogativ respectiv. Ex. He asked me where I had been.
    In cazul intrebarilor speciale trecute la vorbirea indirecta, trebuie acordata atentie ordinei cuvintelor din propozitia secundara.
Intrucât aceasta propozitie incepe cu un cuvânt interogativ, exista tentatia de a folosi ordinea cuvintelor din propozitiile interogative,
ceea ce este o greseala.
    Ex. He asked me: „What is the time?"
    Corect: He asked me what the time was.
    Incorect: He asked me what was the time.

MODURILE NEPERSONALE
SI CONSTRUCTIILE VERBALE

    In limba engleza, modurile nepersonale sunt urmatoarele: infinitivul, forma -ing (gerunziul si participiul prezent) si participiul trecut.

    Infinitivul poate avea aspect, diateza si timpuri.

    Diateza activa

o infinitiv prezent simplu: to call

o infinitiv prezent continuu: to be calling

o infinitiv perfect simplu: to have called

o infinitiv perfect continuu: to have been calling

    Diateza pasiva
o infinitiv prezent simplu: to be called

o infinitiv perfect: to have been called

    Forma -ing. Atât participiul prezent cât si gerunziul se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -ing la infinitivul verbelor (to call –
calling). Participiul prezent si gerunziul pot avea timpuri si diateza.
    Diateza activa
o nedefinit: calling

o perfect: having called

    Diateza pasiva
o nedefinit: being called

o perfect: having been called

    Participiul trecut se formeaza prin adaugarea terminatiei -ed la verbele regulate; in cazul verbelor neregulate, el reprezinta forma
a III-a:
 o to call – called – called

o to go – went – gone
Constructii cu infinitivul
1. Acuzativ cu infinitiv
    Consta dintr-un verb urmat de un pronume sau substantiv in acuzativ + un verb la infinitiv.
    Ex. I want you to go now.
    (Vreau ca tu sa pleci acum.)
    Exista câteva tipuri de verbe care accepta acest tip de constructii:
a. Adverbe exprimând dorinta sau vointa: to want, to wish, to like, to dislike, to hate.
Ex. I’d like him to come with me.
(As vrea ca el sa vina cu mine.)
I want John to do this.
(Vreau ca John sa faca aceasta.)

b. verbe exprimând perceptia senzoriala: to see, to hear, to feel, to watch. Aceste verbe sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt (fara
to).
Ex. I saw him leave the room.
(L-am vazut ca paraseste camera/parasind camera.)

c. verbe exprimând un ordin, o permisiune sau o cauzalitate: to make, to cause, to allow, to order. Verbele to make si to let
sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt (fara to).
Ex. I made him study English.
(L-am facut sa invete engleza.)
I let him go out and play.
(L-am lasat sa iasa afara sa joace fotbal.)
He ordered the door to be locked.
(El a ordonat sa se incuie usa.)

d. verbe exprimând perceptia mentala: to think, to suppose, to expect, to consider, to understand, to know, to believe.
Ex. I consider him to be a good student.
(Consider ca el este un bun student.)
I expected him to come in time.
(M-am asteptat ca el sa vina la timp.)

e. verbe declarative: to state, to declare, to admit.

Ex. He admitted the news to be false.
(El a recunoscut ca stirile erau false.)
They declared him to be the man of the year.
(Ei l-au declarat a fi omul anului.)

f. cu anumite verbe urmate de prepozitii obligatorii: to rely upon/on, to count upon/on .

    Ex. I rely on you to do this.
    (Ma bazez pe tine sa faci aceasta.)
1. Nominativ cu infinitiv
    Consta dintr-un subiect in nominativ + un verb la diateza pasiva sau activa + un verb la infinitiv.
a. folosit cu verbe la diateza pasiva: to see, to hear, to know, to say, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to make, to consider.

Ex. He is said to be a good writer.

(Se spune ca el este un bun scriitor.)
Sunt situatii in care Nominativul cu Infinitivut exprima o formulare pasiva a Acuzativului cu Infinitiv:
Ex. I made him study English.
He was made to study English.
I consider him to be a good student.
He is considered to be a good student.
He considered the news to be false.
The news was considered to be false.
They declared him to be the man of the year.
He was declared to be the man of the year.

b. cu verbele: to happen, to prove, to turn out, to seem, to appear

o la diateza activa:
    Ex. He proved to be a good journalist.
    (El s-a dovedit a fi un bun jurnalist.)
    I happened to meet him in the street.
    (S-a intâmplat sa-l intâlnesc pe strada.)
    If I happen to meet him, I will tell him where you are.
    (Daca se va intâmpla sa-l intâlnesc, ii voi spune unde esti.)
Nota: Trebuie remarcat faptul ca expresia impersonala din limba româna se intâmpla sa este, de obicei,
tradusa cu o expresie personala in limba engleza.
a. cu expresiile: to be sure / likely / unlikely / certain
    Ex. She is sure to come in time.
    (E sigur ca ea va veni la timp.)
Nota: Din nou avem in limba engleza o expresie personala care se traduce in româneste cu o expresie
impersonala. Daca vrem sa traducem expresia personala: „Ea e sigura ca va veni la timp" o redam in modul
urmator: „She is sure the she will come in time".
1. For – phrase
    Consta din propozitia for + un substantiv sau pronume in acuzativ + un verb la infinitiv.
    Ex. It is easy for me to do this.
    (E usor sa fac asta.)
    This remains for him to decide.
    (Aceasta ramâne sa o decida el.)
    It is impossible for him to come.
    (Este imposibil ca el sa vina.)
    It is necessary for me to go there.
    (Este necesar ca eu sa merg acolo.)
Nota: Ultimele doua propozitii se se pot reda in limba engleza si cu ajutorul subjonctivului.
    Ex. It is impossible that I (should) come.
    It is necessary that I (should) go there.
Constructii cu participiul prezent

1. Acuzativ cu participiu
Se foloseste cu verbe exprimând perceptie senzorial: to see, to hear, to watch, to smell, precum si cu verbele to find, to
leave.
Ex. I saw him leaving
(L-am vazut plecând.)
I heard her singing.
(Am auzit-o cântând.)
I left / found her crying.
(Am lasat-o / gasit-o plângând.)
In cazul verbelor de perceptie, aceasta constructie este asemanatoare cu Acuzativul cu Infinitiv. Diferenta de sens intre
cele doua constructii este urmatoarea: folosirea acuzativului cu infinitiv pune accentul pe actiunea propriu-zisa, in timp ce
acuzativul cu participiu arata actiunea in desfasurare.
Astfel: I saw her leave s-ar putea traduce Am vazut-o ca pleaca sau Am vazut-o plecând. In timp ce I saw her leaving se
poate traduce numai Am vazut-o plecând.
 

2. Nominativ cu Participiu
Este pasivul constructiei Acuzativ cu Participiu:
Ex: He was seen leaving.
(El a fost vazut plecând.)
She was heard singing.
(Ea a fost auzita cântând.)
 

3. Nominativul absolut
    Este o constructie participiala care are un subiect al ei propriu.
    Ex: The classes being over, we went home.
    (Orele fiind terminate, am mers acasa.)
    Weather permitting, we shall go to the beach.
    (Daca vremea va permite, vom merge la plaja.)
Constructie cu participiul trecut

    Este formata din verbul to have sau to get + un complement + participiul trecut.
    Ex: I must have/get mz shoes repaired.
    (Trebuie sa-mi dau pantofii la reparat.)
    I will have my hair done.
    (Voi merge sa ma coafez.)
    Aceasta constructie arata ca actiunea este facuta de catre altcineva spre avantajul sau la ordinul persoanei reprezentate de
subiect.
    Este de asemenea sa apara situatii in care actiunea exprimata de participiul trecut este facuta de altcineva in detrimentul
persoanei exprimate de subiect.
    Ex. She had two sons killed in the war.
    I-au fost ucisi doi fii in razboi.
    I had my bedroom window broken.
    Cineva mi-a spart geamul din dormitor.

NUMERALUL

Este de doua feluri:

 cardinal (1)
 ordinal (2)
1. Numeralul cardinal
Arata numarul, cantitatea
Numeralul zero
1) zero = pentru calcul matematic si pentru exprimarea temperaturii
Ex: It’s ten degrees above zero.

2) love = zero pentru exprimarea scorului la tenis (15-0 = fifteen-love)

3) nil = (nothing) = zero pentru exprimarea scorului la fotbal
4) naught = zero cand face parte din partea zecimala a unui numar
5) oh = zero pentru numere de telefon

De la 1 la 12 avem forme distincte

De la 13 la 19 avem (numeral simplu + “teen”), la care accentul cade pe sufix si “i”-ul este lung.

De la 20 la 90 avem (numeral cardinal + “ty”), care este scurt si cu accentul pe prima silaba.
Ex: 40 = forty (nu mai are “u”!)

Numeralele compuse se scriu cu cratima

Ex: 42 = forty-two
One hundred = 100
Ca numeral nu poate avea plural, dar are ca substantiv. Este substantiv cand:

a) este urmat de “of”:

Ex: hundreds of pages

b) nu determina alt substantiv:

Ex: hundreds are here

Numeralul compus peste suta se scrie cu prepozitia “and” la englezi si fara la americani.
Ex: 210 = two hundred and ten

One thousand = 1,000

Aceleasi reguli ca la suta.

One million = 1,000,000

Fara “s” la TOEFL, dar este corect si cu “s” (2 millions) in engleza.

One billion = 1,000,000,000

Americanii zic milliard.

Utilizarea numeralului cardinal:

1) pentru exprimarea temperaturii (cu verbul “to be”)

2) pentru calcule matematice:
Addition (to add = a aduna)
2 + 3 = 5 two plus/and three is/are/equals five
(acordul se face in sg si in pl)
 Subtraction (to subtract = a scadea)
5 – 3 = 2 five minus/take away is two
(acordul se face doar in sg)

Multiplication (to multiply = a inmulti)

2 x 3 = 6 two multiplied by three/twice three/3 times 2 is/are/equals six
(acordul se face in sg si in pl)

Division (to divide = a imparti)

6 : 3 = 2 six divided by three is two
(acordul se face doar in sg)
“reminder” = rest

Root = radical - cube root = radical de ordinul 3

- square root = radical de ordinul 2

Power = putere
More than = >
Less than = <
Equal to = egal
Unequal to = diferit de
Parallel to = paralel
Perpendicular to = perpendicular
Angle = unghi
Right angle = unghi drept
Straight angle = unghi de 180 grade
Circle angle = unghi de 360 grade

Even = par
Odd = impar
3) pentru exprimarea unitatii monetare:
coin = moneda
bill/note = bancnota
nickel = 5 centi
dime = 10 centi
quarter of a dollar = 25 centi
half of a dollar = 50 centi
4) pentru unitati de masura – la timpul potrivit (cand primim I20) !!!
5) pentru exprimarea anilor: se citesc cifrele 2 cate 2, iar anii formati din mai putin de 4 cifre se citesc ca un numeral.
! zero nu se citeste in cadrul acestor 4 cifre ale anilor
Ex: 1907 = nineteen seven
 era noastra (e.n.) = a.d. (ante domini) sau in the year of Lord
 inaintea erei noastre = b.c. (before Christ)

6) pentru exprimarea numerelor zecimale (“decimal fractions”), intregul se citeste ca atare, punct in loc de virgula, iar partea
zecimala cifra cu cifra
Ex: 20.03 = twenty point naught three

! daca intregul este <1, nu se citeste

Ex: 0.1 = point one
7) pentru exprimarea varstei (cu verbul “to be”)
Ex: I’m twenty (years old) / I’m twenty years of age.
sau
I’m aged twenty.
Aproximarea varstei se face cu: almost, about (around), over, under
Ex: I’m in my twenties (am douazeci si)
I’m mid-twenty (25 ani)
8) pentru exprimarea numerelor de telefon
to dial = a forma un numar
figure = cifra
slot = orificiu pentru ban
booth = cabina telefonica
receiver = receptor
long-distance call = convorbire la distanta
call collector = convorbire cu taxa inversa
operator = centralista
extension = interior
to be through = a avea legatura
to hang on = a ramane pe fir
to hang up = a inchide

Numerele de telefon se citesc cifra cu cifra cu exceptia cifrei repetate daca este la inceputul sau la sfarsitul numarului. Regula nu se
aplica pentru zero.
Ex: 223700 – double two, 3, 7, oh, oh

9) pentru exprimarea orei:

 formal
 informal
Ex: What’s the time?
What time is it?
What’s the time by your watch?
My watch is fast = ceasul meu e inainte
My watch is slow = ceasul meu e in urma
My watch is wrong = ceasul meu nu merge bine
My watch is broken = ceasul meu e stricat
face = cadran
belt = curelusa
hand = limba de ceas (minutes hand, seconds hand)

Pentru ora exacta:

a) It’s seven o’clock sharp PM/AM
b) 00.00 = midnight
12.00 = midday
c) It’s half past … (e si jumate)
d) It’s a quarter past/to … (e si un sfert/ fara un sfert)
e) It’s ten minutes past/to (e si/fara zece)

Ora oficiala: 08:00 = oh eight hundred hours

23:24 = twenty three twenty four
Numerale speciale:
couple = 2 (pt oameni si pt timp); couple of minutes = 2 minute
pair = 2 pereche (pt imbracaminte, incaltaminte, unelte cu structuri paralele)
Ex: a pair of shoes
yoke = team = 2 pentru animale
Ex: a yoke of cattle = 2 vite
a team of oxen = 2 boi
brace = 2 pentru vanat
Ex: I have brace duck (am 2 rate salbatice)
score = 20
half a score = 10
dozen = 12
gross = 144 (12 duzini)

2. Numeralul ordinal
Se formeaza din:
the + numeral cardinal + th
Exceptii: the first (primul)
the second (al doilea)
the third (al treilea)
+
toate celelalte numerale compuse care contin una din aceste exceptii
(21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, … 101, 102, 1001, 1002, etc)

Prescurtari: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, …21st, 22nd, etc.

! “th” se aplica doar ultimei cifre !

Modificari ortografice:
five – the fifth
eight – the eighth
nine – the ninth
twelve – the twelfth
twenty – the twentieth (+ toate cele terminate in “ty”)
Utilizarea numeralului ordinal:
1) exprimarea datei (in 2 forme)
a) luna/zi/an
b) zi/luna/an
2) exprimarea ordinii intr-o insiruire
Ex: Henry the eighth
the first floor
the second World War
3) pentru numeralul fractionar (common fraction/vulgar fraction)
numerator = numaratorul (cardinal)
denominator = numitorul (ordinal)
Ex: 1/3 = one third

! daca numaratorul > 1, numitorul va fi in plural

Ex: 2/3 = two thirds

Intregul = the whole

Fractia pe 100 = per cent
Procentaj = percentage
Numeralul distributiv
Arata distributia lucrurilor:
One by one = unul cate unul
Two at a time = 2 odata
By twos / in twos = cate 2
Numeralul adverbial
Arata de cate ori se repeta o actiune:
once = o data
twice = de 2 ori
3 times
4 times, etc.

! nu exista “twice more”, ci “twice as much as” = de 2 ori mai mult

Numeralul multiplicativ
Arata de cate ori creste o cantitate:
double = twofold = indoit (de 2 ori)
tenfold = inzecit

Numeralul Ordinal

the 1st / first = primul

the 2nd / second = al doilea
the 3rd / third = al treilea
the 4th / fourth = al patrulea
the 5th / fifth = al cincilea
the 6th sixth = al saselea
the 7th / seventh = al saptelea
the 8th / eighth = al optulea
the 9th / nineth = al noualea
the 10th / tenth = al zecelea

the 11th / eleventh = al unsprezecelea

the 12th / twelfth = al doisprezecelea
the 13th / thirteenth = al treisprezecelea
the 14th / fourteenth = al patrusprezecelea
the 15th / fifteenth = al cincisprezecelea
the 16th / sixteenth = al saisprezecelea
the 17th / seventeenth = al saptesprezecelea
the 18th / eighteenth = al optusprezecelea
the 19th / nineteenth = al nouasprezecelea
the 20th / twentieth = al douazecilea

the 21st / twenty-first = al douazecilea

the 22nd / twenty-second = al douazecisiunulea
the 23rd / twenty-third = al douazecisidoilea
the 24th / twenty-fourth = al douazecisipatrulea
the 30th / thirtieth = al treizecilea
the 50th / fiftieth = al cincizecilea

the 100th / hundredth = al o sutalea

Past Tense Continuous

Exprima o actiune in desfasurare , incheiata care a avut loc intr-un moment trecut.

Se foloseste cu: * at this time

** at X o’clock

Este echivalent cu imperfectul din romana.

Past Simple Past Continuous

am dormit dormeam
am invatat invatam

Affirmative: S + was/were + Vb-ing

Eu dormeam cand tu ai sunat.

I was sleeping when you phoned.

Interrogative: Was/Were + S + Vb-ing

Conduceai tu cand ai vazut acel accident?

Were you driving when you saw that accident?

Negative: S+Wasn’t/Waren’t + Vb-ing

Ei nu studiau cand tu ai batut la usa.

They waren’t studying when you knoked at the dor.

THE PREPOSITION

Definiţie.
Prepoziţia este partea de vorbire neflexibilă care:
a) exprimă raporturi sintactice de dependenţă între părţile unei propoziţii. Ea leagă părţi de vorbire diferite: substantive, adjective,
verbe sau adverbe de substantive sau substitute ale acestora.

Ex: I was pleased at the thought of going to the theatre. Am fost încântat la gândul că voi merge la teatru.

b) este neflexibilă, din punct de vedere morfologic;

c) prepoziţia nu îndeplineşte o funcţie sintactică în propoziţie, ci marchează funcţii sintactice.

Ex: I gave the book to Mary (complement indirect). I-am dat cartea Mariei.
The roof of the house (atribut) is red. Acoperişul casei este roşu.

Caracteristicile prepoziţiilor
Prepoziţiile englezeşti cer cazul acuzativ:

Ex: Look at him. I am before her. Uită-te la el. Eu stau înaintea ei.

Prepoziţiile of, to şi for prezintă o situaţie specială. Construcţia cu prepoziţia of este folosită ca echivalent al unei
construcţii genitivale.

Ex.: The boy's coat

The coat of the boy is new. Haina băiatului este nouă.

Prepoziţiile to şi for marchează cazul dativ :

Ex: I gave it to him. I bought it for her. I-am dat-o lui. Am cumpărat-o pentru ea.

Verbele precedate de prepoziţii iau forma în -ing (Gerund).

Ex: I am good at remembering people's names. Sunt bun în ce priveşte memorarea numelor oamenilor.
Excepţii.
But şi except sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt.
Ex: They did nothing but laugh. N-au făcut nimic altceva decât să râdă.

Utilizarea prepoziţiilor
Unele cuvinte sunt urmate în mod obligatoriu de anumite prepoziţii:
a) Substantive: interest, progress, satisfaction + in;
-cause, chance, opportunity + of;
-exception, invitation, kindness + to;

b) Adjective :
- anxious, enthusiastic +about;
- alarmed, amazed, clever, good + at;
- bound, eager, fit, sorry + for;
- rich , successful + in;
- afraid, ashamed, aware, fond, full, sure + of;

c) Verbe :
- aim, arrive +at;
- account, ask, care, leave + for;
- conceal, die, differ, free + from;
- believe, end, fail + in;
- complete, shake, shiver, threaten, tremble + with.

Poziţia
Prepoziţia apare în general înaintea cuvântului la care se referă;
Ex: The pupils are in the classroom. Copiii sunt în clasă.

Ea este folosită după acesta :

a) în întrebări speciale (wh- questions);
Ex: What is he writing about? Despre ce scrie el?

b) în propoziţii relative;
Ex: The flat I live in is on the 10-th floor. Apartamentul meu este la etajul 10.
c) în exclamaţii;
Ex: What photos they are looking at! Ce poze văd!
d) în construcţii pasive;
Ex: The children were looked after by their grandmother. Copiii au fost îngrijiţi de bunica lor.
e) în construcţii infinitivale;
Ex: This is a good firm to work with. Aceasta este o firmă bună (cu care se poate lucra bine).

Clasificarea prepoziţiilor

În limba engleză prepoziţiile se clasifică astfel:

După formă;
După raporturile pe care le stabilesc între diferitele părţi de vorbire.

După formă, prepoziţiile pot fi:

simple: at, in, on, for, to, with.
- derivate cu prefixe: along, before, beside.
- compuse: into, within, without, underneath, upon, throughout.
- complexe, formate dintr-un adverb + prepoziţie sau conjuncţie: along with, out of, because of, instead of, up to.
- locuţiuni prepoziţionale: in front of, in the middle of, in spite of, at the back of, with the help of, thanks to.

După raporturile pe care le stabilesc, prepoziţiile pot fi:

Spaţiale, arătând fie starea pe loc, fie mişcarea (direcţia): at, on, among, between, round, above, behind, under, by/ near, in front of,
to, into, towards, over, past, by.
Temporale: till/ until, about, during, throughout, since, before, by, for.
Cauzale: because of, on account of, owing to, thanks to, from, out of, for, through.
Finale: for
Ale referinţei: about, of, on, as to, as for, regarding, concerning.

Raporturile stabilite de prepoziţii

În combinaţie cu alte părţi de vorbire, prepoziţia exprimă raporturi variate.
a) Ele pot indica locul:
at - un punct în spaţiu; (la)
within - poziţia într-un spaţiu limitat; (în interiorul)
in - spaţiul în general sau locul în interiorul căruia are loc acţiunea; mai poate înlocui pe at atunci când este vorba de verbe care
exprimă activitatea, ocupaţia. (în)

Ex: He worked at school all night for the exam. El a lucrat la şcoală toată noaptea pentru examen.

by - vecinatatea imediată (lângă, de [către], cu un mijloc de transport)

to, into, onto, towards - direcţia;
On se asociază cu substantive pentru a indica locul stării sau acţiunii.
Ex: He has stayed for three years on a deserted island. El a stat trei ani pe o insulă pustie.

b) Următoarele prepoziţii sunt folosite cu verbe de mişcare pentru a indica direcţia:

- to = mişcarea până la un punct; (la, spre)
- into = pătrunderea; (în[ăuntru])
- onto = mişcarea pe o suprafaţă; (spre, către)
- during, for, over - durata; (în timpul, pentru, peste)
- with, without, like, in ...manner/ way - mod, instrument, cantitate; (cu, fără, ca, înş felul/ modul)
- as to, as far - referinţa; (cât despre)
- because of - cauza; (datorită)
- for - scop; (pentru)
- in spite of, despite - concesie (în ciuda)
c) Prepoziţiile care urmează indică precedenţa în spaţiu: before, in front of, ahead of (înaintea, în faţa)
Ex: He came and stood before us for forty days. El a venit şi a stat înaintea noastră timp de patruzeci de zile.
d) Prepoziţiile care indică succesiunea (în spaţiu şi timp): after (după, în urma cuiva/ a ceva), behind
(în spatele), by/ past (pe lângă).

Ex: They were looking behind, but there was no ghost. Ei s-au uitat în spate, dar nu era nici o fantomă.
e) desprinderea, extracţia: from (de la, din/ detaşarea), off (de pe), out of (din, din interiorul).

Ex: He took the book from the cupboard. El a luat cartea din dulap.
The island is off the main land. Insula este departe de continent.
f) apropierea: about (în jurul), around (idem), against (împotriva), alongside (de-a lungul), beside/ by (lângă, atături), near, next to,
close to (foarte aproape de).

Ex: He was next to your door. El era lângă uşa ta.

g) traversarea spaţiului: across (peste, vis-à-vis), through/ by (prin), over (peste), along (de-a lungul).

Ex: They brought the lame man over to Jesus, through the roof of the house.
Ei l-au adus pe olog la Isus, prin acoperişul casei.

h) situarea la mijloc: between (între), among (printre - se referă la mai mult de două obiecte, presupunând o omogenizare a lor), in
the middle of (în mijlocul).
Ex: He was standing between the Farisees and the people. El stătea între farisei şi popor.
i) suprapunerea: above (deasupra), over (peste), on/ upon (pe), on top of (pe), under (sub), below (dedesubt), beneath (pe sub),
underneath (sub).
Ex: The book is underneath the papers. Cartea este dedesubtul hârtiilor.

Forma prepoziţiilor
În limba engleză, un mare număr de prepoziţii se aseamănă cu particule adverbiale, adverbe sau conjuncţii. Ele se
deosebesc prin funcţie. Particulele adverbiale modifică sensul verbelor pe care le însoţesc, transformându-le în verbe cu particule
adverbiale. Ele nu trebuie confundate cu acestea.

Ex: They have put off the meeting again. Ei au contramandat şedinţa din nou. (particulă)
They tried until they were off the shore. Ei au încercat până când s-au îndepărtat de coastă. (prep.)

Present Perfect Continuous

Exprima o actiune in desfasurare inceputa in trecut care se continua si in present.

Se foloseste cu:- since(arata momentul cnd a inceput momentul sa se desfasoare actiunea)
1 for(arata perioada de timp in care se desfasoara)

Aff: S + have/has + been + Vb-ing.

Eg: Eu citesc de 2 ore.

I have been reading for 2 hours.

Int: Have/has + S + been + Vb-ing?

Eg: Citesti tu de 2 ore?

 Have you been reading for 2 hours?

Neg: S + haven’t/hasn’t + been + Vb-ing.

Eg: Eu nu citesc de 2 ore.

I haven’t been reading for 2 hours.

Present Simple

Exprima: A)-o actiune simpla,repetata:usually,generally;often(des);seldom(rar);every.

I sometimes miss the first class in the morning.
B)-adevaruri general valabile.
Water boils at 100^C.
C)-se foloseste in comentarii sportive sau indicatii scenice:
The football player passes the ball to Ronaldinho and this scores.
The lady joins the group in the middle of the stage.

Affirmative:

S+Vb

Pers a 3a singular + S/ES la Vb.

Eg: I often spend my winter holiday in the mountains.

He usually calls me when I sleep.

Interrogative:

Do/Does + S +Vb

Eg: Do you wake up early in the morning?

Does he drives his car?

Negative:

S + don’t/doesn’t + Vb

Eg: I don’t know the answer to this question .

He doesn’t belive she loves him.

To earn=a castiga
As a rule=de regula
To succeed=a reusii
Kite= zmeu

PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE

Afirmativ: S + VB(short infinitive)

Negativ : S + DO/DOES + NOT + VB(short infinitive)

Interog : DO/DOES + S + VB(short infinitive)

* la persoana a-III-a singular se adauga –s , -es.

Se foloseste pentru a exprima:

-actiuni care au character general , care se intampla spontan
Ex: I walk every day.
He reads after dinner.
She watches TV every evening.

PRESENT TENSE CONTINUOUS

Afirmativ: S + TO BE +VB(-ing)

Negativ : S + TO BE + NOT + VB(-ing)

Interog : TO BE + S + VB(-ing)

Se foloseste pentru a exprima:

-actiuni care se petrec in momentul vorbirii sau acum.
Ex: I am listening to the news now.
They are talking about the weather right now.
My parents are coming in at this moment

PRONUME ADJECTIVE POSESIVE

I ME MY MINE
YOU YOU YOUR YOURS
HE/SHE HIM/HER HIS/HER HIS/HERS
WE US OUR OURS
YOU YOU YOUR YOURS
THEY THEM THEIR THEIRS

5.1. Functia pronumelui

Pronumele sunt cuvinte lipsite de inteles de sine statator. Ele nu denumesc si nu caracterizeaza nimic, functia lor fiind aceea de a
inlocui un substantiv, facand astfel referire la o idee, obiect sau actiune mentionate anterior sau cunoscuta de catre interlocutor.
Ex.: John did all the work.
He did all the work.
Who did all the work?
5.2. Forma pronumelui

Pronumele au forme specifice in functie de:

Numar: singular - this; plural - these
Caz: Nominativ - she; Genitiv - hers; Dativ - to her; Acuzativ - her
Gen: masculin - he; Feminin - she; neutru - it

Pronumele pot fi simple (you, which, many) sau compuse (everybody, whatever, no one).
5.3. Clasificarea pronumelor

Dupa continut si functie pronumele pot fi:

Personale
Reflexive
Nehotarate
Demonstrative
Relative
De întarire
Interogative
Reciproce
5.3.1. Pronumele personale
NominativGenitiv Dativ Acuzativ
Singular I mine (to) me me
you yours (to) you you
he his (to) him him
she hers (to) her her
it its (to) it it
Plural we ours (to) us us
you yours (to) you you
they theirs (to) them them

I se scrie intotdeauna cu majuscula.

Its (pronume) nu are apostrof.

It's vine de la it is sau it has!
Forme arhaice si poetice: pers. II sg. - thou, thine, (to) thee

I gave him the book.

He ran the London Marathon.
It's a pleasure to him.
I only played against her once.
These books are ours.
Is this pen yours or mine?

You / They impersonal - putem folosi aceste doua pronume pentru a vorbi despre oameni in general.
Ex.: You have to drive on the other side of the road in Great Britain.
They say she's very clever.

It - poate indeplini o serie de functii de mare importanta:

It impersonal (in expresii impersonale temporale, exprimand starea vremii, distante sau in contructii pasive)
Ex.: It's 7 o'clock.
It was spring.
Is it Monday?
How hot it is!
How far is it to the station?

It demostrativ
Ex.: Who is it? It's the postman.
It's the children.
5.3.2. Pronumele reflexive

Acestea insotesc un verb si se refera la subiect. Se folosesc atunci cand subiectul si complementul direct se refera la aceeasi
persoana.

Forme:
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Ex.: I wanted to do it myself but he insisted on helping me.

She fell off the ladder and injured herself.
You can do these tasks by yourself or with a partner.
After five minutes, it will automatically turn itself down.
Let's buy ourselves a chair for the garden.
They built the house themselves.
5.3.3. Pronumele nehotarate

Some, any, every se pot combina cu -one, -body, -thing pentru a obtine pronumele nehotarate: anyone, anybody, anything,
someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything.

No poate forma impreuna cu -body sau -one pronumele: nobody, no-one.

Atat in engleza britanica cat si in cea americana, pronumele nehotarate anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, everyone,
everybody, no-one sunt din punct de vedere gramatical la singular si trebuie folosite cu un verb la singular.

Alte pronume nehotarate:

enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some.

De retinut!
Daca acestea forme preceda un substantiv nu mai sunt pronume, ci determinanti substantivali.
Ex.: Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
Little is expected.
5.3.4. Pronumele demonstrativ

Pronumele demostrative: this, these, that, those, such pot functiona atat ca pronume, cat si ca determinanti substantivali.
Ex.: That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
 Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)

This si these sugereaza ideea de apropiere temporala sau spatiala, pe cand that si those sugereaza ideea de departare.
Ex.: These (pancakes sitting here now on my plate) are delicious.
Those (pancakes that I had yesterday morning) were even better.
This (book in my hand) is well written; that (book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table) is trash.

Aceasta idee de departare se poate transforma chiar in dispret sau instrainare afectiva:
Ex.: Are you going to wear these? (They are awful. I do not like them at all.)
Can you belive I would have bought that?
5.3.5. Pronumele relative

Pronumele relativ face referire la un substantiv sau inlocuitor substantival mentionat in contextul aterior (antecedent) si leaga
propozitia sau grupul de cuvinte care explica sau da mai multe detalii despre substantivul antecedent de propozitia continand
substantivul determinat.

Pronumele relative sunt : who, whoever, which, that.

Ex.: The student who studies hardest usually does the best.

Alegerea corecta dintre which si that se inscrie printre cele mai frecvente nelamuriri ale studentilor la limba engleza. In general,
which se foloseste pentru a introduce propozitii care au natura de paranteze, explicatii suplimentare dar care pot fi inlaturate sau
omise fara a schimba intelesul frazei. Din acest motiv propozitiile introduse prin which sunt in general intre virgule. Din contra
propozitiile introduse de that sunt considerate indispensabile sensului frazei si nu se vor pune intre virgule.

Who si formele sale se refera la persoane, which se refera la lucruri, iar that poate face referire la ambele.
Ex.: The man who hijacked the plane wanted to get to Cuba.
The couple who live next door have the radio on all night.
The team that won the championship received a great reception.
This is the program which won the prize.
We'll plant new trees to replace those which fell.
5.3.6. Pronumele de intarire

Insoteste substantive sau pronume personale pentru a le sublinia. Ca forma sunt identice cu pronumele reflexive:
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Ex.: I myself don't know the answer.

Mary did all this herself.
Mary herself did all this.

Expresii: by myself = singur, de unul singur

Ex.: I worked by myself.
Little Jane read the story by herself.
5.3.7. Pronumele interogativ

Pronumele interogative introduc intrebari, propozitii interogative directe sau indirecte.

Forme: who? what? which? whose? (to) whom?
Ex.: Who said that?
Whose are those books?
I do not remember to whom I gave my sweater.
What happened?
What's the weather like?
5.3.8. Pronumele reciproce

Forme: each other si one another. Se folosesc pentru a exprima relatii de reciprocitate intre fiinte, idei, lucruri.
Ex.: If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books.
My mother and I give each other a hard time.
They borrowed each other's ideas.

De retinut! Each other se refera la doua obiecte, pe cand one another face referire la mai mult de doua obiecte sau fiinte.
Ex.: The scientists in this lab often use one another's equipment.
Hockey players hit one another quite frequently.

7. Prezentul perfect
7.1. Forma

Prezentul auxiliarului have (have/ has) + participiul trecut al verbului (regulat sau neregulat).
Ex.: You have worked hard.
 She has taken her medicine.

Negativul:
Ex.: I haven't been to Spain.
I've (have) not seen this movie.

Interogativul:
Ex.: Have I met you before?
Have they built the house?
7.2. Functii

Prezentul perfect este una dintre particularitatile limbii engleze, acest timp neavand corespondent in limba romana.

Prezentul perfect este un timp apartinand prezentului. A fost asemanat cu un pod care face legatura dintre trecut si prezent. Dar
accentul se pune pe momentul vorbirii, pe acum.

Prezentul perfect exprima o actiune incheiata sau "perfectata" in trecut si care se extinde pana in momentul prezent:
Ex.: I have walked two miles already (dar continui sa merg).
I have run the Boston Marathon (dar acest lucru s-a intamplat demult).
The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it came out (si continua sa il laude).

Actiuni sau evenimente din trecut care conduc pana in momentul prezent. In acest caz, folosirea timpului prezent perfect arata ca
rezultatul evenimetului sau actiunii care apartine momentului prezent este cel care conteaza si nu momentul in care a avut loc
actiunea.
Ex.: He has bought a new car (si acum au o masina noua).
They have been to Mexico but they have not been to South Africa (in consecinta, au cunostinte despre Mexic dar nu stiu prea
multe despre Africa de Sud).

Obiceiuri sau evenimente si actiuni frecvente in decursul unei perioade de timp care conduc la momentul prezentului.
Ex.: She has studied English for four years (si inca mai studiaza engleza.)
Brazil has won the World Cup four times.
7.3. Adverbe

Alegerea intre prezentul perfect si trecutul simplu este de multe ori influentata si de adverbele care insotesc verbul. Daca adverbele
respective se refera la o perioada trecuta, vom folosi trecutul simplu.
Ex.: I studied all night/yesterday/on Wednesday.

Cu adverbe care marcheaza un inceput in trecut si conduct pana la momentul prezentului, vom folosi prezentul perfect.
Ex.: I have studied up to now/lately/already.

Expresii adverbiale cum ar fi: today, this month, for an hour se pot folosi atat cu prezentul perfect cat si cu trecutul simplu.
Ex.: I worked/have worked hard today.

Exista tendinta de a folosi prezentul perfect pentru a anunta un eveniment din trecutul recent.
Ex.: The company's current CEO has lied repeatedly to her employees.

Dar vom folosi trecutul simplu pentru a relata sau anunta evenimente care au luat sfarsit si apartin trecutului indepartat.
Ex.: Washington encouraged his troops.
7.4. Conjugare
singular I have walked you have walked he/she/it has walked
plural we have walked you have walked they have walked
singular I have slept you have slept he/she/it have slept
plural we have slept you have slept they have slept
singular I have been you have been he/she/it has been
plural we have been you have been they have been

Exemple:
For five generations, members of my family have been doctors.
Vaughan has batted clean-up since he came to the Redsox.
She has swum the English Channel every summer.
How long has it been since the last time we met?
8. Prezent perfect continuu
8.1. Forma

Have/has + been + participiul prezent (-ing)

Ex.: I have been waiting for an hour.
Negativul:
Ex.: You haven't been talking too much.

Interogativul:
Ex.: Have they been feeling unwell?
8.2. Functii

Si aceasta forma verbala apartine timpului prezent si se raporteaza la momentul prezent.

Se foloseste pentru a descrie stari sau sentimente care au debutat in trecut si au continuat de-a lungul unei perioade de timp si sunt
inca prezente pana in momentul vorbirii.
Ex.: It has been raining for two days (and it's still raining).

Diferenta dintre forma prezentului perfect si cea a prezentului perfect continuu este ca forma continua accentueaza durata actiunii
sau a starii.

8.3. Conjugare
singular I have been walking you have been walking he/she/it has been walking
plural we have been walking you have been walking they have been walking
singular I have been sleeping you have been sleeping he/she/it has been sleeping
plural we have been sleeping you have been sleeping they have been sleeping
singular There is no present perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Have been being" is expressed simply as "have been": "We
have been being successful in the past."
plural

Exemple:
Maria has been writing her dissertation for the last six years[, but she finished yesterday].
The Redsox have been losing games since the All-Star break [and they continue to do so].
Have we been telling the truth to consumers about tobacco?
Haven't we been lying to teenagers about smoking?
8.4. Folosirea adverbelor cu prezentul perfect

Exista cateva expresii adverbiale care se folosesc in mod frecvent cu formele prezentului perfect. Aceastea sunt: since, so far, ever,
never, for, since, etc.
Ex.: There have been 92 accidents since the beginning of the year.
Have you ever been to Romania?
I have never seen a purple cow.
John has been working on his thesis for two years.
They haven't seen him since 1989.

For
- poate fi folosit atat cu trecutul simplu cat si cu formele perfecte (prezent, trecut, viitor perfect).
- are sensul de: in timpul, pe durata, pentru o perioada de timp.

Since
- se foloseste doar cu formele perfecte.
- are sensul de incepand de la un moment dat.

9. Trecutul perfect
9.1. Forma

Had + participiu trecut al verbului

Trecutul perfect indica faptul ca o actiune s-a incheiat, "perfectat" la un moment din trecut inainte ca un alt eveniment sa se produca.
Ex.: I had walked two miles by lunchtime.
I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston Marathon.
9.2. Conjugare
singular I had walked you had walked he/she/it had walked
plural we had walked you had walked they had walked
singular I had slept you had slept he/she/it had slept
plural we had slept you had slept they had slept
singular I had been you had been he/she/it had been
plural we had been you had been they had been
Exemple:
Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington had been a surveyor and land speculator.
Aunt Glad had invested heavily in the air-conditioning industry before the Great Crash of 1988.
She had swum the English Channel every summer until 1997.
How long had it been since you saw each other?
10. Trecutul perfect continuu

Forma: Had + been + participiu prezent (-ing)

Acest timp indica o actiune continua care s-a incheiat la un moment dat din trecut.

Exemple:
Hemingway had been losing his self-confidence for years before the publication of Old Man and the Sea.
Had they been cheating on the exams before the school put monitors in the classroom?
11. Viitorul perfect

Forma: Will + have + participiul trecut al verbului

Viitorul perfect indica o actiune care va fi fost incheiata la un moment dat din viitor.
Ex.: I will have spent all my money by this time next year.
I will have run successfully in three marathons if I can finish this one.
By this time next week, I will have worked on this project for twenty days.
Before he sees his publisher, Charles will have finished four chapters in his new novel.
A Democratic president will have been in the White House for nearly half of the twentieth century.
How long will it have been since we were together?
12. Viitorul perfect continuu

Forma: Will + have + been + participiul prezent (-ing) al verbului

Acest timp indica a actiune continua care va fi incheiata la un moment dat din viitor.
Ex.: By the time he finishes this semester, Gesualdo will have been studying nothing but parasites for four years.
Will they have been testing these materials in the lab before we even get there?