IPA05-G-175

PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Thirtieth Annual Convention & Exhibition, August 2005

HIGH RESOLUTION SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND DIAGENESIS IN CARBONATE ROCKS,

WONOSARI FORMATION, YOGYAKARTA: AN OUTCROP ANALOG FOR MODELING
CHALKY LIMESTONE RESERVOIR DISTRIBUTION

Usman Jauhari*
Budianto Toha**

ABSTRACT relative sea level. At least four periods of relative sea

The importance of outcrop data in the development of
carbonate sequence stratigraphy and diagenesis is
highlighted by a study of the Middle Miocene
carbonate of the Wonosari Formation, Yogyakarta.
Four carbonate sequences are studied for use as
analogs to model the distribution of chalky limestone
reservoirs. Depositional and diagenetic facies have
been correlated allowing a model of facies
development and chalky limestone genesis and
distribution in response to relative sea level changes
to be reconstructed for the study area.
level fall are recognized in the area which exposed the
carbonate platform and resulted in alteration of hard
limestone to porous and friable chalky limestone. The
chalkification is proven to play an important role in
the enhancement of secondary porosity in limestone.
Vertical distribution of chalky limestone in a
sequence is always bounded in its upper part by
calcrete and paleosols and in its lower part by
gradational changes from chalky into hard limestone.
It does not develop below sequence boundaries
characterized by irregular surface and unconsolidated
lithoclasts.

The Wonosari Formation comprises five main INTRODUCTION

depositional facies as follows:
(1) Reef indicated by coral framestone to bafflestone.
(2) Reef Mound indicated by red-algal bindstone.
(3) Near Reef indicated by branching-coral-fragment
rudstone to floatstone.
(4) Near Reef Mound indicated by rhodolith rudstone
to floatstone.
(5) Inter-reef Lagoon indicated by foraminiferal
mixed skeletal packstone, wackestone to
mudstone.
Sequence boundaries can be continuously traced in
outcrops and show different physical expressions in
each sequence. Two types of sequence boundary can
be identified. The first is represented by an irregular
surface and unconsolidated lithoclasts and the second
is represented by calcrete and paleosols.
Rapid rises in relative sea level during transgressions
result in retrogradational patterns. Catch-up or
prograding patterns develop during highstand in
* ExxonMobil Oil Indonesia Inc.
** University of Gadjah Mada
Carbonates are major reservoirs throughout the world.
Porosity preservation and modification may be
controlled by subaerial exposure and fresh water
diagenesis during relative sea level fall. One product
of reservoir quality is chalky limestone. It is defined
as limestone with porous and friable characteristics in
hand specimens (Reijers and Hsu, 1986) and
dominated by microspar matrix in microscopic
appearance (Jordan and Abdullah, 1992). Because of
its characteristics, it is an important carbonate
reservoir. Chalky limestone is a proven hydrocarbon
bearing reservoir in the giant Arun field and accounts
for 75% of the total porosity (Jordan and Abdullah,
1992), and also in other Tertiary reefs in Indonesia
and the Philippines (Friedman, 1975; Longman,
1981). An understanding toward facies development
in carbonate rocks and chalky limestone genesis in
response to relative sea level changes is a prerequisite
in order to model reservoir distribution.
Miocene limestone of the Wonosari Formation is well
exposed in outcrop in the Gunung Sewu area,
Yogyakarta and gives an opportunity for a detailed

297
study to establish an analog for carbonate deposition
and diagenesis in response to relative sea level
changes that can be applied to other subsurface areas.
The limestones are put into sequence-stratigraphic
framework to develop stratigraphic and diagenetic
models. The study covers an area of approximately
3.5 km by 5 km in the Gunung Sewu area,
Yogyakarta Province, Java (Figure 1). This paper is
intended to demonstrate models of lithological and
depositional environment, facies geometry of the
Wonosari Formation in relation to relative-sea-level
changes, and also the relationship between relative-
sea-level changes and chalky limestone generation
and distribution. The models can contribute in the
development of carbonate sequence stratigraphy and
diagenesis and serve as analogs for other carbonate
reservoirs.
METHODS
This work consists of two main sources of data;
outcrop and laboratory. Outcrops are examined in
detail by measuring over a total of 1,115 m of mostly
continuous, stratigraphic section in the study area.
The stratigraphic section consists of east, middle and
west sections (Figure 1) representatively crossing the
study area. The three sections serve as a basis for
identification and correlation of lithological,
depositional and diagenetic facies, which in this
study, particular attention is given to chalky
limestone. Additional spot checks to the outcrops are
undertaken in areas between the three sections.
Laboratory data include thin sections and
petrophysical properties analyzed for selected rock
samples. Thin sections are examined to determine age
and microscopic composition. Larger benthic
foraminifera, supported by planktonic foraminifera,
are used for age determination. Microscopic
compositions are examined for facies identification
and classification by applying the Embry and Klovan
classification (1971) and interpretation of both
depositional environment and diagenetic process.
Consistency in petrographic and field data collection
is achieved by having one geologist (the author)
examining all the data.
Porosity and density are measured in order to
demonstrate the effect of diagenesis with respect to
petrophysical properties. This is performed in the Soil
Mechanic Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department,
Gadjah Mada University.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The study area is located in Gunung Sewu, Southern
Mountain Basin, Yogyakarta. Limestone of Miocene
age in this basin is referred to as the Wonosari
Formation (Toha et al., 1994). The limestone
distribution in this area appears to be controlled by
the position of pre-existing highs which formed
during the Late-Oligocene by uplift and tilting of
extensive tectonic blocks, which were subsequently
truncated by erosion in the Late-Oligocene and Early-
Miocene (Bolliger and De Ruiter, 1975).
RESULTS
Age
Carbonate rocks in the study area contain larger
forams Lepidocyclina (Nephrolepidina) with the
parameter of F5, Cyclocypeus annulatus, and
planktonic forams Orbulina Universa. The suites of
microfossils indicate a Middle-Miocene age
(Chaproniere, 1981; Blow, 1979).
Facies of Depositional Environment
According to regional geology, limestone of the
Wonosari Formation is deposited on pre-existing high
areas and surrounded by deep areas. It is only
limitedly distributed on several pre-existing high
areas and does not vastly cover all paleoshelf area and
suggests patchy in its distribution. The
geomorphology indicates that the carbonate platform
of the Wonosari Formation is a patch reef complex or
isolated carbonate platform rather than a ramp or
rimmed shelf platform (Jordan (1998) and Handford
and Loucks (1993)). Therefore the depositional
environment for a patch reef complex as modeled by
Jordan (1998) and James (1983) is selected and
applied for the limestone of the Wonosari Formation.
Five main depositional facies have been identified in
the study area; reef, reef mound, near reef, near reef
mound and inter-reef lagoon. Each facies is
characterized by a particular lithofacies (Figure 2) as
follows:
Reef - characterized by coral framestone to
bafflestone. The framestone contains 20-25 cm
diameter head corals, 1 meter diameter massive corals
and also encrusting corals. The bafflestone contains
branching corals with finger diameters ranging from
2-7 cm. The corals are found encrusted and stabilized
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by red algae which build a rigid framework.
Branching corals and head corals indicate a shallow
water environment just below wave base and above
wave base, respectively (James and Bourque, 1992).
Therefore, the massive to head-coral framestone
indicates a higher energy environment than
branching-coral bafflestone. This depositional
environment is symbolized by red color in Figures 3
and 4. Some of encrusting red algae have undergone
recrystalization into bladed calcites with crystal
length until 20 cm. These calcites are well known as
batu lintang by villagers. Some of the massive and
head corals have also undergone recrystalization
which results in difficulties in differentiating between
framestone, wackestone or mudstone. The major
characteristic of framestone is a massive structure,
which is very dense and hard in hand specimens
whereas wackestone and mudstone are parallel-
bedded in sedimentary structure and lighter and softer
in hand specimens.
Reef mound – characterized by encrusting-red-algal
bindstone which is identified as having digitate,
rhodolith and stromatolite structure. Thin sections
reveal that the red algae are commonly in symbiosis
with encrusting forams. Because of the dominance of
encrusting red algae and lack of corals, this lithofacies
is interpreted as reef mound. This facies is
distinguished from reef by a dominance of encrusting
organisms (James, 1983). The reef mound facies
indicates an environment below base of large
metazoan growth and above the lower limit of mound
growth (James and Bourque, 1992). Therefore, reef
mound indicates a deeper environment than reef. This
depositional environment is symbolized by violet
color in Figures 3 & 4. Some of encrusting-red-algal
bindstone has undergone recrystalization and is
difficult to identify in the field. Fresh outcrops and
thin sections can help identify the presence of
encrusting red algae and differentiate between
bindstone and other lithofacies.
Near reef – characterized by branching-coral-
fragment rudstone to floatstone. Coral fragments are
identified and interspersed in a wackestone to
mudstone matrix. The fragments indicate products of
both biological and physical breakdowns of coral reef
and a depositional environment closely adjacent to the
reef. This facies is distinguished from reef by the
dominance of fragments rather than frame builders.
This depositional environment is symbolized by blue
color in Figures 5 to 10.
Near reef mound – characterized by rhodolith
rudstone to floatsone. Rhodoliths are identified as
fragments, sand to pebble size and interspersed in
packstone. The fragments indicate results of
biological and physical breakdown of encrusting-red-
algal reef mound. The packstone matrix contains
robust and thin, larger forams especially
Amphistegina and Lepidocyclina, small benthonic
forams (Milliolid forams), phylloid algae debris and
mollusks. Near reef mound facies is distinguished
from reef mound by the dominance of fragments to
insitu, encrusting organisms. The abundance of
rhodolith fragments indicates that this environment is
close to reef mound. This depositional environment is
symbolized by blue color in Figures 5-10.
Inter-reef lagoon – is characterized by foraminiferal-
mixed-skeletal packstone, wackestone to mudstone
and this facies dominates in the study area. The inter-
reef lagoonal facies is a deeper environment of
deposition located among patch reefs (Jordan and
Abdullah, 1992; Jordan, 1998). This facies contains
microfauna including larger forams, planktonic
forams, phylloid algae debris, red algae debris, small
benthonic forams, mollusks and echinoderms. The
shallow inter-reef lagoonal facies is white in color
and contains abundant robust and thin larger forams
(i.e. Lepidocyclina, Amphistegina), whereas the deep
inter-reef lagoon contains abundant planktonic forams
(i.e. Orbulina, Globigerina, Globorotalia).
Argillaceous content also increases basinward and
alters rock color to be brownish white. This
depositional environment is symbolized by yellow
color in Figures 3 to 10. Parallel bedding structure
dominates this facies and indicates a low energy
environment below wave base. Un-continuous
reddish to brownish clay stringers with 2 – 10 cm in
thickness are usually found parallel and inserted into
the bedding.
Sequence Boundaries
Four sequences of carbonate rocks are identified in
the field. Sequence boundaries bounding each
sequence can be traced in outcrops and show two
different physical expressions. The first type is
represented by an irregular surface and or
unconsolidated lithoclasts. In the case where
unconsolidated lithoclasts are absent, the irregular
surface is directly overlain by the following sequence.
The unconsolidated lithoclasts range in size from 2
mm to 50 cm and have numerous and large inter-
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fragment spaces (Figure 11 A-B). This type of
sequence boundary characterizes SB 1 and 2.
The second type is characterized by paleosols and
calcrete. The paleosols are 20 to 50 cm thick, brown
to gray in color, friable, discontinuous and associate
with calcrete. Thin section of paleosols shows the
presence of both rhizoliths and alveolar texture which
indicate plant’s root penetration into carbonate rocks
during subaerial exposure (Esteban & Klappa, 1983).
Calcrete is 20 to 40 cm thick, nodular to laminated,
hard, impermeable and blankets underlying exposed
carbonate rocks (Figure 11 C-E). It is formed by
evaporation of calcium hydrogen carbonate dissolved
in the pore water rising by capillary pressure
(Flugel, 1978) and indicates dissolution and
reprecipitation of CaCO3 in the phreatic and vadose
meteoric zone (Esteban and Klappa, 1983). This type
of sequence boundary characterizes SB 3, 4, and 5.
Sequence 1
Figure 3 shows lithofacies successions of sequence 1
measured in the east section. The sequence boundary
(SB 1) in this section is characterized by an irregular
surface with overlying unconsolidated lithoclasts.
Calcrete and paleosols are not identified. Figure 4
shows a reconstruction of facies development in
sequence 1 in response to relative sea level changes.
Overall, sequence 1 is dominated by a well developed
reef facies in the shallow area (eastern area) and inter-
reef lagoon in the basinward area (western area).
Carbonate sedimentation of sequence 1 starts during
transgression over older carbonate rocks and paleo-
highs by relative sea level rise. The transgressive
systems tract comprises 12 meters of sequence 1 in
the shallow area, thins to 4 meters in the middle
section and downlaps and pinches outs onto a
sequence boundary in the basinward area. The
basinward thinning and thickening in the shallow area
suggests a retrogradational pattern of deposition.
During the transgressive systems tract, reef facies
which is identified as coral framestone, coral
bafflestone and encrusting-red-algal bindstone,
flourishes in the shallow water area. The association
of corals and encrusting red algae indicates a shallow,
normal marine environment. The facies change to reef
mound toward the middle area, which are identified
as encrusting red algal bindstone. This last lithofacies
indicates a slightly deeper environment in the middle
area than in the eastern area.
This transgressive systems tract is overlain by a
highstand systems tract and separated from it by a
maximum flooding surface (MFS). The MFS is
identified from the contacts between reef and reef
mound facies in the east section and between reef
mound and inter-reef lagoon in the middle section.
These contacts mark the end of deepening upward
facies successions during transgression and the start
of shallowing upward facies successions during
highstand.
As the rate of relative sea level rise slows down the
highstand systems tract develops, reef and inter-reef
lagoon facies prograde basinward (western area) over
the previous transgressive system tract. Two smaller-
scale shallowing upward cycles (parasequences)
develop during highstand. The highstand systems
tract comprises 148 meters in the thickest part of
sequence 1 in the shallow area (eastern area) and thins
to be 45 meters in the basinward area. Reef facies
dominate in the shallow area and onlap onto the
paleo-high of volcaniclastic deposits and change to
inter-reef lagoonal facies basinward.
Sequence 2
Figure 5 shows the lithofacies successions in
sequence 2 from measurement in the east section.
Like SB 1, SB 2 in this section is characterized by an
irregular surface with unconsolidated lithoclasts.
Calcrete and paleosols are not identified. Figure 6
shows a reconstruction of the facies development in
response to relative sea level changes in sequence 2.
It retrogrades over sequence 1 and is dominated by
well-developed, inter-reef lagoon facies. The
transgressive systems tract is 10 meters thick in the
shallow area (eastern area), thins to be 3 meters thick
in the middle area, downlaps and pinchs out onto
sequence boundary 2 basinwards (western area). This
thickness difference indicates a retrogradational
pattern during transgression. Lithofacies of a sandy
micrite, rich in quartz grains, with cross-bedding like
structure in the shallow area (eastern area) records
both reworking of terrigenous remnants and
sedimentation during transgression. The percentage of
quartz grains in this lithofacies decreases towards the
middle area in which oncoidal floatstone develop.
The MFS is picked on contacts in the east section
between sandy micrite and phylloid-algal wackestone
and in the middle section between oncoidal floatstone
and large-foraminiferal wackestone. These contacts
300
mark a slowing down in relative sea level rise and the
commencement of the higstand systems tract over the
previous transgressive systems tract. During the
highstand, inter-reef lagoon and near reef mound
facies slightly prograde basinwards (western area).
At least, four, smaller-scale shallowing upward cycles
(parasequences) develop during highstand. Each cycle
contains inter-reef lagoon facies capped by near reef-
mound facies. The highstand systems tract comprises
of approximately 94 meters of sequence 2 in the
shallow and basinward areas.
Sequence 3
Figure 7 shows the detailed lithofacies succession of
sequence 3 from measurements in the east section. It
unconformably overlies sequence 2 and the sequence
boundary (SB 3) is characterized by paleosols and
calcrete overlying an irregular surface. The sequence
boundary is well developed and is easy to identify in
the eastern and middle area but difficult to trace in the
western area. This might be caused by the fact that
relative sea level only exposes the eastern and middle
area but not the western area.
Figure 8 shows the depositional model for sequence 3
in response to relative sea level changes. The
sequence progrades over sequence 2 and is dominated
by well-developed reef mound, near reef mound and
inter-reef-lagoon facies. The transgressive systems
tract is represented by 4 meters of rhodolith floatstone
in the shallow area (eastern area) which downlaps and
pinchs out onto a sequence boundary (SB3)
basinwards (western area). Thickening towards the
shallow area indicates a retrogradational pattern in
sedimentation during transgression. This lithofacies
grades upward into a large-foraminiferal packstone
which suggests a deepening upward pattern.
The MFS is picked on a contact in the east section
between rhodolith floatstone and large-foraminiferal
packstone. During highstand reef mound facies
surrounded by near reef mound and inter-reef lagoon
progrades basinwards (western area). At least two
smaller scale shallowing upward patterns
(parasequences) develop. The first cycle contains
inter-reef lagoon grading upward into near reef
mound and capped by reef mound facies. The second
cycle is not complete because its upper part is
truncated by a sequence boundary (SB 4). The
highstand systems tract comprises 82 meters in
thickness of sequence 3.
Sequence 4
Figure 9 shows the detailed facies succession of
sequence 4 measured in the east section. It overlies
sequence boundary 4 (SB 4) which is characterized
by paleosols and calcrete overlying an irregular
surface. Like SB 3, SB 4 is well developed and easy
to identify in the eastern and middle area but is
difficult to trace in the western area. This might be
caused by the fact that relative sea level only exposes
the eastern and middle area but not the western area.
Figure 10 shows a reconstruction model of facies
development in sequence 4 in response to relative sea
level changes. It progrades over sequence 3 and is
dominated by well-developed near reef mound and
inter-reef lagoon facies. The transgressive systems
tract is a 9 meter thick rhodolith rudstone to floatstone
in the eastern area and downlaps and pinchs out onto
sequence boundary (SB 4) in the most westerly part
of the study area. The thickening towards the shallow
area indicates a retrogradational pattern in
sedimentation during transgression. This lithofacies
grades upward into large foraminifera packstone to
wackstone which suggests a deepening upward
pattern.
The MFS is picked on contacts between rhodolith
rudstone to floatstone and large-foraminiferal
packstone to wackstone. During highstand, near reef
mound facies surrounded by inter-reef lagoon
substantially progrades basinward (western area). At
least, three smaller scale shallowing upward patterns
(parasequences) develop. Each cycle is characterized
by grading upward from inter-reef lagoon into near
reef mound facies. The highstand systems tract
comprises 76 meters in thickness of sequence 3 in the
shallow area (eastern area) and slightly thins to be 71
meters basinward (western area).
Chalky Limestone Genesis and Distribution
The five sequence boundaries which are traced and
delineated in the study area suggest periods of
subaerial exposure due to relative sea level fall. These
exposures allow meteoric water to infiltrate and alter
the outcropped carbonate rocks due to diagenisis. An
important product of the diagenesis in this area is
chalky limestone.
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Chalky limestone in the field is bright white in color,
friable, porous, powdery and has a grainy texture like
sandstone. Bedding, which is a common sedimentary
structure in limestone, is difficult to identify in chalky
limestone because of obliteration by diagenisis
(Figure 12). Loose or chalky characteristics are
products of partial dissolution by meteoric water of
Mg calcite cement in hard limestone (Aissaoui, 1988).
Thin sections reveal the presence of uniform silt size
and rhombic shaped microsparite crystals among
skeletal grains and micro pores (intercrystalline
porosity) among the crystals (Figure 12). Rhombic
shaped microsparite is a characteristic product of high
Mg micrite recrystalization by meteoric water. The
recrystalization removes Mg++ from high Mg micrite,
changes it to low Mg microsparite, and enables platy
crystals of high Mg micrite to recrystalize to rhombic
shaped microsparite (Longman, 1981). All of the
texture changes produce a chalky limestone with
porous, friable, powdery and grainy features in
outcrop. This process of dissolution and
recrystalization highlights the importance of subaerial
exposure and meteoric water in generation of chalky
limestone. Figure 5 shows how petrophysical
properties change from chalky limestone into hard
limestone. It is clearly seen that chalky limestone is a
porous interval which grades downward to tight hard
limestone.
In the study area, chalky limestone is well developed
below SB 3, 4 and 5 which are characterized by
calcrete and paleosols, but does not develop below SB
1 and 2 which are characterized by an irregular
surface and unconsolidated lithoclasts (Figure 11).
Probable reasons why chalky limestone always
associate with calcrete are suggested as follows:
1. It is a very dense, impermeable and laminated
layer which isolates the underlying limestone
from marine influences during deposition of the
overlying limestone. Its role is very significant in
preserving and protecting chalky limestone from
re-cementation by sea water during transgression
(Rahardjo, 2003, pers. comm.).
2. It is formed by evaporation of calcium hydrogen
carbonate dissolved in pore water rising by
capillary pressure (Flugel, 1982) and indicates
dissolution and reprecipitation of CaCO3 in the
phreatic and vadose meteoric zones (Esteban and
Klappa, 1983). Its existence suggests that the
underlying lithofacies is susceptible to dissolution
and recrystallization by meteoric water and, thus,
indicates the presence of chalky limestone
(Figure 11C).
Unlike calcrete, unconsolidated rock fragments have
large inter-fragment spaces and, are therefore unable
to preserve chalky limestone from marine re-
cementation during transgression. In this case,
multiple diagenesis or cementation can occur. The
fragments reflect remnants of undissolved parts of
exposed carbonate rocks and suggest that the exposed
lithofacies is less susceptible to dissolution and
recrystallization by meteoric water.
Figure 13 shows the vertical distribution of chalky
limestone in the study area. Chalky limestone
develops below SB 3, 4 and 5 and does not develop
below SB 1 and 2. In each sequence, loose, porous
and friable characteristics in chalky limestone grade
downward from the exposure surface into hard
limestone. The base of vertical distribution of chalky
limestone indicates the lowest penetration of phreatic
water zone during subaerial exposure. Reconstruction
of chalky limestone generation in each sequence is
shown in Figure 6C, 8C, 10C.
CONCLUSIONS
1. At least five exposure surfaces indicating
sequence boundaries are identified in the Middle-
Miocene carbonate of Wonosari Formation.
These sequence boundaries are expected to occur
in age-similar subsurface carbonate rocks in other
areas.
2. Chalkification is proven to play an important role
in the enhancement of secondary porosity in
limestone. It changes, almost totally, the original
texture and sedimentary structure into a relatively
homogenous, porous, loose, powdery and grainy
texture like sandstone. Therefore significantly
increasing the reservoir properties of the original
rock.
3. Chalky limestones are predicted to exist in
subsurface carbonate rocks in other areas and can
be expected to be present below sequence
boundaries with associated calcrete.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication is part of the author’s master thesis
302
in University of Gadjah Mada (UGM). I am grateful
to Prof. Sukandarrumidi, Ir. Wartono Rahardjo, Dr.
Subagyo Pramumijoyo and Ir. Sugeng Wijono M.S.
for valuable discussions. This paper also benefited
from reviews by both Prof. Daniel Lehrman from
University of Wisconsin during his visit in the UGM
campus and Mr. Keith Maynard as IPA editor. My
special thanks go to Sidiq, Asmoro, Wisnu and Anton
for helping me in collecting data in the field.
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Figure 1 - Topograhic basemap showing the study area in the Gunung Sewu, Yogyakarta Province. Three
stratigraphic measurement paths are indicated by green, blue and red lines.

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 Figure 2 - Depositional Facies of Wonosari Formation. (A) Reef; represented by coral framestone dominated by head corals (red arrow)
and encrusting red algae (blue arrow). (B) Reef mound; represented by encrusting red algal bindstone dominated by encrusting
red algae (red arrow). (C) Near reef; represented by coral rudstone containing branching coral fragments (red arrow). (D) Near
reef mound; represented by rhodolith rudstone dominated by rhodolith fragments (red arrow). (E) Inter-reef lagoon;
represented by foraminiferal mixed skeletal packstone. Parallel bedding and uncontinuous clay stringers are common. All
scale bars are in cm. A 170-cm man is the scale for (E).

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Figure 3 - Detailed lithofacies successions in sequence 1 from measurement in the east section. This section
contains a deepening upward pattern in the lower part and two shallowing upward patterns in the
middle and upper parts. See Fig. 1 for location of this section.

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 Figure 4 - Schematic model for deposition of carbonate rocks in sequence 1. Three main sections used for reconstruction are indicated.
Retrogradational pattern during transgression, catch-up and progradational pattern during highstand are clearly shown.
Deposition of sequence 1 is punctuated by subaerial exposure exhibited by existence of irregular surface and unconsolidated
lithoclasts.

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Figure 5 - Detailed lithofacies successions in sequence 2 from measurement in the east section. This section
contains one deepening upward pattern in the lower part and three shallowing upward patterns in the
middle and upper part. Petrophysical properties (density and porosity) are also shown. High porosity
chalky limestone grades downward into tight hard limestone.

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 Figure 6 - Schematic model for deposition of carbonate rocks in sequence 2. The three main sections used for reconstruction are
indicated. Sequence 2 retrogrades over sequence 1. Retrogradational pattern during transgression, catch-up and progradational
pattern during highstand is clearly shown. Subaerial exposure punctuates deposition of sequence 2 and enables meteoric water
to infiltrate and diagenetize hard limestone to chalky limestone.

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Figure 7 - Detailed lithofacies successions in sequence 3 from measurement in the east section. TST is
represented by a deepening upward pattern whereas HST is represented by at least two shallowing
upward patterns.

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 Figure 8 - Model for deposition of carbonate rocks in sequence 3. The three main sections used for reconstruction are indicated.
Sequence 3 progrades over sequence 2. Retrogradational pattern during transgression, catch-up and progradational pattern
during highstand is clearly shown. Subaerial exposure punctuates deposition of sequence 3 and enables meteoric water to
infiltrate and diagenetize hard limestone to be chalky limestone.

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Figure 9 - Detailed lithofacies successions in sequence 4 from measurement in the east section. TST is
represented by a deepening upward pattern whereas HST is represented by at least three
shallowing upward patterns.

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 Figure 10 - Reconstruction model for deposition of carbonate rocks in sequence 4. The three main sections used for reconstruction are
indicated. Sequence 4 progrades over sequence 3. Retrogradational pattern during transgression, catch-up and progradational
pattern during highstand is clearly shown. Subaerial exposure punctuates deposition of sequence 4 and enables meteoric water
to infiltrate and diagenetize hard limestone to chalky limestone.

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Figure 11 - Two types of physical expression of exposure surface. (A) & (B) Type 1 is characterized by
irregular surface and unconsolidated lithoclasts (red arrow). Hammer is for scale. (C) & (D) Type
2 is characterized by paleosols and caliche (red arrow) overlying irregular surface (dash line).
Chalky limestone develops below this type of exposure surface. 160-cm jacob stiff is scale for (C).
Increment of black color in scale bar in (D) is 5 cm. (E). Photomicrograph of paleosols showing
rhizoliths or root molds (red arrow). Microscope Magnification is 400X.

Figure 12 - Outcrop and thin section of chalky limestone. (A) It is characterized by porous, friable, powdery
and grainy texture like sandstone in outcrop. Bedding commonly found in limestone is obliterated
by chalk feature that results in homogenous appearance. Black in jacob stiff is 20 cm. (B) & (C)
Abundance of uniform silt size, rhombic shape microsparites and micropores (intercrystalline
porosity) (patcy light areas) characterize this limestone in thin section. Microscope magnification
in (B) and (C) is 400X and 1000X.

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 Figure 13 - Model of vertical distribution of chalky-limestone in the study area. Chalky limestone develops below SB 3, 4 and 5
characterized by calcrete and paleosols but is absent below SB 1 and 2 characterized by irregular surface and unconsolidated
lithoclasts.

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