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Gregor Mendel
Mendel's First Law
The Law of Segregation: During gamete formation, two alleles of a gene pair segregate from each other. A
heterozygous plant that is Tt forms the gametes: T & t in equal numbers. The gametes do not blend.
Friedrich Miescher
Isolated non protein substance from nucleus of cells
Named this substance: Nuclein
Frederick Griffith
Experimented with mice and two different strains of pneumonia
Discovered the process of transformation
Joachim Hammerling
Experimented using green alga: Acetabularia
Hypothesized that hereditary information is stored in the nucleus
Erwin Chargoff
Discovered that DNA contains:
Equal amounts of Adenine and Thymine
Equal amounts of Guanine and Cytosine
Rosalind Franklin
Produced and X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA
Suggested DNA was double helix in structure
Archibald Garrod
Hypothesized that genes code for the production of enzymes / proteins
Noticed that an error in hereditary material resulted in an error in a enzyme
George Beadle, Edward Tatum
Hypothesized that one gene = one enxyme
Noticed that a lack of a particular enzyme corresponded to a mutation in a single gene.
Vernom Ingram
Discovered that sickle cell anemia is caused by the coding of one wrong amino acid.
Discovered that a gene specifies the kind of location of each amino acid in a polypeptide chain.
Thomas Morgan
Morgan was able to demonstrate that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of
heredity.
Structure of DNA: section 4.2
Chemical analysis by scientists revealed the general chemical composition of nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA): they are composed of nucleotides.
A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in
RNA), and a nitrogenous base bonded together.
Each nucleotide in a DNA molecule has one of four nitrogenous bases:
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil in RNA.
Adenine and Guanine are purine bases. their structure consists of two rings of atoms.
Thymine and Cytosine are pyrimidine bases. Their structure consists a single ring of atoms.
Uracil is another pyrimidine base found in RNA. Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA.
DeoxyRibose Sugar Vs Ribose Sugar
Practise on DNA Structure: Chapter 4, section 4.2, Page 216, Questions #1 – 10.
DNA Replication and Repair: section 4.3
http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/stude
nt/animations/dna_replication/index.html
This website has an Awesome animation with review
questions regarding DNA replication
INTRODUCTION
DNA replication is the process whereby an entire double-stranded DNA is copied to produce a second,
identical DNA double helix.
The objectives of this exercise are:
1. To understand the functions of the proteins responsible for DNA replication, including helicase, SSB
protein, primase, the sliding clamp, DNA polymerase, Rnase H and DNA ligase.
2. to understand why the leading strand is synthesized continuously and the lagging strand is
synthesized discontinuously.
Practise on DNA replication: Chapter 4, section 4.3, Page 223, Questions #1 – 10.
Practise on Chapter 4: Page 228. Page 229 – 231, Questions #1 – 24.
Protein Synthesis: Section 5.2
DNA does not ext the nucleus for safety and efficiency reasons.
Transcription: The process in which DNA is used as a template for the production of complimentary
messenger RNA molecules.
Translation: The process by which ribosomes assemble amino acids in a specific sequence to synthesize
a specific polypeptide coded by mRNA.
Amino acids are determined by Codons. There are 64 possible combinations of Codons that code for 20
amino acids.
Codon: Sequence of three bases in a nucleotide that codes for amino acids.
Start Codon (AUG): Signals the ribosomes to start translation at this point.
Stop Codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) : Specific Codons that signal the end of translation to the ribosomes.
Practise on Protein synthesis: Chapter 5, section 5.2, page 241, Questions # 1 – 14.
Transcription: Section 5.3
http://www-class.unl.edu/biochem/gp2/m_biology/animation/gene/gene_a2.html
Initiation
The enzyme RNA Polymerase binds to the promoter region of the gene that is to be transcribed. At this
point, the DNA is unwound and the double helix is disrupted.
RNA Polymerase moves past the promoter region until it reaches the start sequence of the gene that is
to be transcribed.
Elongation
A complementary RNA strand is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction, using the DNA.
Termination
Once the terminator sequence is reached by the RNA Polymerase, transcription ceases. The mRNA,
RNA Polymerase and DNA are separated. The DNA reforms it's double helix.
Introns (non coding regions) are cut out of primary transcripts by enzymes known as spliceosomes. The
remaining Exons (coding regions) are joined together. This only occurs in Eukaryotes.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PKjF7OumYo
This Video Is a great visual of Translation and
Transcription.
Occurs in the Cytoplasm on free ribosomes and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum where they are destined
to pass through a membrane or leave the cell completely. Proteins need modifications to allow
transport.
Ribosomes structure:
Small subunit: 40s
E-Site: The exit site for tRNA that have donated their amino acid.
P-Site: Where the growing polypeptide is made.
Initiation
Small subunit bins mRNA transcription
Large subunit binds and sandwiches mRNA
Met- tRNA enters the P-Site
Elongation
Next tRNA enters the A-site, recognizing the next codon in the RNA sequence.
Peptide bond forms between amino acids, temporarily moving polypeptide to A-site.
Ribosomes move forward three nucleotides to read the next codon. Uncharged Met – tRNA is now in
the E-site.
Upon reading the next codon in the sequence, the uncharged Met-tRNA exits the ribosomes.
Termination
When the stop codon is reached, a termination enzyme binds and hydrolizes the polypeptide from the
last tRNA.
Everything disassembles and the ribosomes bond to a new mRNA molecule to continue transcription.
Background: Bacteria lack introns, and produce proteins one after another. That means that one
promoter when activated will cause several genes to be transcribed.
Examples:
Operons as such are not known in eukaryotic cells (other than some possible candidates in yeast). Some
of the control mechanisms known for eukaryotic genes bear a resemblance to the operon control
system, but strings of contiguous genes, all under the control of a single promoter/operator region,
are not found in eukaryotic cells.
Mutations: Section 5.6
1. Prokaryotic organisms do not possess a nuclear membrane. There fore, once transcription by
RNA polymerase has begun, translation can begin, even though the full gene has yet to be
transcribed. This is known as coupled transcription-translation.
2. The genes of prokaryotic organimsm do not contain any noncoding regions (introns). Some
archaebacteria possess introns.
3. In prokaryotes, the ribosome recognizes the start of a mRNA transcript by a unique sequence of
purine rich bases known as teh Shine-Dalgarno sequence. In eukaryotes, ribosomes recognize
the 5 cap that has been placed on mRNA.
4. Ribosomes in Eukaryotes are largere than those in prokaryotes.
5. In prokaryotes, the methionine at the start of translation is tagged with a formyl group.
6. Eukaryotic organisms do not possess operons.
7. The prokaryotic genome is a circular chromsome.The eukaryotic genome is organized into
chromosomes.
Mitochondria in eukaryotic cells resemble prokaryotic cells:
1. Mitochondria have circular genomes that are not contained within a nucleus.
3. Mitochondria divide by the process of fisson within a eukaryotic cell, similar to bacteria.
4. Mitochondria possess their own system of DNA synthesis, transcription, and translation,
indicating that mitochondria may once have been free living cells.
Key Differences
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Genome • Small and circular • Large and arranged in
• All regions are coding, chromosomes
except for promoters and • Consists of coding and
operators non coding regions
• Presence of Operons • Absence of operons
Transcription • Coupled with translation Occurs in the nucleus
• lack of introns means no Introns excised by spliceosomes
excision and exons joined together.
Translation • Commences with formyl- • Commences with
methionine methionine
• ribosomes recognize • ribosomes recognize 5
Shine-Dalgarno sequence cap on mRNA as binding
on mRNA as binding site site
• ribosomes are smaller • Occurs in cytoplasm
than eukaryotes. • ribosomes are larger than
prokaryotes