GUIDELINES FOR WRITING AT MASTERS DEGREE LEVEL

CONTENTS

1. Introduction: What is different in academic writing?

2. Structure
3. Style
4. References and Quotations
5. Reading for Writing
6. Developing an Argument
7. The Structure of Dissertations

Ursula Wingate
Department of Education and Professional Studies
King’s College London
2009

1. INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS DIFFERENT IN ACADEMIC

WRITING
In your Masters programme, you will have to write assignments for
most modules, as well as a dissertation of 15,000 words at the end.
The type of writing that is required at Masters degree level in the
Social Sciences may be different from the writing you have done
either professionally, or in a previous degree course. These
guidelines offer information on the characteristics of academic
writing in the Social Sciences.

Here are the main features that distinguish academic writing from
some other types of writing.

1.1. Academic writing needs to be presented in a specific way

Academic writing requires a clear structure, an objective and
relatively formal style, precise language, and the acknowledgement
of all sources that you used. These features are discussed in
sections 2, 3, and 4. You also have to stay within the set word limits
for the various assignments and the dissertation (these are stated in
the Programme Handbook).

1.2. Unlike other forms of writing, all claims made in

academic writing must be backed up by evidence

1
In some types of writing, you can make claims on the basis of your
personal opinions or assumptions. In academic writing, you must
provide appropriate justification for your claims through arguments
and evidence.

Evidence comes from research. In your assignments, the evidence

for your claims will mainly come from the work of other scholars in
the field. In your dissertation, it is likely that you will carry out
empirical research yourself. Then, you will have two sets of claims
and two evidence bases:
1) Claims by other authors that justify your research and position it
in the field. These claims will be based on your careful review of the
literature. The literature review will have provided evidence of what
previous research has achieved, and which questions it has left
unanswered.
2) Claims based on the evidence of your own research. These claims
usually represent new knowledge in the field.

Example: Need for evidence

In everyday conversations, you are not normally expected to provide
a detailed analysis of the topic. For instance, if someone asks you
‘What do you think of devolution?’ they want to know whether you are
for or against, and they would be bored if you went into an analysis of
the current debate. In academic writing, the priorities are reversed.
The reader is not interested in your personal opinion, but wants to
know what are (a) the main issues to be considered, and (b) the
various lines of argument that can be developed. You must put the
reader in the position to form his/her own judgement based on the
evidence and arguments that you have presented. Your claims or

This feature of academic writing is further discussed in sections 4, 5,

and 6.

1.3. Academic writing at Masters degree level is not about

testing your knowledge- it is about building knowledge
At undergraduate level, some exams and assignments may be
designed to test students’ knowledge of facts. At Masters level, you
are expected to contribute to knowledge through your writing. It is
not enough to report what others in the field have done and written.
You are expected to critically analyse the literature and to take a
stance, expressing your own voice by challenging existing claims,
concepts and theories.
The assignment topic or question often indicates this expectation by
asking you to ‘discuss’ or ‘evaluate’.

2. STRUCTURE
2
Assignments and dissertations need a clear structure with headings
and sub-headings for the various chapters and sections. The
sections need to be structured by paragraphs.

2.1. The main sections of assignments

Assignments usually have three main sections, the Introduction, the
Main Text and the Conclusion, followed by the Reference List and, if
appropriate, Appendices. The Main Text should be structured by
headings that reflect your line of argument.
The Introduction sets the scene. It introduces the
question/problem and explains the purpose and focus of the paper.
It also provides some background information, for instance on
previous work in the area, and on research gaps. If necessary, it
provides definitions of the key term(s). Finally, the Introduction
outlines in summary form how you are going to deal with the topic,
and the various stages you will take before reaching the Conclusion.
If appropriate, you also may state here why the topic is relevant to
you, for instance in relation to your professional context.

For an example of an Introduction see the example for Signposting below.

The Main Text includes a critical review of the literature. Based on

this review, you will develop your argument. The nature of the
argument is specific to the assignment question/topic and can be
any of the following: a) you argue for one position presented in the
literature and explain why this is, on the basis of your critical
analysis, more convincing than others; b) you argue that all current
positions are not convincing and explain why; c) you argue that for
your specific professional context, one position is more applicable
than the others.
Depending on the question/topic, there might be other lines of
argument. The important point is that you take a stance and make a
critical evaluation of the literature instead of just reporting it.

The Conclusion should give the reader the clear impression that
the purposes of the assignment have been achieved. It typically
includes:
• A summary of the main points (discussed in the Main
Text)
• Concluding statements drawn from these points

The Introduction and Conclusion must link together; at the end of

your paper, you should look back at the goals you set out in the
Introduction and discuss how you achieved them.

The dissertation is usually about your own research, not a given

question/topic, and therefore the structure includes chapters such

3
as ‘Research Methodology’, ‘Findings’, and ‘Discussion of Findings’.
The structure of the dissertation is discussed in section 7.

2.2. Signposting
Signposting is an important feature of academic writing which
enables the reader to follow your development of the topic. You
need to signal how the various sections of your writing link together,
and what you are going to discuss next and why.
There are two aspects to signposting: 1) saying where you are; 2)
saying where you are going.
Below is an example of signposting, where the signposting devices
are highlighted in bold print.

Example of Signposting in an Introduction

Vocabulary is seen as an issue of primary importance nowadays in
language teaching, and at the same time it is an issue that poses
problems to learners. In this paper I am going to comment on
what constitutes ease and difficulty in vocabulary acquisition
focusing on how it is influenced by lexical correspondences
between first and second language.
After a brief opening, I will look more closely at different
dimensions of lexical correspondences between languages and
explain how these can affect the acquisition of lexis. For the
purpose of this essay, three groups of lexical correspondences
will be adapted: true lexical correspondences, polysemic
Note that the structure of the assignment is clearly signposted
thought the discourse markers: after a brief opening (i.e.
Introduction), then, finally (i.e. Conclusion).

2.3. Paragraphs

It is important to divide your text into meaningful paragraphs. This

makes it easier for you to develop your argument, and for the
reader to follow it. Consider the following guidelines:

• Each paragraph should contain one main idea or topic.

• The idea or topic is often introduced in the opening sentence.
The rest of the paragraph is then used to give examples,
evidence, definitions and further explanations of the
idea/topic.
• There is no golden rule about how long a paragraph should be.
However, avoid paragraphs of just one or two sentences.

The following example shows the topic and topic development of

two paragraphs.

Example: Paragraphs

4
The teaching of foreign languages within the UK Topic
educational system has given rise to a number of
concerns over the years. These have been related to Examples
such issues as the most appropriate age for
commencement of language learning (Burstall et al,
1974), the most appropriate teaching methodologies Focusing on
(Richards & Rogers, 1986), and the relative key aspect
achievements of girls and boys (Graham & Rees, 1995;
Clark & Trafford, 1996). However, the major concern
has undoubtedly been the apparent reluctance of the
British to learn a foreign language at all, and the
declining level of achievement in this domain
(Saunders, 1998). As we move into an era where our New
future will need to be based on multilingualism Paragraph:
(Graddol, 1997), such a situation has serious New topic
consequences. Details of topic

A recent report on behalf of the Nuffield Foundation Focusing on

(Moys, 1998) highlights a number of key questions key aspect
regarding the current situation and the future of
foreign language learning, as well as emphasising the
deeply political underpinnings of a policy on language
learning. The Nuffield Inquiry points firmly to the need
for foreign languages in the twenty-first century
from a European perspective, from a business stance,
and because of the increasing necessity for
international communication. As David Graddol warns
in the report, ‘Speaking English alone will not be
enough to ensure a full and productive participation in
the 21st Century’ (1997, p.29).

From: Williams, M, Burden, R. and Lanvers, U. (2002)

‘French is the language of love and stuff’: student
perception of issues related to motivation in learning a
foreign language. British Educational Research Journal, 28,
4, 503 – 527.

2.4. Tables and figures

It is sometimes more effective to use tables and figures than
lengthy verbal explanations, particularly when you want to present
numerical information. Tables can also be presented to summarise
your argument. Make sure that all tables and figures in your paper
have a number and a title. They also must be referred to in the text.

5
 Example: Use of Tables
Another model of motivation was developed by Ritchie and Martin (1999).
The categories and some factors are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Ritchie and Martin’s motivational drivers

Economic rewards Intrinsic Social
satisfaction relationships
• Money • Interest • Social contact
• Career • Achievement • Recognition,
enhancement • Self-development respect
• Creativity
• Power and
influence
Extract from a student assignment

3. STYLE
Academic writing does not require a style or vocabulary that is
radically different from other types of writing, e.g. writing you might
have done professionally or for your first degree. Nor does it require
an overuse of technical jargon. You are expected to express yourself
in a clear, accurate, concise, objective and coherent manner.

3.1. Clarity
It is a myth that academic writing requires a ‘sophisticated’ style
with long sentences, complex expressions, and technical jargon.
Avoid overlong sentences and cut out redundant words and phrases.
This is illustrated in the following example.

Example: Concise style

From a student assignment:
What I propose to investigate is to identify levels of anxiety among foreign
students of English and then go to explain the reasons of these anxieties
to exist..

Edited version (after cutting out redundant words and phrases):

I propose to identify levels of anxiety among foreign students of English
and explain their reasons.

Here are a few rules for achieving clarity and accuracy:

Use short words, rather short sentences, and plain

language. Plain language means for instance to use: to instead of
in order to, go instead of proceed, I will explain instead of I intend to
explain. Using plain language helps you to avoid mistakes.

6
Avoid tautology (using two or more words with the same
meaning): for instance, expressions such as new innovation, past
history.

Avoid contracted verb forms: in an academic text it is not

acceptable to use forms such as don’t, isn’t, it’s, weren’t.

Use British spelling conventions: behaviour, colour instead of

behavior, color; analyse, generalise instead of analyze, generalize.

Use your spell checker: correct spelling and punctuation is

essential in academic writing.

3.2. Personal or impersonal?

Impersonal style (avoiding personal pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘we’) used
to be required in academic writing. It was believed that the
impersonal style enabled the writer to discuss ideas in a detached
and objective way. This convention has changed, and the use of
personal pronouns is now common and encouraged. Using ‘I’ or ‘we’
still allows you to be objective, if you draw on a range of authors
and their arguments to support your position. The use of personal
pronouns might make it easier, however, to develop your own voice.
Some researchers argue that using the first person helps you to be
reflective about your own contribution to the existing debate and
knowledge.

3.3. Coherence
Coherence means that the text within paragraphs is well linked, and
that the paragraphs are linked with each other. Coherence can be
achieved with linking words and phrases (and/but, however,
consequently, although…).

Coherence can also be achieved by pronouns, referring to previous

statements (it, they, this, these, those…). The linking words and
phrases are also called cohesive devices or discourse markers.
They show the reader how you move from one point to another and
develop your argument.

Here are examples of linking words and phrases:

Adding ideas: and, also, as well as, besides, finally, first (second, third,
etc.), finally, furthermore, in addition, likewise, similarly.

Emphasising ideas: above all, after all, especially, indeed, in fact, in

particular, it is true, most important, of course, truly.

Illustrating ideas: for example, for instance, in other words, in

particular, namely, specifically, such as, that is/

7
Comparing ideas: in the same way, likewise, similarly.

Contrasting ideas: yet, but, at the same time, conversely, despite,

differently, even so, however, in contrast, nevertheless, notwithstanding,
on the contrary, on the other hand, or, otherwise, rather, regardless.

Showing cause and effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently,

for that reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so, then, therefore,
thus, to this end.

Placing ideas in time: again, already, always, at first, at least, at length,

at once, at that time, at the same time, briefly, concurrently, during this
time, earlier, eventually, finally, first (second, third, etc.), formerly,
gradually, immediately, in future, in the meantime, in the past, last, lately,
later, meanwhile, next, now, presently, promptly, recently, shortly,
simultaneously, so far, sometimes, soon, subsequently, then, thereafter,
until now.

Summarising ideas: altogether, as has been noted, finally, in brief, in

conclusion, in other words, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the
whole, to put it differently, to summarise.

(from: http://asp.wlv.ac.uk/Level4.asp?UserType=6&Level4=634;
University of Wolverhampton website)

The following example shows how pronouns and linking phrases

create coherence in the text.

Example: Coherence
The teaching of foreign languages within the UK educational
system has given rise to a number of concerns over the
years. These [1] have been related to such issues as the
most appropriate age for commencement of language
learning (Burstall et al, 1974), the most appropriate
teaching methodologies (Richards & Rogers, 1986), and the
relative achievements of girls and boys (Graham & Rees,
1995; Clark & Trafford, 1996). However [2], the major
concern has undoubtedly been the apparent reluctance of
the British to learn a foreign language at all, and the
declining level of achievement in this domain (Saunders,
1998). As we move into an era where our future will need to
be based on multilingualism (Graddol, 1997), such a
situation [3] has serious consequences.
[1]Referring back to ‘concerns’

[2] Contrasting idea

[3] Referring to last point, link to next paragraph

8
4. REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS

As mentioned in Section 1.2., all claims in academic writing must be

supported by evidence. Most evidence that you will provide in your
papers will come from your reading of the work of other authors in
the field, and some will come from other sources, for instance
newspapers, websites, government reports. All your sources,
including tables, charts or photos, must be acknowledged through
references.
There are various conventions of referencing; for instance, in some
disciplines references are provided in footnotes. In the Social
Sciences, the Harvard System is used, in which a brief (partial)
reference is included in the text, while the full bibliographical
reference is presented at the end, in the ‘Reference List’.

4.1. Partial References (references within the text)

Within the text, only the author’s name(s), publication date, and –in
case of direct quotations- page numbers, are presented. Below,
you see examples and explanations of the various forms of
partial references.

Examples: Partial references Explanation

1. Literacy is commonly regarded as 1. Work of single author

autonomous (Street, 1984).
2. Public involvement in policy formation is 2. Report by an
increasingly encouraged through dialogue organisation; no
and debate (New Economics Foundation, specified author
2003).
3. Explanation can be sought from the 3. Page number is given
continuum of instrumental and integrative for direct citation
orientation, which is described as an
antecedent that helps ‘to arouse
motivation and direct it towards a set of 4. Work of two authors
goals’ (Dörnyei, 1998, p. 123).
4. Another important factor influencing
students’ chances of completion is 5. ‘Integral’ reference =
whether they obtained their preferred author’s name is part
choice of university and course (Ozga & of the text.
Sukhandan, 1998).
5. As Dewhurst (1992) argues, students are 6. ‘Integral’ reference/
going to meet moral dilemmas before and more than two authors.
after they leave school.
7. The ‘e.g.’ means that
6. As Boyle et al (2002) point out, students there is more literature
need to be confident in order to be on the topic and that
successful in their studies. this is only one
9
 example.
7. Furthermore, there is evidence from
academic research that generational
values differ (e.g. Smola & Sutton 2002).

In example 6, there are more than two authors. For space reasons,
only the first author, Boyle, is named, the others are referred to with
‘et al’. Their names are listed in the Reference List.
In examples 5 and 6, the name(s) of the author was not in the
bracket but integrated in the text. This way of citation gives more
prominence to the author’s voice. Below, you find verbs/ phrases
that can be used in integral references.

The Academic Phrasebank is a useful resource where you will find

commonly used phrases for expressing yourself in the various parts of
your paper.

Expressions for integral references

According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost

effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world.

points out
argues
preventative medicine is far more
maintains
Smith (2003) that cost effective, and therefore better
claims
adapted to the developing world.
concludes
suggests

from: The ‘Academic Phrasebank’, University of Manchester:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/

4.2. Full References (references in the Reference List)

The Reference List provides specific details of a publication you

have cited which allow the reader to access that publication. The
order is always: name of author(s), year of publication in brackets,
10
title of publication, and further details such as location of the
publication. The details differ between journal articles, books,
chapters in edited books, reports, and websites, and these
differences are explained below.

Journal article: (1) name of the author(s), (2) year of publication in

brackets, (3) title of the paper, (4) name of the journal in italics, (5)
volume and issue , (6) page numbers.

Example: Reference of journal article

Adams, G., King, L. and King, D. (1996). Relationships
of job and family involvement, family social support,
and work-family conflict with job and life
satisfaction.’ Journal of Applied Psychology, 8, 4, 411-

Book: (1) name of the author(s), (2) year of publication in brackets,

(3) title of the book in italics, (4) place of publishing company, (5)
name of publishing company.

Example: Reference of book

Rousseau, D. (1995). Psychological contracts in
organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Note that the main title is presented in italics. For a journal

article, the main title is the journal; for a book, it is the book
title.

Edited book: (1) name of editor(s), (2) ‘ed’ or ‘eds’ in brackets, to

show this is an edited book, (3) year of publication in brackets, (4)
title of the book in italics, (5) place of publishing company, (6)
name of publishing company.

Example: Reference of edited book

Street, B. (ed.) (2005). Literacies across educational
contexts: mediating, learning and teaching. Philadelphia
: Caslon Press.

Report: Reports are often commissioned and do not specify the

author(s). The order of reference is the same as in other

11
publications, but instead of the author, the name of the organisation
appears.

Example: Reference of report

Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) (2002). Full and
Websites: Internet sources need to be treated with caution, as
there is a lot of information that is not verified. Wikipedia, for
instance, is not acknowledged as a source for academic enquiry,
because everybody can contribute, and the contributions are not
verified by academic peer review. If you use a website as your
source, you will have to state in brackets when you last accessed
this website – this is because sites may disappear fairly quickly from
the web.

Example: Reference of website

Pincas, A. (2000) Features of online discourse for education.
Learning Technology, 2 (1). Available online at:
http://lttf.ieee.org/learn_tech/issues/january2000/index.html
(accessed 21 March 2009)
4.3. Differences within the Harvard system
The Harvard system only requires that the references are listed in
alphabetical order. There is no single standard which defines the
style or appearance of the references. Different publishers may print
the same reference with different formatting or with different
amounts of detail. Here are examples of a single reference as it
would be printed by different journals.

Examples of different reference requirements by Applied

Linguistics journals

Cortazzi, M. and L. Jin. 1996. ‘English teaching and learning in China’.

Language Teaching 29/1: 61-80. [as it would be cited in ELT Journal]

CORTAZZI, M. & JIN, L. (1996). English teaching and learning in China.

Language Teaching, 29, 1, 61—80. [as it would be cited in Language
Teaching]

Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (1996). English teaching and learning in China.
Language Teaching 29, 61—80 [as it would be cited in TESOL
Quarterly]

Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (1996). English teaching and learning in China.
Language Teaching, 29, 61-80. [as it would be cited in The Modern
Language Journal]

Cortazzi, M. & L. Jin. (1996) English teaching and learning in China.

Language Teaching 29: 61—80. [as it would be cited in International
Journal of Applied Linguistics]
12
Cortazzi, M. and L. Jin. 1996. ‘English teaching and learning in China.’
Language Teaching, 29/1, 61-80. [as it would be cited in Applied
Linguistics]
You can use any of these Harvard reference styles, but you must be
consistent and use the same style throughout your assignment or
dissertation.

4.4. Paraphrasing and direct citations

When you are referring to the work of other authors, you will usually
paraphrase (summarise and express in your own words) what they
have said. In this case, the reference will only provide the author’s
name and the year of publication, for instance: (Miller, 2009). You
should only use direct citations (i.e. using the author’s words), when
the author presents a specific or unique concept or an expression
that cannot easily be paraphrased, or when the author, as in the
example below, is a well-known authority whose summary of a
report should be given in his/her own words. If the citation is a short
one, it is not necessary to indent it and you should put it in single
inverted commas. In addition to the author’s name and year of
publication, the page number is given, for example:

Example of direct short citation

As David Graddol warns in the report, ‘Speaking English alone will not
be enough to ensure a full and productive participation in the 21st
Century’ (1997, p. 29).

From: Williams, M, Burden, R. and Lanvers, U. (2002) ‘French is the language

of love and of
Example stuff’: student
direct perception
long citationof issues related to motivation in
Our starting point was therefore a recognition that the dominant
vocabulary in reading pedagogy is ideological – that is, it is an
example of

an implicit philosophy in the practical activities of social life,

backgrounded and taken for granted, that connects it to common
sense.
(Fairclough, 1989, p.84)

From: Street, B & Lefstein, A. (2007). Literacy: an advanced resource book.

Citations of more than 20 words are formatted differently from the
rest of the text. They are indented and single spaced. Quotation
marks are not needed in this format, as the example shows:

4.5. Avoiding plagiarism

Academic study is always based on the thorough analysis of
previous work in the discipline, and your argument in your
assignment/dissertation will build on what other authors have
previously written. As a student, you will often feel that other
experts in the discipline have expressed their ideas in a way that
13
you cannot match. You need to decide whether to paraphrase or to
quote these authors directly (see 4.4.). In any case, you must make
it absolutely clear through referencing where the ideas come from.
You will have to sign a Cover Sheet with a plagiarism statement for
your assignments/dissertation to make sure that all your sources
are acknowledged.

5. READING FOR WRITING

It is important to learn how to use library facilities and internet
search engines efficiently. You must always make notes of where
you found information and always acknowledge your sources
properly.
It was emphasised earlier that you must not just report what you
have read in the literature, but take a critical approach towards the
claims made by the authors you cite. This critical stance means that
you need to carefully examine the arguments and evidence with
which authors support their claims. Next, you need to bring
together, compare and evaluate the –often contradictory- claims of
various authors.

The first step in your reading is to identify relevant sources and

evaluate their suitability for your topic.

5.1. Identifying relevant sources

You will find relevant sources through:

a. Reading lists (in your Programme Handbook)

b. Databases /Abstracts databases (for instance British

Education Index, Education-line, ERIC)1

c. Keyword search in ISS catalogue2, Google Scholar

d. Keyword search in journals

e. When searching for literature in areas where there is

ongoing empirical research, it is important to start
searching from the most recent publication dates. After
your literature search, you will come up with a ‘long-list’ of

1
On King’s homepage, click ISS (Information Services and Systems), then click One Space on the top
bar. In One Space, click Study on the top bar. Databases and E-Journals are in the right-hand menu
under the heading ‘Connect to’.
2
On King’s homepage, click ISS, and then ISS Catalogue on the right-side menu.

14
 sources which you will have to reduce to a ‘short-list’ with
the most relevant items.

5.2. Evaluating sources

In your assignment/dissertation, you will have to provide the

following information in your Literature Review:

a. An overview of the key issues in the field, and their importance

b. An overview of the research that has been carried out in the

field, the findings, and a summary of the current status of
enquiry

c. Specific examples of the types of methodology, analysis and

results reported in individual research studies

Which sources are valuable for providing that information?

Textbooks
Textbooks provide summaries of research without giving you the
details of the original research studies. The textbook author has
already interpreted the research in a way that you might not agree
with. Also, the textbook author might have emphasised aspects that
are not relevant for your topic. For your assignments and
dissertation, it is important that you read beyond textbooks and try
to get up-to-date knowledge of recent research in your research
area.

‘Front-line literature’
According to Wallace & Wray (2006), ‘front-line’ literature consists
mainly of journal articles, books, and reports that provide theoretical
work, reports of original research, accounts of current practice and
policy statements. These sources provide direct information for your
research.
For the value of various sources (textbooks, readers and handbooks,
reports, policy statements, websites, see Wallace & Wray, 2006, pp.
17 – 25).

The Internet
Much literature is now available online (e-journals, access to print
journals electronically – see 5.1.). There are powerful search engines
(i.e. Google Scholar) that direct you to downloadable files. For
internet sources such as Wikipedia or any other sites to which
individuals can contribute without peer review see 4.2.
15
5.3. Reading strategies

Reading is done most effectively if you have its purpose in mind.

Your reading should always be guided by two main questions:
1) What is the relevance of this piece for my topic/research?

2) What information do I need to get from this piece that feeds

into my writing?

Your reading will be most effective if you take the following two
steps:

Step 1: Organising reading

a. Making a rough plan of how you might structure your
literature review.

b. Put your reading materials into the appropriate order.

Step 2: Recording reading

a. Taking notes according to your learning style (linear, pictorial,
diagrammatic, mind-maps); producing summaries and lists of
important quotations

b. Using Endnote (a computer programme for organising your

reading and notes) for a longer piece of work such as your
dissertation

c. Creating mini-literature reviews instead of notes (write a

summary of every piece of reading you have done and relate
it to other sources you have read).

5.4. Reading critically

Reading critically means first that you approach your sources with
clear questions in mind, i.e. that you are constantly questioning the
relevance of the text to your own topic (see 5.3.). Secondly, it
means that you critically analyse the authors’ arguments. Wallace
and Wray (2006) explain what distinguishes an argument from an
opinion.

16
 What is an argument?
Argument: Conclusion (claim) + Warrant (reason for the conclusion; e.g.
evidence from the author’s research or professional experience
Opinion: Unwarranted conclusion – no explanation is given for claim.
(Wallace & Wray, 2006: 27)
Evaluating an argument means that you have to assess whether the
warrant is convincing. If you make counter-claims, you must have
sufficient warrant to support them.

6. DEVELPOING AN ARGUMENT
The term ‘argument’ is referred to in different ways in academic
writing. On the one hand, it means a claim that is based on a
warrant (see 5.4.), rather than an opinion that is not supported by
any evidence. In an academic paper, on the other hand, it means
the way in which you explain and develop your topic. In this sense,
‘argument’ encompasses: (1) a logical structure of your paper in
which –sometimes- contradictory claims are discussed, and which
enables the reader to follow, through signposting and headings, how
you deal with the topic, (2) your critical analysis of existing
literature from the viewpoint of your own experience and/or
research, and (3) the development of your own stance, based on
your literature review and your own experience/research.
Considering the range of possible topics, there is no template for
developing an argument, but the following steps may help.

Essential steps for developing an argument:

a. Do not be descriptive by just reporting what others have
written.
b. Research the topic and get as much information as possible,
mainly through reading relevant texts.
c. When you choose an assignment topic, you may have
attended lectures that dealt with the topic, and you will be
starting to read texts on the topic. From the beginning, ask
yourself: What is my experience of and view/opinion on the
topic? What information am I expecting from lectures,
tutorials and texts?
d. In the information you receive, look for evidence that supports
your view/opinion, and for evidence that contradicts it.
e. On the basis of that evidence, revise your original
view/opinion. This way, your opinion becomes an argument.
f. When developing your argument, clearly state why you agree
or disagree. Your argument emerges while you discuss and
weigh up the argument of other authors.
g. Consider carefully how you present your argument, bearing in
mind how the reader might view your words (e.g.
misunderstand, disagree).
17
7. THE STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATIONS
If your dissertation includes your own empirical research, the
structure usually consists of five chapters:
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
4. Findings and Discussion
5. Conclusion
Appendices

This structure can vary, for instance Chapter 4 can be split into two
chapters: 4. Findings, and 5. Discussion. When the research is based
on quantitative data, it may be more appropriate to present the
numerical results in the ‘Findings’ chapter, followed by a
‘Discussion’ chapter. In qualitative research, it is more to common
to present findings and discussion in one chapter.

The following section gives a short outline of what should be

included in the chapters of a dissertation. Each chapter should end
with a short summary and a linking paragraph to the next. When
you summarise your research in the last chapter, the Conclusion,
check that you are being consistent with the short summary at the
end of each chapter.

The Abstract is a summary of the dissertation which briefly informs

the reader about the background, aims and objectives of the
research, the main methods used, main findings and conclusions.

7.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the (1) background and (2) the aim and
objectives of your study, i.e. the relevance of topic; the reasons for
your interest in it, and (briefly, because this will be dealt with in
more detail in the Literature Review) the current knowledge of the
topic. You may ‘frame’ your own research here, stating that is a
need for doing that research to fill knowledge gaps (for instance,
teaching learning strategies may have been well researched in
other contexts, but not in yours). At this point, you may want to
point out what your research is going to contribute to existing
knowledge in your field.
Leading on from (1) and (2), you may state your (3) Research
questions. However, it may be better to state the research
questions at the end of Chapter 2, the Literature Review, after you
have considered the current research findings and discussion of the
topic.

18
Next, provide an (4) Outline of your dissertation with a brief
overview of the following chapters.

7.2. Literature Review

Make sure that you focus on the literature that is relevant to your
topic and point out where the literature leaves knowledge gaps for
your context. Again, this chapter offers you the opportunity to show
that you are making a contribution to knowledge in your context. Do
not just summarise your sources, rather select and discuss the
themes that are relevant to your topic and the current discussion of
the topic.

7.3. Methodology

In this chapter, you need to justify why you chose certain methods
of enquiry, and why your methods are capable of answering your
research questions. For this justification you may have to link back
to the Literature Review (for instance by saying that previous
quantitative research did not find in-depth explanations, and
therefore you are choosing different methods, such as interviews).
In addition to the choice of methods, you have to discuss the
following issues in this chapter:
• Ethical considerations
• Recruitment of participants: why did you choose them and
how did you get them to participate?
• Data collection procedures: how will you administer your
questionnaire, conduct your interviews or observations?
• Data analysis: how will you analyse your data (statistical
procedures, content analysis, discourse analysis, etc).

7.4. Findings and Discussion

In this chapter you answer your research questions through
presenting and discussing your results. Your discussion should link
to the Literature Review and the Methodology chapter, as you are
relating your own findings to the results of previous research, and to
the way it was conducted.

7.5. Conclusion
In addition to a summary of your research, the following points need
to be addressed in this chapter:
• Limitations of your research
• Implications of findings –your contribution to knowledge
• Recommendations of action to be taken
• Suggestions for future research

19
Appendices
Examples from your data, for instance the questionnaire you used or
extracts from interview transcripts can be presented in Appendices.

References:
Fairbairn, G. & Fairbairn, S. (2001) Reading at university. Buckingham:
Open University Press
Fairbairn, G. & Winch, C. (1996) Reading, writing and reasoning.
Buckingham: Open University Press
Wallace, M. & Wray, A. (2006) Critical reading and writing for
postgraduates. London: Sage.

20