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SOIL MECHANICS
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
• Usually the soil on site has to be used. Soils differ from other
engineering materials in that one has very little, if any,
control over their properties.
Note
• the logarithmic scale. Most soils contain mixtures of sand,
silt and clay particles, so the range of particle sizes can be
very large.
6
These include the silts and clays and have particles smaller than
60 µm.
The results from the particle size determination tests are plotted
as grading curves. These show the particle size plotted against
the percentage of the sample by weight that is finer than that
size. The results are presented on a semi-logarithmic plot as
shown in Figure 2 below. The shape and position of the grading
curve are used to identify some characteristics of the soil.
9
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
From the typical grading curves it can be seen that soils are
rarely all sand or all clay, and in general will contain particles
with a wide range of sizes. Many organisations have produced
charts to classify soils giving names for the various
combinations of particle sizes. One such example is given in
Figure 3 below.
0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
Sa n
)
70
30
80 Clay-Sand Clay-Silt
20
90
Silty Sand Sandy Silt 10
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION,
U. S. ENGINEER DEPT.
These tests are only used for the fine-grained, silt and clay,
fraction of a soil (actually the % passing a 425 µm sieve). If we
take a very soft (high moisture content) clay specimen and
allow it to dry we would obtain a relation similar to that shown
in Figure 4.
As the soil dries its strength and stiffness will increase. Three
limits are indicated, the definitions of which are given below.
The liquid and plastic limits appear to be fairly arbitrary, but
recent research has suggested they are related to the strength of
the soil.
Volume
SL PL LL
Moisture Content (%)
weightof water w
moisturecontent = = w (1)
weightof solids ws
In the shrinkage test the soil is left to dry and the soil is
therefore not saturated when the shrinkage limit is reached. To
estimate SL it is necessary to measure the total volume, V, and
the weight of the solids, ws. Then
γ wV 1
SL = m = − (2)
ws Gs
IP = LL - PL
(3)
The reason for the large number of such systems is the use of
particular systems for certain types of construction, and the
development of localised systems.
If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix
G
D60
Cu =
D10
D302
Cc =
( D60 × D10 )
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
l ine
with increasing plasticity index "
"A
40
Plasticity index
CH
30
20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
• stratification
• degree of compactness
• cementation
• moisture conditions
• drainage characteristics
17
amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D 10
2
fines)
C c = --------------
------- Between 1 and 3
fraction is larger than
Predominantly one size or a range of GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- angularity, surface condition, D10 x D60
missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
2.36mm
Gravels
Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in
(apreciable
procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures mation on stratification, degree Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(D 30 )2
fraction is smaller than
Example:
Predominantely one size or a range of SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly C c = --------------
-------- Between 1 and 3
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing sands, little or no fines hard angular gravel particles
2.36mm
12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Sands
amount of fines)
Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable
Less than 5%
Sands with
cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
5% to 12%
plastic lines with low dry PI between 4 and 7
fines
crushing (consistency
Silts and clays
(reaction
less than 50
liquid limit
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Determine the USCS classification.
Solid
Water
Air
2.1 Units
Length metres
Mass tonnes (1 tonne = 103
kg)
Density (mass/unit volume) t/m3
Weight kilonewtons (kN)
Stress kilopascals (kPa) 1 kPa
2
= 1 kN/m
Unit Weight kN/m3
ρw = 1 tonne/m3
= 1 g/cm3
W = Mg
W
γ =
V
Mg
γ =
V
= ρg
Densityof Material ρ
G = =
Densityof Water ρw
Gs ≈ 2.65
ρs = Gs ρw
γ s = Gs γ w
Ms Ws
Vs = =
Gs ρ w Gs γ w
Vv
e =
Vs
where Vv = Vw +Va
V = Va + V w + V s
Vv
n =
V
Vs = V - Vv = (1 - n) V
23
Now
Vv Vv n
e = = =
Vs (1 − n) V 1− n
and hence
e
n =
1+e
Vw
S =
Va + Vw
Vw V
S = = w
Vv eVs
V w = e S Vs
Va = Vv - Vw = e Vs (1 - S)
Solid 1 Gs ρw Gs γ w
W
γ bulk =
V
When all the voids are filled with water the bulk
unit weight is identical to the saturated unit
weight, γ sat, and when all the voids are filled with
air the bulk unit weight is identical with the dry
unit weight, γ dry. From Table 2 it follows that
W γ G + γ w eS γ (G + e S )
γ bulk = = w s = w s
V 1+ e 1+ e
γ w ( G s + e)
γ sat = S=1
1+ e
γ w Gs
γ dry = S=0
1+ e
γ ´ = γ sat - γ w
Ww
m =
Ws
W w = γ w V w = γ w e S Vs
Ws = γ s V s = γ w Gs V s
and hence
eS
m =
Gs
2. Distribution by Volume
Ww 517 × 10 −6
Water Volume , Vw = = = 52.7 × 10 −6 m 3
γw 9.81
Ws 2327.9 × 10 −6
Solid Volume , Vs = = = 89.5 × 10 −6 m 3
Gs γ w 2.65 × 9.81
3. Moisture content
Ww 10 52.7 × 10 −6
m = = = = 0.222
Ws 45 237.3 × 10 −6
27
4. Voids ratio
Vv 14.9 × 10 −6 + 52.7 × 10 −6
e = = = 0.755
Vs 89.5 × 10 −6
5. Degree of Saturation
Vw 52.7 × 10 −6
S = = = 0.780
Vv 52.7 × 10 −6 + 14.9 × 10 −6
6. Unit weights
W 2845 × 10 −6 kN
γ bulk = = = 18.1 kN / m 3
V 157 .1 × 10 −6 m 3
Ws 2327.9 × 10 −6
γ dry = = = 14.8 kN / m 3
V 157.1 × 10 −6
(2845 × 10 −6 + 146.2 × 10 −6 )
γ sat = = 19.04 kN / m 3
157.1 × 10 −6
= 6.87
Solids 1.0 2.65 × 9.81 26.0
= 26.0
26.0 kN
• Dry unit weight γ dry = = 15.3 kN / m 3
. m3
17
(26.0 + 6.87)
• Saturated unit weight γ sat =
17
.
= 19.3 kN / m 3
6.87
• Moisture content m =
26.0
= 0.264 = 26.4%
Gs γ w
γ dry =
1+ e
( G s + e) γ
γ sat = w
1+ e
29
3. COMPACTION
Handle
collar
(mould
extension)
Metal guide to
control drop of
hammer
Cylindrical
soil mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
32
Base plate
Gs γ w
γ dry =
1+ e
which can be rearranged to give
Gs γ w
e = −1
γ dry
W to f S o lid s Ws W to fW a te r Ww
γ dry = = m= =
T o taVl o lu m e V W to f S o lid s Ws
W Wt of Solids + Wt of Water W + Ww
γ bulk = = = s
V TotalVolume V
33
(1 + m) Ws
=
V
= (1 + m) γ dry
(γdry)
Dry unit weight
max
mopt
Moisture content
Va
A (% ) = × 100
V
writing Va as V - Vw - Vs we obtain
34
A V + Vs
1− = w
100 V
A
(Ws + Ww ) (1 − )
γ W + Ww 100
γ dry = bulk = s =
1+ m V (1 + m) (Vs + Vw ) (1 + m)
Ws Ww mWs
Now Vs = Vw = =
Gs γ w γw γw
A Gs γ w
Hence γ dry = (1 − )
100 Gs m + 1
G γ
γ dry = s w
G s m + 1
ze
ro
Dry unit weight -a
ir-
vo
id
s
lin
e
Moisture content
Figure 3 Typical compaction curve showing no-
air-voids line
ze
increasing compactive ro
-a
energy ir-
Dry unit weight
vo
id
s
lin
e
Moisture content
Typical Values
(γ dry )max mopt (%)
3
(kN/m )
Well graded 22 7
sand SW
Sandy clay 19 12
SC
Poorly graded 18 15
sand SP
Low plasticity 18 15
clay CL
Non plastic silt 17 17
ML
High plasticity 15 25
clay CH
Acce Accept
Reject
pt
Dry unit weight
Reje
ct
Moisture content
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 Possible field specifications for
compaction
emax − e
Id =
emax − em in
Gs γ w
e = − 1
γ dry
and hence
1 1
−
γ drymin γ dry γ drym ax (γ dry − γ drym in )
Id = =
1 1 γ dry (γ drym ax − γ drym in )
−
γ drymin γ drym ax
41
4. EFFECTIVE STRESS
W
W
Soil Soil
Fig(1a) Soil loaded by an applied weight W Fig(1b) Soil loaded by water weighing W
43
σv′ = σ v − u w
(2)
N′ = N − U
(3a)
τ = µσv′
(3b)
Layer 1 γ bulk = γ 1 d1
Layer 2 γ = γ z d2
bulk 2
Layer 3
γ bulk = γ 3 d3
σ v
Water table
u w (P) = γ wH
(5)
Example
Layer 1 γ bulk = γ 1 2m
Water Table
Layer 2 3m
γ bulk = γ 2
Ww = Vv * γ w kN
Voids Vv=e Vs Voids Ww=0 Voids = 0.7 * 9.8 kN
= 0.7m3 = 6.86 kN
Ws = Vs * G s * γ w Ws = Vs * G s * γ w
Solid Vs= 1m3 Solid Solid
= 1 * 2.7 * 9.8 kN = 1 * 2.7 * 9.8 kN
= 26.46 kN = 26.46 kN
26.46 kN
γ dry = = 15.56 kN / m3
. m3
170
(26.46 + 6.86) kN
γ sat = = 19.60 kN / m3
. m3
170
(6)
e = m Gs
Gs γ w
γ dry =
1+e
( Gs + e) γ w
γ sat =
1 + e
49
σyz
z
σzy
σxz
σyy
σzx
y
σxy
σyx
σ xx x
σ′xx = σ xx − u w ; σ′yz = σ yz
σ′yy = σ yy − u w ; σ′zx = σ zx
σ′zz = σ zz − u w ; σ′xy = σ xy
(10)
50
Assume
• surface flooding
• uplift of buildings
5.1 Introduction
IMPORTANT
z(P)
z is measured vertically
UP from the DATUM
Datum
u w ( P)
h ( P) = + z( P)
γw
(1)
53
Note
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
uw ( P ) = 4γ w
55
z (P) = 1 m
4γ w
h( P ) = + 1 = 5m
γw
2. Calculation of Head at X
u w ( X ) = 1γ w
z (X) = 4 m
γw
h( X ) = + 4 = 5m
γw
uw ( P ) = 4γ w
4γ w
z (P) = - 4 m h( P ) = − 4 = 0m
γw
u w ( X ) = 1γ w
γw
z (X) = - 1 m h( X ) = − 1 = 0m
γw
∆h
Soil Sample
∆L
∆h
Q = k A
∆l
(2a)
where k is the coefficient of permeability or
hydraulic conductivity.
where
i = ∆h/∆L is the hydraulic gradient
v = Q/A is the Darcy or superficial velocity.
inlet
constant head
device
load
H
Manometers
outlet
X L
k =
AH T
(3)
porous disk
H1
H
Sample of H2
L area A
δH
The flow in the standpipe = −a
δt
H
The flow in the sample = k A
L
and thus
d H H
−a = k A
dt L
(4a)
kA
a ln ( H ) = t + cons tan t
L
(4b)
60
H1
ln
H
aL 2
k =
A (t 2 − t1 )
(4c)
10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10
Gravels
Grovels Sands Silts Homogeneous Clays
k = ( d 10 ) 2
∆z
B C
∆x
O x (Horizontal)
v x = −k H i x
h ( C ) − h( B )
ix ≈
∆x
∂h
vx = −k H
∂x
(5a)
v z = −k v i z
h ( A ) − h( B )
iz ≈
∆z
62
∂h
vz = −k v
∂z
(5b)
Soil Flow
Impermeable bedrock
vz
Soil
vx D
Element B ∆z
∆ x
For steady state seepage the flow into the box will
just equal the flow out so the net flow in will be
zero, thus dividing by ∆x∆y∆z and taking the limit
for an infinitesimal element, it is found:
∂v x ∂v z
+ = 0
∂x ∂z
(6b)
∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
k H ∂ x
+ ∂z
k v ∂ z
= 0
∂x
(7a)
∂2 h ∂2 h
kH + k v = 0
∂x2 ∂z2
(7b)
∂2 h ∂2 h
+ = 0
∂x2 ∂z2
(7c)
∂v x ∂v y ∂v z
+ + = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
(8)
∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h
kH
+
k H ∂ y
+ ∂z
k v ∂z
=0
∂x ∂x ∂y
(9a)
∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h
kH + k H + k v = 0
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2
(9b)
∂2 h ∂2 h ∂2 h
+ + = 0
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2
(9c)
66
67
6. FLOW NETS
6.1 Introduction
Phreatic line
Unsaturated
Soil Drainage
blanket
z Flow of water
∂ ∂
Laplace's equations, thus analysis involves the
∂ ∂
solution of:
2 2
h h
+ =
0
x2 z2
subject to certain boundary conditions.
Equipotential (EP)
h( x, z ) = constant
(1a)
it thus follows
∂h ∂h
dx + dz = 0
∂x ∂z
(1b)
dz ∂h / ∂x
dx = − ∂h / ∂z
EP
(1c)
It can be seen from Fig. (2) that the flow lines and
equipotentials are orthogonal. To show this notice
that on a flow line the tangent at any point is
parallel to the flow at that point so that:
69
[ dx: dz] ∝ [ v x : v z ]
(2a)
dx vx
dz =
FL vz
now from Darcy ' s law
∂h
vx = −k
∂x
∂h
vz = −k
∂z
thus
dx ∂h / ∂x
dz =
FL ∂h / ∂z
(2b)
and so
dx dx
dz • dz = −1
FL EP
(3)
h+ ∆h Y
h
Z FL
h+2 ∆h
T
EP
t X ∆Q
y
X x FL
z
∆Q
Fig. 3 Equipotentials intersecting a pair of
Flow Lines
(4a)
Also let us assume that the potential drop between
any adjacent pair of equipotentials is ∆h then it
follows from Darcy’s law:
71
∆h
v =k
zt
(4b)
∆Q yx
=
k∆h zt
(4c)
using an identical argument to that used in
developing equation(4c) it can be shown that:
∆Q YX
=
k∆h ZT
(4d)
(5)
Thus each of the elemental rectangles bounded by
the given pair of flow lines and a pair of
equipotentials (having an equal head drop) have
the same length to breadth ratio.
∆Q B
∆Q C EP( h )
FL D
d A
b
a EP ( h + ∆h )
c
(6a)
(6b)
It thus follows that:
∆Q cd
=
k∆h ab
(6c)
It can be similarly shown that:
∆Q CD
=
k∆h AB
(6d)
Hence again a pair of flow tubes carrying equal
flows will intersect a given pair of equipotentials in
73
Water
H-z
H
Datum
Permeable Soil
vn=0
Flow Line
vt
Impermeable Material
uw
h= +z
γw
thus
∆u w
∆h = + ∆z
γw
now ∆u w = 0
and so
∆h = ∆z
(8)
15 m
h = 15m h=0
5m
P
h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m
and if the dam is 25m wide the total flow under the
dam:
Q = 25 ×5 ×10 −5 ×3 m 3 /sec
(10d)
N f
Q =k H
Nh
(10e)
80
uw
h= +z
γw
(11a)
uw = 2 −
[1 5)] γ
(− w =
17 γ w
(11b)
81
Stranded Vessel
Water Supply
5m 2.5 m 1.8
A B C D E
Head H1 – H1 –5 H1 – 6 H1 – 7 H1 – 8
(1) 4.5 ∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
Head H2 + H2 + 4 H2 + 3 H2 + 2 H2 + ∆h
(2) 4.5 ∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
Head 20.5 18.33 14.0 9.67 5.3
(1 and
2) (m)
Pressur 201.1 179.8 137.3 94.9 52.3
e (kPa)
γ w(h –
z)
84
Nf
Flow required, Q = kH
Nh
=
14
3 ×10 −4 × 39 ×
9
= 1.8 ×10 −2 m3/m/sec
85
7.1 Introduction
k=k 1 d1
k=k 2 d2
∆h ∆h
v1 = k1 ; Q1 = k1 d1 (1a)
L L
and
∆h ∆h
v2 = k2 ; Q2 = k2 d2 (1b)
L L
h =h0 h =h 0 −∆h
v=v 1 d1
v=v 2 d2
Fig.
Fig. 2 Horizontal flowina layered soil 2 Horizontal
deposit flow through
layered soil
87
It therefore follows:
Q1 + Q 2 ∆h (2a)
v = = kH
d1 + d 2 L
where
k 1d 1 + k 2 d 2 (2b)
kH =
d1 + d 2
h = h0
v d1
h = h 0 − ∆ h1
v d2
h = h 0 − ∆ h1 − ∆ h 2
L
Fig. 3 Vertical flow through
Fig. 3Vertical flow in a layered soil deposit
layered soil
∆h 1
In layer 1: v = k1
d1
v d1
so ∆h 1 =
k1
(3a)
∆h 2 vd2
Similarly in layer 2 v = k2 and ∆h 2 =
d2 k2
(3b)
v d1 v d 2
+
∆h ∆ h1 + ∆ h 2 k1 k2
i = = =
d d1 + d 2 d1 + d 2
(3c)
∆h
v = kV
d
(3d)
and hence
d d d
= 1 + 2
kV k1 k 2
(3e)
Example
∂2 h ∂2 h
kH + k V =0
∂x 2 ∂z 2
(4)
kH ∂2h ∂2h
+ =0
α 2 k V ∂x 2 ∂z 2
(5b)
Thus by choosing:
kH
α=
kV
(5c)
H1 Impermeable
dam
H2
z L
Z
Soil layer
x
Impermeable bedrock
4 × kV
α = =2
kV
so
x
x = 2x or x=
2
z =z
(6)
In terms of transformed co-ordinates this becomes
as shown in Figure 5
91
H1
H2
z L/2
Z
x Soil layer
Impermeable bedrock
5m
Impermeable bedrock
k eq = kH kV
(7)
∆
Q
transformed
Natural scale t scale
x x
Fig. 7 Horizontal flow through anisotropic
soil
∆h
∆Q = kH t
x
Example
k eq = ( 4 × 10 −6 ) × (10 −6 ) = 2 × 10 −6 m / sec
(8a)
93
(13 − 2.5)
∆h = = 0.75 m
14
(8b)
= 9.0× 10-6
m3/sec/(m width of dam)
7.4 Piping
u2
Elevation
u1
Plan Area =A
Uplift Force = A ( u1 − u 2 )
(9a)
The pore pressure can be calculated from the head
and so:
u 2 = γ w ( h 2 − z2 )
and
u1 = γ w ( h1 − z1 )
(9b)
γ w ( h 1 − h 2 ) − γ w (z 1 −z 2 ) > γ sat ( z 2 − z 1 )
i > i crit
where
h1 −h 2
i = hydraulic gradient =
z 2 − z1
and
γ sat − γ w
i crit = critical hydraulic gradient =
γw
Example
h1 - h2 = ∆h = 0.75 m (calculated
from Fig. 6)
z2 - z1 = 1.125 m (scaled
from Fig. 6)
thus
0.75
i = = 0.67
1125
.
Now
18 − 9.81
i crit = = 0.83
9.81
(10)
Embankment
x
Soil layer 1
Soil layer 2 z
Rock
Cell
water
Soil sample
Porous disks
∆V
εv = − Note: Compressive strains
Vo
are positive (1)
∆z
∆z(1− ε zz )
∆x ∆x(1− ε xx )
[ ]
V = [ ∆x (1 − ε xx )] × ∆y (1 − ε yy ) ×[ ∆z (1 − ε zz )]
(2a)
V − V0
εv = −
V0
(2b)
εv =
[ ]
∆x ∆y∆z − [ ∆x ( 1 − ε xx )] × ∆y ( 1 − ε yy ) × [ ∆z ( 1 − ε zz )]
∆x ∆y ∆z
(2c)
ε v = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz
(2d)
ε v = ε zz (for confined
compression) (2e)
100
V − V0 Vs ∆ e ∆e
εv = − = − = −
V0 Vs (1 + e 0 ) 1 + e0
(3a)
∆e
ε zz = −
1 + e0
(3b)
Vs (e 0 + ∆e)
Voids Vse0
V0 = Vs (1 + e0 )
2 A
C
Voids ratio e
B
1
σ ′ = σ pc
′ (normally consolidated)
(4a)
e Impossible states
Normal
P Consolidation
Line
Over-consolidated
states
log 10 (σ’)
Figure 6 The normal consolidation line
σ ′ < σ pc
′ (over-consolidated)
(4b)
Note
σ ′ > σ pc
′ (not possible)
(4c)
e = e0 Q
F
e = ef P
σ pc
′
OCR =
σ′
(5)
105
A C
E B
log (σ’)
Figure 9 Idealised void ratio, effective stress
relationship
I
eI
eF F
eF − eI ∆e
Slopeof IF = =
log10 (σ ′F ) − log10 (σ ′I ) log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(6a)
∆e
= − Cc
log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(6b)
e F = e I − C c log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(6c)
109
eF − eI ∆e
Slopeof IF = =
log10 (σ ′F ) − log10 (σ ′I ) log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(7a)
I
eI
eF F
∆e
= − Cr
log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(7b)
e F = e I − C r log10 (σ ′F / σ ′I )
(7c)
(1)
e1
e2 (2)
e3 (3)
e 2 = e1 − C r log10 (σ ′2 / σ 1′ )
(8a)
• Stage 2 (2→3)
e 3 = e 2 − C c log10 (σ ′3 / σ ′2 )
(8b)
9. CALCULATION OF SETTLEMENT
∆S
H
z
Fig. 11 Settlement
Fig. Settlement of
ofaasoil layerlayer
single
sub-layer 1
Notation
sub-layer 2
ei = voids ratio at the centre of layer i
∆e i = increase in voids ratio at the centre of layer i
Hi thickness of layer i
sub-layer n
Fig. 2intoDivision
Fig. 2 Soil profile divided a numberofofsoil layers
sub-layers into sub-layers
113
γ dry = 18 kN / m3
2m
Gravel 5m
γ sat = 22 kN / m3
A 4m
Clay γ sat = ?
B 4m
Fig. 3 Layered
Fig. 3 Layered soil deposit
soil deposit
Voids
Vv= e*Vs =0.8 m3 Wv = γ w * Vv
= 7.84 kN
Ww + Ws 7.84 + 26.46
γ sat = = kN
Vv + Vs 0.8 + 1
Ww = Vw * γ w * G s = 19 .06 kN / m
3
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
= 26.46 kN or
material ( G s + e) γ w 3
γ sat = = 19 .06 kN / m
1+ e
• Initial State at A
115
Notice the initial effective stress is less than σ′ pc =120 kPa thus
the clay is initially over-consolidated.
• Final State at A
The soil in the first sub layer moves from being over-
consolidated to normally consolidated and so the calculation of
the change in voids ratio must be made in two stages.
H∆e
∆S = −
1 +e
4 120 .00 179 .52
= [ 0.05 ×log 10 ( ) + 0.2 ×log 10 ( )]
1.8 91.12 120 .00
= 0.0911 m
(3d)
• Initial State at B
• Final State at B
now
H ∆e
∆S = −
1 +e
4 176 .56
= 0.2 ×log 10 ( ).
1.8 128 .16
= 0.0620 m
(4d)
• Total Settlement
117
(5)
= 0.1531m
118
z
H →∞
3Pz3
∆σ zz =
2 πR5
(1 + ν) Pz
∆σ xx + ∆σ yy + ∆σ zz =
πR 3
(1 + ν) P z2
∆u z = [2(1 − ν) + 2 ]
2 πER R
where
R = x2 + y 2 + z2
and
E = Young ' s mod ulus
ν = Poisson ' s ratio
(6)
∆uz = vertical displacement due to load
5m
p=100 kPa
2m
z
A B
5m
a2 −3 / 2
∆σ zz = p(1 − [1 + ] )
z2
(7a)
where
σ zz
Iσ =
p
10-3 10-2 10-1 1
0 1.00
1.25
1.5
2.0 0.0
2
2.5
5
6 3
4
7
z/a 4
6 8 Values on curves
are values of r/a
9
8
10
10
Plan B
Uniformly distributed
surface stress p
z
Point immediately
Elevation
beneath one of the
rectangle’s corners
8
0.25 3.0 2.0
1.0
0.20
0.8
Note m & n are
0.15 interchangeable 0.6
σ zz
Iσ =
q 0.4
0.10
0.05 0.2
0.00 m=B/z=0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10
(n=L/z)
Fig. 9 Influence factors for uniformly loaded rectangular areas
Fig. 9 Influence factors for a uniformly loaded
rectangular area
X O Z Plan
A Y B
Elevation
z
O Point of interest
Example
D T C
2m
X O Z
3m
A Y B
3m 2m
Fig. 11 Dimensions ofFig. 11 Dimensions of rectangular loaded area
loaded area
rectangular
m = L/z =1
n = B/z =1
thus
Iσ = 0.175
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.175 = 17.5 kPa
(9a)
m = L/z = 1.5
n = B/z = 1
thus
Iσ = 0.194
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.195 = 19.4 kPa
(9b)
m = L/z = 1.5
n = B/z = 1.5
thus
Iσ = 0.216
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.216 = 21.6 kPa
(9c)
m = L/z = 1.5
n = B/z = 1
thus
Iσ = 0.194
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.194 = 19.4 kPa
(9d)
126
A B Y
Fig. 12 Rectangular loaded area ABCD and point of interest O
and thus
(10)
σ zz ( ABCD) = q[I σ (OXAY) − I σ (OYBZ) + I σ (0 ZCT) − I σ (OTDX)]
X Z O X Z O
(q) (q) (q) (0)
D C T D C T
A B Y A B Y
Stage 1 Stage 2
X Z O X Z O
(q) (q) (0)
D C T D C (0) T
A B Y A B Y
Stage 3 Stage 4
Fig. 13 Decomposition of loading over a rectangular area (for stress at external point)
Fig. 13 Decomposition of Loading over a rectangular region (exterior point)
128
Example
1m
X Z O
1m
D C T
2m
A Y
B
10m
Fig. 14 Dimensions of rectangular loaded area
Fig. 14 Dimensions of rectangular loaded area
m = L/z = 0.67
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.121
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = + 100 × 0.121 = +12.1 kPa
(11a)
m = L/z = 7.67
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.167
and so
129
m = L/z = 7.67
n = B/z = 2.00
thus
Iσ = 0.240
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = + 100 × 0.240 = + 24.0kPa
(11c)
m = L/z = 2
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.164
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = -100 × 0.164 = -16.4 kPa
(11d)
Example
This result can also be checked using the influence charts for
circular loading and it is then found that:
4m
O Q
Loaded
Area
− ∆ e C log(σ ′F / σ ′I )
ε zz = ε v = =
1+ e 1+ e
(1)
∆σ´ = ∆σ - ∆u
(2)
Time Time
Effective Settlement
Stress
Time Time
Fig. 1 Variation
Fig. of total stress
1 Variation and pore pore
of stress, pressure with time and
pressure
settlement with time
and thus
v(z, t)
Soil element ∆z
∂v
v(z + ∆z, t) = v + ∆z
∂z
∂h
v = −k v
∂z
(4)
u
h =
γw
(5)
∂ ∂u ∂ε v
[k v ] = −
∂z ∂z ∂t
(6)
ε v = m v σ ′e
(7)
where
= σe − u
(8)
with σ e = the increase in total stress over the
original value
e = A − C lo g1 0 σ ′
and hence
C dσ ′
de = −
2.3 σ ′
now
∆e C dσ ′
εv = − = = m v dσ ′
1 + e 2.3 (1 + e) σ ′
(9)
∂ k v ∂u ∂u ∂σ e
[ ] = mv[ − ]
∂z γ w ∂z ∂t ∂t
(10)
The equation of consolidation must be solved
subject to certain boundary conditions and initial
conditions
137
u = 0 at a permeable boundary
(11a)
∂u
∂z
= 0 at an impermeable boundary
(11b)
∂2 u ∂u ∂σ e
cv = −
∂z 2 ∂t ∂t
(13)
where
kv
cv = is called the coefficient of
mvγ w
consolidation.
Z
2H
Fig. 3 Homogeneous
Fig 3 Homogeneous clay layer freeClay
Saturated to Layer
drain from both upper
and lower boundaries
free to drain at Upper and Lower Boundaries
The increase in stress through out the layer and
does not vary with time and so
σe = q
∂ 2u ∂u
cv =
∂ z2 ∂t
(14a)
(15)
where αn = (n + ½)
z
Z = H , a dimensionless distance
cv t
Tv = , a dimensionless time
H2
2H ∞ sin α Z
e − α n Tv dz
2
S = ∫ m v q 1 − 2∑ n
0 0 αn
giving
141
∞ e − α n Tv
2
S = m v q 2 H 1 − 2 ∑ 2
n= 0 α n
(16b)
∞ e − α n Tv
2
S
= U = 1 − 2 ∑
S∞ 2
n=0 α n
(16c)
2
0.0 0.5 1.0
u/q
Fig. 4 Variation of excess pore pressure with
depth
Dimensionless Time T v
10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10
0.00
Relation of degree of
settlement and time
0.25
U 0.50
0.75
1.00
4 Tv
U = ( Tv ≤ 0.2 )
π
8 −π2 Tv / 4
U 1− e ( Tv > 0..2 )
π2
(17)
143
Z
H
Impermeable base
σe = q
Equation (6) therefore becomes:
∂ 2u ∂u
cv =
∂ z2 ∂t
(18a)
∂u
∂z
= when z = H for t > 0
0
Gravel
Sand
Final settlement=40mm
Clay 5m
c v=0.5m 2/year
Impermeable
cvt 0.4 × 1
Tv = = = 0.1
H2 22
146
cv t 0.5 × 1
Tv = = = 0.02
H2 52
cvt cv × 2
Tv = = = 80000c v
H2 0.0052
147
cv t c ×t c ×t
Tv = 2
= v 2 = v
H 10 100
cv t
80000 c v = thus t = 8000000 min = 15.2 years
100
m2 m2
0.197 = 80000 c v thus cv = 2.4625 ×10 −6 = 1.294
min year
4
z
A u = uA z = -
B u= z = 0
u uB
z
C
Fig. 2 Excess
u= pore water pressure variation
z = + at∆z
time t
149
u = a1 + a 2 z + a 3z 2
(1a)
uB = a1
uC = a 1 +a 2 ∆z +a 3 ∆z 2
(1b)
so that
a1 = uB
uC − uA
a2 =
2 ∆z
u A + u C − 2u B
a3 =
2 ∆z 2
(1c)
∂u uC − uA
∂z =
B 2 ∆z
∂2 u u A + u C − 2u B
2 =
∂z B ∆z 2
(1d)
∂2 u ∂u ∂q
cv = −
∂z 2 ∂t ∂t
(2a)
∂u ∂q u A + u C − 2u B
∂ t − ∂ t = c v ∆z 2
B B
(2b)
(2c)
where ∆u B = u B ( t + ∆t ) − u B ( t ) and ∆q B = q B ( t + ∆t ) − q B ( t )
151
Error in approximation
F(t)
t +∆t
∫ F(t )dt ≈ F(t )∆t
t
t
t t +∆t
Fig. 3 Approximate integral evaluation
Fig 3 Approximation of integral
∆ uB = ∆ q B + β[ u A ( t ) + u C ( t ) − 2 u B ( t )]
(2d)
cv ∆ t
where β =
∆ z2
Or
u B ( t +∆t) = ∆q B + u B ( t ) + β[ u A ( t ) + u C ( t ) − 2u B ( t )]
(2e)
11.3 Stability
cv ∆ t 1
β = 2
≤
∆z 2
Saturated soil
Saturated soil
A .
∆z
B .
.
∆z Impermeable barrier
C
q = 64 kPa
4 sub-layers
4m
cv = 2 m2/year
mv = 0.0003 m2/kN
Impermeable bedrock
u A (t ) + u C (t )
u B ( t + ∆t ) = ∆q +
2
(4)
c v ∆t 2 ×∆t 1
β = 2
= =
∆z 12 2
thus
∆t = 0.25 years
157
u( t = 0 ) = q(t = 0) = 64 kPa
(5)
158
Thus
H
1 1
∫ u dz ≈
2
( u 0 + u 1 ) ∆z + + ( u n −1 + u n ) ∆z
2
0
u + u n
= ∆z 0 + u 2 + + u n −1
2
where
ui = u i ( ∆z, t )
(6)
= 36 mm
z=3m 64 64 64 64 56 56 48
z=4m 64 64 64 64 64 56 56
dummy 64 64 64 64 56 56 48
Settlem 0 9.6 19. 24 28. 32. 36
ent 2 8 4
(mm)
t(mth’s) 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10. 12. 14. 16. 18.
0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00
settleme 0.0 9.6 16. 20. 23. 26. 29. 32. 34. 36.
nt(mm) 0 0 00 27 82 90 67 20 54 73
q(kPa) 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 64.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
z=0 64. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
z=1m 64. 64. 42. 35. 30. 27. 25. 23. 21. 20.
00 00 67 56 81 65 28 44 92 61
z=2m 64. 64. 64. 56. 52. 48. 45. 42. 39. 37.
00 00 00 89 15 20 04 32 92 74
z=3m 64. 64. 64. 64. 61. 59. 56. 53. 51. 48.
00 00 00 00 63 26 63 99 39 86
z=4m 64. 64. 64. 64. 64. 62. 60. 57. 55. 52.
00 00 00 00 00 42 31 85 28 68
160
dummy 64. 64. 64. 64. 61. 59. 56. 53. 51. 48.
00 00 00 00 63 26 63 99 39 86
u B ( t +∆t) = ∆q B + u B ( t ) + β[ u A ( t ) + u C ( t ) − 2u B ( t )]
0
u B ( t + ∆t ) + 59.26 +
= 0.3333 × [48.20 +
62.42 - 2 × 59.26] = 56.63
.25 .5
z=4m 0 30 60 90 120 116 112
.25 .5
dummy 0 30 60 90 116 112 105
.25 .5
t (years) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
settleme 0.0 1.4 3.7 6.7 10. 14. 18. 23. 28. 33. 39.
nt(mm) 0 4 8 4 21 13 45 13 16 50 15
q(kPa) 0.0 12. 24. 36. 48. 60. 72. 84. 96. 108 120
0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 .00 .00
z=0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
z=0.8m 0.0 12. 20. 27. 33. 38. 43. 47. 52. 56. 59.
0 00 25 09 04 38 27 80 04 05 85
z=1.6m 0.0 12. 24. 34. 44. 54. 62. 70. 78. 85. 92.
0 00 00 83 78 00 64 78 50 86 90
z=2.4m 0.0 12. 24. 36. 47. 58. 69. 80. 90. 99. 109
0 00 00 00 63 86 66 07 11 81 .18
z=3.2m 0.0 12. 24. 36. 48. 59. 71. 83. 94. 105 116
0 00 00 00 00 89 60 10 35 .33 .04
z=4.0m 0.0 12. 24. 36. 48. 60. 71. 83. 95. 106 117
0 00 00 00 00 00 93 72 33 .72 .85
dummy 0.0 12. 24. 36. 48. 59. 71. 83. 94. 105 116
0 00 00 00 00 89 60 10 35 .33 .04
162
Maximum
Settlement
Soil Layer
Total
Stress
Time
Excess
Pore
Pressure
Time
Effective
Stress
Time
Settlement
Consolidation
settlement
Final
settlement
Initial
settlement
Time
∆ σ xx − ν( ∆ σ yy + ∆ σ zz )
∆ ε xx =
E
∆ σ yy − ν( ∆ σ zz + ∆ σ xx )
∆ ε yy =
E
∆ σ zz − ν( ∆σ xx + ∆ σ yy )
∆ε zz =
E
(1a)
∆ε v = ∆ε xx + ∆ε yy + ∆ε zz = 0
(3a)
3(1 − 2 ν ′ )∆ σ ′m
∆ εv =
E′
(3b)
∆σ′
m = ∆
σ m −∆u = 0
thus
∆u = ∆
σm
(3c)
∆ σ xx − ν u ( ∆ σyy + ∆ σ zz )
∆ ε xx =
Eu
∆ σ yy − ν u ( ∆ σzz + ∆ σxx )
∆ ε yy =
Eu
∆ σ zz − ν u ( ∆ σ xx + ∆ σ yy )
∆ εzz =
Eu
(5)
3E ′
Eu =
2(1 + ν ′)
1
νu =
2
(6)
∆σ yz
∆γ yz =
G′
∆ σ zx
∆ γ zx =
G′
(7)
173
∆σ xy
∆γ xy =
G′
E′
G′ =
2(1 + ν′)
(8)
E′ E Eu
G′ = = u = = Gu
2(1 + ν ′ ) 3 2(1 + ν u )
(9)
1 ∆ σzz
∆ εzz = ( ∆ σzz − ν u ( ∆ σxx + ∆ σyy )) =
Eu Eu
1 − ν u ∆ σzz
∆ εxx = ( ∆ σxx − ν u ( ∆ σzz + ∆ σyy )) = = ∆ εyy
Eu Eu
Hence
1
= 3 (∆σ xx + ∆σ yy + ∆σ zz )
= 90/3 = 30 kPa
1 ∆ σ ′zz
∆ εzz = ( ∆ σ ′zz − υ ′ ( ∆ σ ′xx + ∆ σ ′yy )) = = 0.009
E′ E′
1 − υ ′ ∆ σ ′zz
∆ εxx = ( ∆ σ ′xx − υ ′ ( ∆ σ ′zz + ∆ σ ′yy )) = = ∆ εyy = − 0.00 2 25
E′ E′
H Soil Layer
Rigid bedrock
(1a)
181
(1 + ν u ) ∆σ zz − ν u ( ∆σ xx + ∆σ yy + ∆σ zz )
∆ε zz =
Eu
(1c)
Q(1 − ν2 )
sr =
πEr
(2)
Q
r
sr
H →∞
Q(1 −ν2 )
sr =
πEr
Fig.
Fig. 2 Surface
2 Surface deflection
deflection due
of a deep to alayer
elastic point load on a
deep elastic layer
dr
dθ a
dθ
r
P = πa 2 p av
rigid
2a
h Soil Layer
Rigid bedrock
p av a
s = Iρ
E
(4)
where
1.6
P = π a 2 p av
1.2
2a h ν = 0.0
0.2
Iρ 0.8 0.4
0.5
0.4
p av a
s = Iρ
E
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
h/a a/h
Fig. 4b Settlement factors for a rigid circular
Fig. 3b Settlement Factor for rigid circular footing on a layer
footing on a soil layer
Example
a 15
.
= = .167
h 9
Iρ = 1.22 from figure ( 4 b)
500
p av = = 70 .7 kPa
. )2
π × (15
70 .7 ×15. ×1.22
s = = 0.026 m
5000
P
p av =
b2
b
a =
π
2a
E 0 + mz
2
1
ν= 0
10--1
1/3
Iρ p
10--2 1/2
2a
10--3 E 0 + mz
10--4
10---4 10---2 E0 1 102
η=
ma
ExampleFig. 6 Influence chart for flexible circular load on non-
homogeneous soil
E = E 0 +mz
5 = 2+10 m
m = 0.3 MPa / m
E0
η =
ma
2
= = 0.67
0.3 ×10
now
thus
pa
s = Iρ
E0
75 ×10 × 0.6
= = 0.225 m
2000
h Soil Layer
Rigid bedrock
2.0
1.6 ν =0.0
0.2
1.2
Iρ
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.25 0.5 h/B
B/h 2.0 1.0 0.0
Example
8m 10m 18m
Embankment 2m (+)
(-)
15m 2m
Iρ = 11
. from Figure 7b
192
Z Z
D D
(a) Uniform circular load (b) Uniform circular load
at the base of an within a deep elastic
unlined shaft layer
1.0
ν
ν=0.49
=0.49 (a)
(a)
ν
ν=0.25
=0.25 (a)
(a)
0.8
ν
ν=0.00 (a)
=0.0 (a)
0.7
0.6
ν=0.50 (b)
0.5
0 5 10 15 20
Z/D
sc = s tf − si
(8)
Construction
time
Load
Time
Const.
time Consolidation
settlement sc Total final
settlement
Settlement
Initial sTf
settlement si
Time
Fig. 10 Components of settlement
st = si + Usc
(9a)
s t −s i
U = (9b)
s Tf −s i
clearly
U = 0 when t =0
and
U = 1 when t =∞
Example
a 2.5
=
h 5
thus
Iρ = 0.63
thus
76 .39 ×2.5 ×0.63
si =
6250
= 19 .25 mm
p av a
sTf = Iρ
E′
76 .39 × 2.5 × 0.95
=
5000
0.03629 m
T = cv t / h2 = 0.5 × 1 / 52 = 0.02
h/a = 2
0.0
0.2
0.4
h/a=50 20 10 5 2 1
U 0.5
0.6
0
0.8
1.0
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1
cvt
T =
h2
201
= 25 .2 mm
202
0.0
0.2 0
0.5
0.4 1
2
U 5
0.6 10
20
h/a=50
0.8
1.0
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1
cvt
T =
h2
τ = c + σn tan φ
φ = friction angle
τ = c′ + σ′ n tan φ′
τ = cu + σn tan φu = su
205
Rollers
207
Notation
N = Normal Force
F = Tangential (Shear) Force
σ n = σ´n
τ = c′ + σ′ n tan φ′
Porous
disc
Rubber
membrane
Porous
disc
Water Water supply to soil
supply to sample
cell
14.2.2.1 Stresses
F = Deviator load
σr
σa = Axial stress
F
From vertical equilibrium we have σ a = σ r + A
The term F/A is known as the deviator stress, and is usually
given the symbol q.
14.2.2.2 Strains
1
It is important to make allowance for the changing area when
calculating the deviator stress,
q = σ1 - σ3 = F/A
There are many test variations. Those used most in practice are
Increasing cell
pressure
εa
σ
σ3 σ1
α l cosα
τα
σ3 l
α
α σα
(a) (b)
(τα, σα)
φ 2α σ
σ3 p
σ1
σα = p - R cos 2α
τα = R sin 2α
where
(σ1 + σ 3 ) ( σ xx + σ zz )
p = =
2 2
2
(σ1 - σ 3 ) 1
R = = ( σ xx - σ zz )2 + 4 τ 2zx
2 2
π φ
α = −
4 2
Failure will occur when we can find any direction such that
τα ≥ c + σα tan φ
218
φ c σ
σ3 σ1
c cot φ p
σ 1 + c cot φ 1 + sin φ π φ
= = tan 2 + = Nφ
σ 3 + c cot φ 1 - sin φ 4 2
4
σ1 = Nφ σ3 + 2 c Nφ
τ = c′ + σ′ n tan φ′
σ′ 1 = Nφ σ′ 3 + 2 c′ √ Nφ
1 + sin φ′
with Nφ =
1 − sin φ′
219
Note that the difference between the total and effective stresses is
simply the pore pressure u. Thus the total and effective stress
Mohr circles have the same diameter and are displaced along the
σ axis by the value of the pore pressure.
σ
σ ′3 σ 1′ σ3 σ1
circle. The different total stress Mohr circles indicate that the
samples must have different pore water pressures.
The total stress strength parameters cu, φu are often used to assess
the short term (undrained) stability of soil constructions. It is
important that no drainage should occur otherwise this approach
is not valid. Therefore, for sands and gravels which drain rapidly
a total stress analysis would not be appropriate.
For soils that do not drain freely this approach is the only simple
way of assessing the short term stability, because in general the
pore water pressures are unknown.
Example
Analytical solution
( σ 1 − σ 3 ) = ( σ 1′ − σ ′3 )
Undrained strength = 17.5 =
2 2
1 + sin φ′
c´ = 0, Nφ = = 2.561
1 − sin φ′
Graphical solution
o
26
τ
17.5
σ
σ ′3 σ 1′ σ3 σ1
224
H γxz
6
where emax and emin are the maximum and minimum
void ratios that can be measured in standard tests
in the laboratory, and e is the current void ratio.
This expression can be re-written in terms of dry
density as
Gs γ w
γd =
1 + e
7
and hence
1 1
-
γ dmin γd
Id =
1 1
-
γ dmin γ dmax
8
Sand is generally referred to as dense if Id > 0.6
and loose if Id < 0.3.
τ D ense (D )
CSL
τ =Mσ ′ed iu m (M )
tanφ ′ult
e L
L o o se (L )
M
σ ′γ
εv D
D
M γ
γ
e
τ CSL
D2 σ1
D1
τ = σ′tanφ′ult σ2
L2
L1
σ′γ
D1
εv τ D1 CSL
D2 σ’
D2 τ = σ′tanφ′ult
L1
γ L2
L1
L2 σ′γ
τ = σ′tanφ′ult τ
σ′
e σ′
e
CSL
σ′
231
F
α N
Q = F cos α + N sin α
P = − F sin α + N cos α
Q F cos α + N sin α
=
P − F sin α + N cos α
Q
=
( F N ) + tan α
P 1 − ( F N ) tan α
233
Q F
Now = tan φ ′ and = tan φ ′ult
P N
tan φ ′ult + tan α
tan φ ′ =
1 − tan φ ′ult tan α
φ′ = φ ′ult + α
dy dε v
tan α = ≈
dx dγ
234
Ultimate strength
c’ = 0, φ’ = φ’ult
φ’
c’
σ’
φ’pk Id =
1
Id =
0.5
Id =
0
φ’ult
Note that even loose sand can have φ´pk > φ´ult if the
stress is low enough. This means that loose sands may expand
when sheared.
236
τ
Wall Failure C
B
Surface
A
γ
τ
B
A C
τ
A
B γ
C
γ
sw ellin g
line
C S L N C L - n o rm al
con so lidatio n line
log σ’
We find that normally consolidated clays behave
similarly to loose sands and heavily over-
consolidated clays behave similarly to dense sands.
As the OCR increases there is a gradual trend
between these extremes. The response in drained
simple shear tests with σ´ constant is as follows
238
τ CSL τ CSL
OCR = 1
τ = σ′tanφ′ult τ = σ′tanφ′ult
OCR = 8
σ′ σ′γ
e εv OCR = 8
NCL
γ
CSL
OCR = 1
σ′
239
τ CSL τ CSL
OCR = 8
σ′ σ ′γ
e u +ve
OCR = 1
NCL
γ
CSL
OCR = 8
-ve
σ′
e
Clay
Loose
Sand
Dense
NCL NCL