Image scanner

In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an
object, and converts it to a digital image. Common examples found in offices are variations of
the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning.
Hand-held scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning
"wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement,
orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that move the document
are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.

Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a Contact Image Sensor (CIS)
as the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a photomultiplier tube as the image sensor.
A rotary scanner, used for high-speed document scanning, is another type of drum scanner, using
a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of scanners are planetary scanners, which
take photographs of books and documents, and 3D scanners, for producing three-dimensional
models of objects.

Another category of scanner is digital camera scanners, which are based on the concept of
reprographic cameras. Due to increasing resolution and new features such as anti-shake, digital
cameras have become an attractive alternative to regular scanners. While still having
disadvantages compared to traditional scanners (such as distortion, reflections, shadows, low
contrast), digital cameras offer advantages such as speed, portability and gentle digitizing of
thick documents without damaging the book spine. New scanning technologies are combining
3D scanners with digital cameras to create full-color, photo-realistic 3D models of objects.

In the biomedical research area, detection devices for DNA microarrays are called scanners as
well. These scanners are high-resolution systems (up to 1 µm/ pixel), similar to microscopes. The
detection is done via CCD or a photomultiplier tube
Mouse (computing)
In computing, a mouse (plural mice, mouses, or mouse devices.) is a pointing device that
functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a
mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.
(Although traditionally a button is typically round or square, modern mice have spring-loaded
regions of their top surface that operate switches when pressed down lightly.) It sometimes
features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-
dependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control or dimensional
input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a cursor on a display, which
allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.

The name mouse originated at the Stanford Research Institute and derives from the resemblance
of early models which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device (suggesting the idea of a
tail) to the common mouse.[1]

The first marketed integrated mouse – shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal
computer navigation – came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981. However,
the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Apple Macintosh; in 1984 PC
columnist John C. Dvorak dismissively commented on the release of this new computer with a
mouse: “There is no evidence that people want to use these things.”[2][3]

A mouse now comes with most personal computers and they are widely available for separate
purchase.
Keyboard (computing)
In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard,
which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches.
A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key
typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires
pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys
produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can
produce actions or computer commands.

In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor
or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the
software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all
key presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either
with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite
frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the
operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which
brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.
Computer speaker
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers external to a computer, that disable
the lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a low-power internal amplifier. The standard
audio connection is a 3.5mm (1/8 inch) stereo jack plug often colour-coded lime green
(following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards. A plug and socket for a two-wire
(signal and ground) coaxial cable that is widely used to connect analog audio and video
components. Also called a "phono connector," rows of RCA sockets are found on the backs of
stereo amplifier and numerous A/V products. The prong is 1/8" thick by 5/16" long. A few use
an RCA connector for input. There are also USB speakers which are powered from the 5 volts at
200 milliamps provided by the USB port, allowing about half a watt of output power.

Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. The computer speakers typically
packaged with computer systems are small plastic boxes with mediocre sound quality. Some of
the slightly better computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and treble controls,
improving their sound quality somewhat.

The internal amplifiers require an external power source, known as a 'wall-wart'. More
sophisticated computer speakers may have a 'subwoofer' unit, to enhance bass output, and these
units usually include the power amplifiers both for the bass speaker, and the small 'satellite'
speakers.

Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptops come with integrated
speakers. Unfortunately the tight restriction on space inevitable in laptops means these speakers
unavoidably produce low-quality sound.

For some users, a lead connecting computer sound output to an existing stereo system is
practical. This normally yields much better results than small low-cost computer speakers.
Computer speakers can also serve as an economy amplifier for MP3 player use for those who
wish to not use headphones although some models of computer speakers have headphone jacks
of their own.
Computer monitor
A monitor or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is an electronic visual display for
computers. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The display
device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD),
while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT).

The size of an approximately rectangular display is usually given as the distance between two
opposite screen corners, that is, the diagonal of the rectangle. One problem with this method is
that it does take into account the fact that when a rectangle with a given length to its diagonal,
becomes more rectangular, and less square (its aspect ratio increases), and at the same time its
diagonal remains the same, then the area of the rectangle decreases. That is, given the same
diagonal, the area of the display decreases if its aspect ratios increases. For example, a 4:3 21 in
(53 cm) monitor has an area of about 211 sq in (1,360 cm2), while a 16:9 21-inch widescreen has
about 188 sq in (1,210 cm2).

This method of measurement is inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT
television, when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, only their
diameter was needed to describe their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display
rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the rectangle was equivalent to the diameter of
the tube's face. This method continued even when cathode ray tubes were manufactured as
rounded rectangles.

Another problematic practice was using the size of a monitor's imaging element, rather than the
size of its viewable image, when describing its size in publicity and advertising materials.
Especially on CRT displays, a substantial portion of the imaging element is concealed behind the
case's bezel or shroud in order to hide areas outside the monitor's safe area due to overscan. Seen
as deceptive, widespread consumer objection and lawsuits eventually forced most manufacturers
to instead measure viewable size.
Compact Disc
A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data. It was
originally developed to store sound recordings exclusively, but later it also allowed the
preservation of other types of data. Audio CDs have been commercially available since October
1982. In 2010, they remain the standard physical storage medium for audio.

Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 mm and can hold up to 80 minutes of uncompressed audio
(700 MB of data). The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 mm; they are
sometimes used for CD singles or device drivers, storing up to 24 minutes of audio.

The technology was eventually adapted and expanded to encompass data storage CD-ROM,
write-once audio and data storage CD-R, rewritable media CD-RW, Video Compact Discs
(VCD), Super Video Compact Discs (SVCD), PhotoCD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD.

CD-ROMs and CD-Rs remain widely used technologies in the computer industry. The CD and
its extensions are successful: in 2004, worldwide sales of CD audio, CD-ROM, and CD-R
reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.
Floppy disk
The floppy disk (or a 3½ floppy for today's standard) is a magnetic storage medium mainly used
for computers and laptops. A floppy drive is the part of the computer that reads from and writes
to the floppy disk.

Floppy disks store less data than a CD-ROM or USB flash drive. A current 3½ inch floppy can
take 1.44 megabytes of data. This is usually enough for text documents. Special floppies were
made to hold 2.88 MB of data, but they were not commonly available.

Floppies have been around since the early 1970s (known as the 8-inch floppy then). Today,
floppy disks have been replaced by other storage media, like memory sticks. A few years ago,
the Zip Disk was made as a replacement for floppies.

A floppy drive (often called drive “A” on a computer) can be connected to or installed in a
personal computer (PC). It is the part of a computer that reads and writes the disk that can be
removed. A disk, often called a floppy disk, is used to store files and carry them from one
computer to another by using the floppy drive. The floppy drive reads the disk (or diskette) and
the user is then able to open and change the files saved on the disk.
Laser printer
A laser printer is a common type of computer printer that rapidly produces high quality text and
graphics on plain paper. As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser
printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the
image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.

A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating
drum coated with selenium. Photoconductivity removes charge from the areas exposed to light.
Dry ink (toner) particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum's charged areas. The
drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the
paper.

Laser printers have many significant advantages over other types of printers. Unlike impact
printers, laser printer speed can vary widely, and depends on many factors, including the graphic
intensity of the job being processed. The fastest models can print over 200 monochrome pages
per minute (12,000 pages per hour). The fastest colour laser printers can print over 100 pages per
minute (6000 pages per hour). Very high-speed laser printers are used for mass mailings of
personalized documents, such as credit card or utility bills, and are competing with lithography
in some commercial applications
Webcam
A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network, often using a
USB port or, if connected to a network, ethernet or Wi-Fi.

The most popular use is for videotelephony, permitting a computer to act as a videophone or
video conferencing station. This can be used in messenger programs such as Windows Live
Messenger, Skype and Yahoo messenger services. Other popular uses, which include the
recording of video files or even still-images, are accessible via numerous software programs,
applications and devices.

Webcams are known for low manufacturing costs and flexibility,[1] making them the lowest cost
form of videotelephony.

The term 'webcam' may also be used in its original sense of a video camera connected to the
Web continuously for an indefinite time, rather than for a particular session, generally supplying
a view for anyone who visits its web page over the Internet. Some of these, for example those
used as online traffic cameras, are expensive, rugged professional video cameras.
Inkjet printer
An inkjet printer is a type of computer printer that reproduces a digital image by propelling
variably-sized droplets of liquid material (ink) onto a page. Inkjet printers are the most common
type of printer[1] and range from small inexpensive consumer models to very large and expensive
professional machines.[2]

The concept of inkjet printing dates back to the 19th century and the technology was first
developed in the early 1950s. Starting in the late 1970s inkjet printers that could reproduce
digital images generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epson, Hewlett-Packard and
Canon. In the worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet
printer sales: Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Epson, and Lexmark[citation needed].

The emerging ink jet material deposition market also uses ink jet technologies, typically
piezoelectric crystals, to deposit materials directly on substrates.
Plotter
A plotter is a computer printing device for printing vector graphics. In the past, plotters were
widely used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they have generally been
replaced with wide-format conventional printers, and it is now commonplace to refer to such
wide-format printers as "plotters," even though they technically aren't.

Pen plotters print by moving a pen or other instrument across the surface of a piece of paper.
This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than raster graphics as with other printers.
Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so very slowly because of the
mechanical movement of the pens. Pen plotters are often incapable of creating a solid region of
color, but can hatch an area by drawing a number of close, regular lines. This was often the
fastest way to efficiently produce very large drawings or color high-resolution vector-based
artwork when computer memory was very expensive and processor power was very limited

Traditionally, printers were primarily for printing text. This made them fairly easy to control;
simply sending the text to the printer was usually enough to generate a page of output. This is not
the case of drawing line art on a plotter, where a number of printer control languages were
created to send the more detailed commands like "lift pen from paper", "place pen on paper", or
"draw a line from here to here". The two common ASCII-based plotter control languages are
Hewlett-Packard's HPGL2 or Houston Instruments DMPL, with commands such as "PA
3000,2000; PD".[1]

Programmers using FORTRAN or BASIC generally did not program these directly, but used
software packages, such as the Calcomp library, or device independent graphics packages, such
as Hewlett-Packard's AGL libraries or BASIC extensions or high end packages such as
DISSPLA. These would establish scaling factors from world coordinates to device coordinates,
and translate to the low level device commands. For example, to plot X*X in HP 9830 BASIC,
the program would be