SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

 The Systems Concepts:-

Systems analysis and
information systems were founded in general systems theory, which emphasizes a
close look at all parts of a system. Too often analysts focus on only one component
and over look other equally important component. General systems theory is
concerned with “developing a systematic, the oretieal framework upon which to
make decisions’. It discourages thinking in a vacuum and encourages consideration
of all the activities of the organization and its external environment. Pionerring work
in general systems theory emphasized that organizations be viewed as total systems.
The idea of systems has become most practical and necessary in conceptualizing the
interrelationships and integration of operations, especially when using computers.
Thus a system is a way of thinking about organizations and their problems. It also
involves a set of techniques that helps in solving problems.

 Definition of a System:-
The term system is derived
from the Greek word systema, which means an organized relationship among
functioning units or components. A system exists because it is designed to achieve
one or more objectives. We come into daily contact with the transportation system,
the telephone system etc. Similarly we talk of the business system and of the
organization as a system consisting of interrelated departments such as production,
sales, personnel.
There are more than a hundred definitions of the word system but most seem to
have a common thread that suggests that a system is an orderly grouping of
interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific
objective. The word component may refer to physical parts or a subsystem in a
multilevel structure. The components may be simple or complex, basic or advanced.
They may be a single computer with a keyboard, memory and printer or a series of
intelligent terminals linked to a mainframe. In either case each component is part of
the total system and has to do its share to work for the system to achieve the
intended goal. This orientation requires an orderly grouping of the components for
design for a successful system.
The study of systems concept, has three basic implications:
1. A system must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective.
2. Interrelationship and interdependence must exist among the components.
3. The objectives of the organization as a whole have higher priority that the
objectives of its subsystems.
  Characteristics of a System:-
Our definition of a
system suggests some characteristics that are present in all systems: organization,
interaction, inter dependences, interaction and a central objective.

 Organization:-
Organization implies structure and order. It is the
arrangement of components that helps to achieve objectives. In the design of a
business system, for example, the hierarchical relationship starting with president on
top and leading downward to the blue-collar workers represents the organization
structure. Such an arrangement portrays a system subsystem relationship, defines
the authority structure, specifies the formal flow of communication and formalizes
the chain of command (see figure 1.1). Likewise a computer system is designed
around an input device, a central processing unit, and output device and one or more
storage units.

 Interaction
Interaction refers to the manner in which each
component functions with other components of the system. In an organization, for
example, purchasing must interact with production, advertising with sales, and
payroll with personnel. In a computer system the central processing unit must intract
with input device to solve a problem. In turn, the main memory holds programs and
data that the arithmetic unit uses for computation. The interrelationship between
these components enables the computer to perform.

 Interdependence:-
Interdependence means that parts of
the organization or computer system depend on one another. They are coordinated
and linked together according to a plan. Our subsystem depends on the input of
another subsystem for proper functioning i.e. the output of one subsystem is the
required input for another subsystem. This interdependence is crucial in systems
work.
Figure 1.1: Organisation Structure

Formal
organization
President position

Vice president Vice president

Vice president production accounting
sales

Dept. head Dept. head

assembly painting Lines of Authority

Workers Workers
 Production
Research &
Development.

Marketing
Major Higher-level
subsystem

Purchasing
Financing &
administration

Distribution system
Personnel

Intermediate (Middle-level
subsystem

Employme
nt section Benefits &
services
section Unemployme
nt reports
Labour
Labour distribution
section Health and reports
safety
section Voluntary
deduction reports
Training Fringe benefits
section reports
Figure 1.2: Major subsystems of Production Firm
Insurance
benefits reports

Figure 1.3: A Human Resources Information System

Above figure is an integrated information system designed to serve the needs of

authorized users for quick access and retrieval through remote terminals. The
interdependence between the personnel subsystem and the organization’s users is
obvious.
In summary, no subsystem can function in isolation because it is dependent on the
data it receives from other sub systems to perform its required tasks.
Interdependence is further illustrated by activities and support of systems analysts,
programmers and the operations staff in a computer center. A decision to
computerize an application is initiated by the user, analyzed and designed by the

Input
data

Payroll Feedback and

Control

Computer Remote
programs terminals for
Budget data acquisition
and retrieval
Data
base

Skills inventory job

positions, recruitment,
Operatio
personnel budget,
n
benefits, health,
employment record.

Finance Feedbac
k and
Action
control
report
Administrators

Demograph
ic data

Other authorized
Personnel staff
users
analyst, programmed and tested by the programmer and run by the computer
operator. As shown in figure below, none of these persons can perform properly
without the required input from others in the computer based subsystem.

Systems
User Programming Operations
Analysis
area

Figure 1.4: Task Interdependence in a Computer-Based System

 Integration:-
Integration refers to the holism of systems.
Synthesis follows analysis to achieve the central objective of the organization.
Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more than sharing a
physical part or location. It means that parts of the system work together within the
system even though each part performs a unique function.

 Central Objective:-
The last characteristics of a system is its
central objective. Objective may be real or stated. Although a stated objective may
be the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state one objective
and operate to achieve another. The important point is that users must known the
central objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful
design and conversion.

Elements of a System :
1. Output and Inputs
2. Processor(s)
3. Control
4. Feedback
5. Environment
6. Boundaries and Interface

1. Outputs and Inputs:-

A major objective of a system is to
produce an output that has value to its user. Whatever the nature of the output, it
must be within the line with the explanations of the intended user. Inputs are the
elements that enter the system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing.
A system feeds on input to produce output in much the same way that a business
brings in human financial, and material resources to produce goods and services. It is
important to point out here that determining the output is a first step in specifying
the nature, amount and regularity of the input needed to operate a system. For
example in systems analysis, the first concern is to determine the user’s
requirements of a proposed commuter system – that is specification of the output
that the computer is expected to provide for meeting user requirements. Input and
processing design follow:

Compare output
against
performance
standards

Informational
Action feedback
Management
(Control)

Policy decision

Human resources,
material, energy,
information Transformation Goods of services

Standard of
Processing performance
Input
Output

Figure 1.5: Inputs and Outputs in a Business Operation

2 .Processor(s):-
The processor is the element of a system that involves
the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of the
system. Processor may modify the input totally or personally, depending on the
specifications of the output. This means that as the output specifications change so
does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the processor to
handle the transformation.

3 .Control:-
The control element guides the system. It is the decision –
making sub-system that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing
and output. In an organizational context, management as a decision making body
controls the inflow handling and outflow of activities that affects the welfare of the
business. Output specification determine, what and how much input is needed to
keep the system in balance.
In system analysis, knowing the attitudes of the individuals who control the area for
which a computer is being considered can make a difference between the success
and the failure of the installation. Management support is required for securing
control and supporting the objective of the proposed change.

4 .Feedback:-
Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback.
Feedback measures output against standard in some form. After the output is
compared against performance standards, changes can result in the input or
processing and consequently, the output.
Feedback may be positive or negative, routine or informational. Positive feedback
reinforces the performance provides the controller with information for action. In
system analysis, feedback is important in different ways. During analysis, the user
may specify that the problems in a given application, and justify the need for change.
Another form of feedback comes after the system is implemented. The user informs
the analyst about the performance of the new installation. This feedback often results
in enhancements to meet the user’s requirements.

5 .Environment:-
The environment is the “suprasystem” within which
an organization operates. It is the source of external elements that unhinge on the
system. In fact, it often determines how a system must function. The organization’s
environment, consisting of vendors, competitions and others, may provide
constraints and consequently influence the actual performance of the business.

6 .Boundaries and Interface:-

A system should be defined
by its boundaries – the limits that identify its components, processes and
interrelationships and interfaces with another system. For example, a teller system in
a commercial bank is restricted to the deposits, withdrawals and related activities of
customers checking and savings accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures,
trust activities and the like.
Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.
Although in an integrated banking computer system design, a customer who has a
mortgage and a checking account with the same bank may write a check through the
“teller system” to pay the premium that is latter processed by the “mortgage loan
system”. Recently system design has been successful in allowing the automatic
transfer of funds from the bank account to pay bills and other obligations to creditors,
regardless of distance or location. This means that in systems analysis, knowledge of
the boundaries of given system is crucial in determining the nature of its interface
with other system for successful design.

Types of Systems:
Systems have been classified in different ways. Common classifications are:
(i) Physical or abstract systems
(ii) Open or closed systems
(iii) Deterministic or probabilistic systems
(iv) Man-made information systems

(i) Physical or Abstract Systems:-

Physical systems are
tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation. Abstract
systems are conceptual or non-physical entities which may be as
straightforward as formulas of relationships among sets of variables or
models - the abstract conceptualization of physical situations.

(ii) Open or Closed Systems:

An open system continually interacts
with its environments. It receives inputs from and delivers output to the
outside. An information system belongs to this category, since it must
adapt to the changing demands of the user. In contrast, a closed system is
isolated from environmental influences. In reality completely closed
systems are rare.

(iii) Deterministic or Probabilistic Systems:-

A deterministic
system is one in which the occurrence of all events is perfectly predictable.
If we get the description of the system state at a particular time, the next
state can be easily predicted. An example of such a system is a numerically
controlled machine tool. Probabilistic system is one in which the occurrence
of events cannot be perfectly predicted. An example of such a system is a
warehouse and its contents.

(iv) Man-made Information Systems:-

It is generally
believed that information reduces uncertainty about a state or event. For
example, information that the wind is calm reduces the uncertainty that a
trip by boat will be enjoyable. An information system is the basis for
interaction between the user and the analyst. It determines the nature of
relationship among decision makers. In fact, it may be viewed as a decision
centre for personnel at all levels. From this basis, an information system
may be defined as a set of devices, procedures and operating systems
designed around user-based criteria to produce information and
communicate it to the user for planning, control and performance. Many
practitioners fail to recognise that a business has several information
systems; each is designed for a specific purpose. The major information
systems are:
 formal information systems
 informal information systems
 computer based information system
A Formal information system is based on the organisation represented by the
organization chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships,
indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines. It is concerned with the pattern
of authority, communication and work flow.
An Informal information system is an employee-based system designed to meet
personnel and vocational needs and to help in the solution of work-related problems.
It also funnels information upward through indirect channels. In this way, it is
considered to be a useful system because it works within the framework of the
business and its stated policies.
Third category of information system depends mainly on the computer for handling
business applications. Systems analysts develop several different types of
information systems to meet a variety of business needs. There is a class of systems
known collectively as Computer Based Information Systems. As we have different
types of transportation systems such as highway systems, railway systems and
airline systems, computer based information systems are of too many types. They
are classified as:
 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
 Management Information Systems (MIS)
 Decision Support Systems (DSS)
 Office Automation Systems (OAS).
The next figure shows the organisation chart of computer based information system
(CBIS) and figure shows the hierarchical view of CBIS.

Figure 1.6: CBIS in an Organisation Context

 Figure 1.7: Hierarchical View of CBIS

 Transaction Processing Systems:-

The most
fundamental computer based system in an organisation pertains to the processing of
business transactions. A transaction processing system can be defined as a computer
based system that captures, classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves
transaction data for record keeping and for input to other types of CBIS. Transaction
Processing Systems are aimed at improving the routine business activities on which
all organizations depend. A transaction is any event or activity that affects the whole
organisation. Placing orders, billing customers, hiring of employees and depositing
cheques are some of the common transactions. The types of transactions that occur
vary from organisation to organisation.
But this is true that all organisations process transactions as a major part of their
daily business activities. The most successful organisations perform this work of
transaction processing in a very systematic way. Transaction processing systems
provide speed and accuracy and can be programmed to follow routines without any
variance.

 Management Information System:-

Data processing by
computers has been extremely effective because of several reasons. The main
reason being that huge amount of data relating to accounts and other transactions
can be processed very quickly. Earlier most of the computer applications were
concerned with record keeping and the automation of routine clerical processes.
However, in recent years, increasing attention has been focussed on computer
applications providing information for policy making, management planning and
control purposes. MIS are more concerned with management function. MIS can be
described as information system that can provide all levels of management with
information essential to the running of smooth business. This information must be as
relevant, timely, accurate, complete and concise and economically feasible.
  Decision Support Systems:-
It is an information
system that offers the kind of information that may not be predictable, the kind that
business professionals may need only once. These systems do not produce regularly
scheduled management reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to a wide
range of requests. It is true that all the decisions in an organisation are not of a
recurring nature. Decision support systems assist managers who must make
decisions that are not highly structured, often called unstructured or semi-structured
decisions. A decision is considered unstructured if there are no clear procedures for
making the decision and if not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be
readily identified in advance. Judgement of the manager plays a vital role in decision
making where the problem is not structured. The decision support system supports,
but does not replace, judgement of manager.

 Office Automation Systems:-

Office automation
systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer based
information systems. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations that
they will increase the efficiency and productivity of office workers-typists, secretaries,
administrative assistants, staff professionals, managers and the like. Many
organisations have taken the First step toward automating their offices. Often this
step involves the use of word processing equipment to facilitate the typing, storing,
revising and printing of textual materials. Another development is a computer based
communications system such as electronic mail which allows people to communicate
in an electronic mode through computer terminals. An office automation system can
be described as a multi-function, integrated computer based system that allows
many office activities to be performed in an electronic mode.

Categories of different information systems with their characteristics have been

described briefly in table below.
Categories of Information Systems

Category of Characteristics
Information System

Transaction Processing System Substitutes computer-based processing for

manual processes. Includes record-keeping
applications.
 Management Information System Provides input to be used in the managerial
decision process. Deals with supporting well
structured decision situations. Typical
information requirements can be anticipated

Decision Support System Provides information to managers who make

judgements about particular situations.
Supports decision makes in situations that are
not well structured.

Office Automation System It is a multi-function, integrated computer

based system, that allows many office
activities to be performed in an electronic
mode.

 System Development Life Cycle:-

To
understand system development, we need to recognize that a candidate system has
a life cycle, much like a living system or a new product. Systems analysis and design
are based to the system life cycle. The stages are described below. The analyst must
progress from one stage to another methodically, answering key questions and
achieving results in each stage.
A word of caution regarding life cycle activities. We isolate and sequence these
activities for learning purposes, but in real life they overlap and highly interrelated,
for example, when the analyst is evaluating an existing operation he/she is probably
thinking about an alternative way that would improve the system or wondering
whether a given piece of hardware would be a critical cost item to consider for a
candidate system. Therefore, there can easily be overlap during any phase of the
cycle. In fact, it may act as a basis for modifying earlier steps taken. We now describe
each of these steps.

Recognition of Need – What is the Problem?

One must know what the problem is before it can be solved. The basis for a
candidate system is recognition of a need for improving an information system or a
procedure. For example, a supervisor may want to investigate the system flow in
purchasing. Or a bank president has been getting complaints about the long lines in
the drive – in. This need leads to a preliminary survey or an initial investigation to
determine whether an alternative system can solve the problem. It entails looking
into the duplication of effort bottlenecks, inefficient existing procedures, or whether
parts of the existing system would be candidates for computerization. If the problem
is serious enough, management may want to have an analyst look at it, such an
assignment emplies a commitment, especially if the analyst hired from the outside.
In larger environments, where formal procedures are the norm, the analyst’s first
task is to prepare a statement specifying the scope and objective of the problem.
He/she then reviews it with the user for accuracy at this stage, only a rough “ball
parle” estimate of the development cost of the project may be reached. However, an
accurate cost of the next phase – the feasibility study – can be produced.
Stage Key Question Result

1. Recognition of need
Preliminaryy survey/ What is the problem or Statement of scope and
Initial investigation opportunity? Objectives
Performance criteria
2. Feasibility study
Evaluation of existing What are the user’s Technical/behavioral
System and procedures demonstrabel needs? Feasibility
Analysis alternative Is the problem worth Cost/benefit analysis
Candidate system solving? System scope and objectives
Cost estimates How can the problem be Statement of new scope and
Redefined? Objectives
3. Analysis
Detailed evaluation of What must be done to solve Logical model of system—
Present system the problem? e.g., data dictionary, data
Data collection What are the facts? flow diagram
Pertient data
4. Design
General design In general, how must the Design of alternative
specifications problem be solved? solutions
Detailed design Specifically, how must the Final cost/benefit analysis
specifications problem be solved? Hardware specifications
Output What is the system Cost estimates
Input (processing) flow? Implementation specifications
Fiels
Procedures Does the user approve the Implementation schedule
System? Approval of system by user
Programs
Program constrcution
Testing
Unit testing How well do individual Security, audit, and operating
Combined module programs/modules test out? Procedures
Testing How ready are programs for Actual hardware use
User acceptance acceptance test? Formal system test
Testing
5. Implementation
User training What is the actual operation? Training program
File/System conversion Are user manuals ready? User-friendly documentation
Are there delays in lading
Files?
6. Post-implementation and
Maintenance
Evaluation Is the key system running? User requirements met
Maintenance Should the system be User standards met
Enchancements modified? Satisfied user

Figure 1.9: System Development Life Cycle

Project Selection:
The project has to be identified before it can be solved. The basis for an alternative
system is the recognition of a need for improving an information system or a
procedure.
The idea for change originates in the environment or within the firm due to any of the
following reasons :
speed of processing needed to be improved
increased workload
to cut down on cost of processing
requirement of increased accuracy/reliability of output reports generated
security of processing
Environment based ideas originate from customers, vendors, government sources
etc. e.g., new unemployment compensation regulations may make it necessary to
change the reporting procedure, format, and content of various reports, as well as
the file structures. Customer complaints about the delivery of orders may prompt an
investigation of the delivery schedule, the experience of the truck drivers, or the
volume of the orders to be delivered.
Ideas for change may also come from within the organisation's top management or
from the users.
When investigated, each of these ideas may lead to a problem definition which leads
to the first step in the system life cycle process.
The objective of this phase is to answer the following questions :
1. What is the problem (or opportunity) perceived ?
2. What are the goals to be achieved by the solution ?
3. What are the benefits which will result from achieving the solution ?
These details may be recorded in an informal note or in a formal document. This
document would be called the Project Request Form.
A request to receive assistance from an information system can be made for many
reasons, but in each case someone-a manager, an employee, or a systems specialist
- initiates the request.
The project proposal submitted by the users to the project selection committee is a
critical element while launching a systems study.
The form of such a request varies from firm to firm, but there is a general
agreement on the kind of information that should be provided.
A sample of the project request form is shown below.
THE PROJECT REQUEST FORM
Job Title Nature of Request To be completed
Investigation of Job Data not
an on-line safe _____ New 27/07/2001 later than
deposit system. _____ Revision 12/05/2002

Job Objectives: Provide customer service, reduce paper work, better billing
system, and possible reduction in staffing requirements.
Expected Benefits 1. Shorten or eliminate customer lines in lobby
2. Provide quick up-to-date information
regarding box availability
3. More accurate billing procedure

Output Specifications Input Specifications

Report Title Document Title

Customer monthly statement Billing notices

Quantity 2-5 No. of pages/report Quantity 100-400

4 No. of copies/report

Frequency _____ daily Frequency _____ daily

______ weekly ______ weekly

Remarks: letter quality printing Remarks: number of notices vary with

the season. In January the range may be
between 200 – 1,000

Report Title Document title

Quantity ____ No. of pages/report Quantity ___

_____ No. of copies/report
Frequency ____ daily Frequency ____ daily
____ weekly ____ weekly
Remarks

As seen from the above table, the user’s request form specifies the following:
1. User-assigned title of work requested.
2. Nature of work requested (problem definition).
3. Date on which the request was submitted.
4. Date by which the job should be completed.
5. Job objective(s) - purpose of job requested.
6. Expected benefits to be derived from the proposed change.
7. Input/output description-quantity (number of copies or pages) and frequency
(daily, weekly, etc.) of inputs and outputs of the proposed change.
8. Requester's signature, title, department, and phone number.
9. Signature, title and department of the person(s) approving the request.

Preliminary Investigation of Project Selection:-

When a request to change, improve or enhance an existing system is made, the next
systems activity, that is, the preliminary investigation, begins. Because there is a
possibility for a stream of requests, standard procedures must be established to deal
with them.
The 'initial investigation' is one way to handle this. The objective is to determine
whether the request is 'valid' and 'feasible' before a recommendation is made to
either do nothing, or improve or modify the existing system or build a new one.

Scope of Study:-
The purpose of the preliminary investigation is to
evaluate the project requests. It is not a design study. It is collecting the information
that permits the committee members to

Evaluate the merits of the project request

Make an informal judgement about the feasibility of the proposed project.

The following activities should be accomplished during the preliminary investigation.

1. Clarify and understand the project request.
What is being done? What is required? Why?
Is there an underlying reason different from the one the requester identifies?
E.g. the user justifies a request for developing of an accounts receivable
system based on the requirement of faster processing. However, the
preliminary investigation may reveal that the need for better control of cash
handling outweighs the need for speed. Lost checks and not speed of
processing, are the real problems, but the requester has not described the
specific need clearly.
2. Determine the size of the project.
e.g. Does a request for a course-registration project call for new development
or for modification of the existing system? The investigation conducted for a
solution will also gather the details useful in estimating the amount of time and
number of people required to develop the project. Since many enhancements
of existing system are costly, they are treated in the same way as a new
project by the project selection committee.
3. Assess costs and benefits of alternative approaches
e.g. What are the estimated costs for developing a patient information system,
as requested by the hospital's chief of staff? What expenses will be incurred to
train the medical and nursing personnel and install the system ? Will the
proposed system reduce the operating costs? Is it likely that the cost of error
will decrease?
4. Determine the technical and operational feasibility of alternative approaches.
e.g. Does the necessary technology to link office word processing systems to
the main computer exist or can it be acquired ? How workable is the request to
 enable administrative assistants to retrieve sales information from the main
system and insert it directly into type written reports prepared on a word
processor ?
5. Report the findings to the management, with recommendations outlining the
acceptance or rejection of the proposal.
e.g. A proposal for the installation of an order entry system should be modified
to allow all salespersons to submit their orders through ordinary telephone
connections directly into the computer. The modifications will improve the
usefulness of the system and increase the financial benefits of the
organization.

Feasibility Study:-
Depending on the results of the initial investigation,
the survey is expanded to a more detailed feasibility study. As we shall learn, a
feasibility study is a test of a system proposal according to its workability impact on
the organization, ability to meet user needs, and effective use of resources. It focuses
on there major questions:
i. What are the user’s demonstrable needs and how does a candidate system meet
them?
ii. What resources are available for given candidate systems? Is the problem worth
solving?
iii. What are the likely impact of the candidate system on the organization? How will
it fit within the organization’s master MIS plan?
Each of these questions must be answered carefully. They revolve around
investigation and evaluation of the problem, identification and description of
candidate systems, specification of performance and the cost of each system, and
final selection of the best system.
The objective of a feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to acquire a sense
of its scope. During the study, the problem definition is crystallized and aspects of
the problem to be included in the system are determined. Consequently, costs and
benefits are estimated with greater accuracy at this stage.
The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is simply a report - a
formal document detailing the nature and scope of the proposed solution. The
proposal summarizes what is known and what is going to be done. It consists of the
following.
1. Statement of the Problem – a carefully worded statement of the problem that
led to analysis.
2. Summary of Findings and Recommendations – a list of the major findings and
recommendations of the study. It is ideal for the user who required quick
access to the results of the analysis of the system under study. Conclusions
are stated, followed by a list of the recommendations and a justification for
them.
3. Details of Findings – An outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by
the existing system, followed by coverage of objectives & procedures of the
candidate system. Included are also discussions of output reports, file
structures, and costs and benefits of the candidate system.
4. Recommendations and Conclusions – special recommendations regarding the
candidate system, including the personal assignments costs, project
schedules, and target dates.
In the feasibility study offering system design, we have to consider the following:

Feasibility Considerations:-
Three key considerations are
involved in the feasibility analysis: economic, technical, behavioural. Let’s briefly
review each consideration and how it relates to the systems effort.

Economic Feasibility:-

Economic analysis is the most

frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a candidate system. More
commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the benefits
and savings that are expected from a candidate system and compare them with
costs. If benefits outweigh costs, then the decision is made to design and implement
the system. Otherwise, further justification or alterations in the proposed system will
have to be made if it is to have a chance of being approved. This is an ongoing effort
that improves in accuracy at each phase of the system life cycle.

Technical Feasibility:-

Technical feasibility centers around the

existing computer system (hardware, software etc.) and to what extent it can support
the proposed addition. For example, if the current computer is operating at 80 per
cent capacity – an arbitrary ceiling – then running another application could overload
the system or require additional hardware. This involves financial considerations to
accommodate technical enhancements. If the budget is a serious constraint, then the
project is judged not feasible.

Behavioural Feasibility:-

People are inherently resistant to

change, and computers have been known to facilitate change. An estimate should be
made of how strong a reaction the user staff is likely to have towards the
development of a computerized system. It is common knowledge that computer
installations have something to do with turnover, transfers, retraining, and changes
in employee job status. Therefore, it is understandable that the introduction of a
candidate system requires special effort to educate, sell, and train the staff on new
ways of conducting business.
Analysis:-
It is a detailed study of the various operations performed by the
system and their relationship within and outside of the system. A key question is –
what must be done to solve the problem? One aspect of analysis is defining the
boundaries of the system and determining whether or not a candidate system should
consider other related systems. During analysis, data are collected on available files,
decision points, and transactions handled by the present system. We shall learn
about some logical system models and tools that are used in analysis. It requires
special skills and sensitivity to the subjects being interviewed. Bias in data collection
and interpretation can be problem. Training, experience and common sense are
required for collection of the information needed to do the analysis. Once analysis is
completed the analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done. The next step
is to decide how the problem might be solved. Thus, in the systems design, we move
from the logical to the physical aspects of the life cycle.

Design:-
The most creative and challenging phase of the system life cycle is
system design. The term design describes both a final system and a process by which
it is developed. It refers to the technical specifications (analogous to the engineer’s
blueprints) that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. It also includes
the constructions of programs and programme testing. The key question here is –
How should the problem be solved? The major steps in design are shown below.
 Form
1
analysis

Output
design

Detailed system
documentation

Input design Cost justification

and candidate
system design

Design submitted to
management for
approval

File design

No
Processing Design accepted? Abandon project
design Output design

Yes

Test
programs

Go to implementation
Go to
implementation

Figure 1.10: Steps in System Design

The first step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format.
Samples of the output (and input) are also available. Second, input data and master
files (data base) have to be designed to meet the requirements of the proposed
output. The operational (processing) phase are handled through programe
construction and testing, including a list of the programmes needed to meet the
system’s objectives and complete documentation. Finally, details related to
justification of the system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system
on the user and the organization are documented and evaluated by management as
a step toward implementation.
The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flowcharts,
record layouts, report layouts, and a workable plan for implementing the candidate
system. Information on personnel, money, hardware, facilities and their estimated
cost must also be available. At this point, projected costs must be close to actual
costs of implementation.
In some firms, separate groups of programmer do the programming whereas other
firms employ analyst programmers who do analysis and design as well as code
programmes. For this discussion, we assume that analysis and programming is
carried out by two separate persons. There are certain functions, though, that the
analyst must perform while programes are being written operating procedures and
documentation must be completed. Security and auditing procedures must also be
developed.

Testing:-
No system design is ever perfect. Communication problems,
programmers negligence or time constraints create errors that most be eliminated
before the system is ready for user acceptance testing. A system is tested for online
response, volume of transactions, stress, recovery form failure and usability. Then
comes system testing, which verifies that the whole set of programs hangs
together, following system testing is acceptance testing or running the system with
live data by the actual use.
System testing requires a test plan that consists of several key activities and steps
for programs, string, system and user acceptance testing. The system performance
criteria deal with turaround time, backup, file protection, and the human factor.

Implementation:-
It is primarily concerned with user training, site
preparation, and file conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminals
and remote sites the telecommunication network and tests of the network along
with the system are also included under implementation.
During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training.
Depending on the nature of the system, extensive user training may be required,
conversion usually takes place at about the same time the user is being trained or
later.

Evaluation :-
During systems testing, the system is used experimentally to
ensure that the software does not fail. In other words, we can say that it will run
according to its specifications and in the way users expect. Special test data are
input for processing, and the results examined. A limited number of users may be
allowed to use the system so that analyst can see whether to use it in unforeseen
ways. It is desirable to discover any surprises before the organization implements
the system and depends on it.
Evaluation of the system is performed to identify its strengths and weaknesses. The
actual evaluation can occur along any one of the following dimensions:
(i) Operational Evaluation: Assessment of the manner in which the system
functions, impact.
(ii) Organisational Impact: Identification and measurement of benefits to the
organisation in such areas as financial concerns, operational efficiency and
competitive impact.
(iii) User Manager Assessment: Evaluation of the attitudes of senior and user
manager within the organisation, as well as end-users.
(iv) Development Performance: Evaluation of the development process in
accordance with such yardsticks as overall development time and effort,
conformance to budgets and standards and other project management
criteria.
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the working system during its
working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment.
Often small system deficiencies are found as a system is brought into operation and
changes are made to remove them. System planners must always plan for resource
availability to carry out these maintenance functions. The importance of
maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards.