LUBRICANTS

™ Friction:

Resistance observed between two

moving or sliding
ld surfaces
f creating wear
and tear.
™ Lubricant:
Any substance introduced between two
moving or sliding surfaces with a view to
reduce
d th frictional
the f i ti l resistance
it b t
between
them is know as a lubricant.
™ Lubrication:
The process of introducing lubricant
between moving/sliding parts is known
as lubrication
l b i ti

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 Functions of Lubricant
o To reduce frictional resistance between surfaces and
reduce deformation, wear and tear between moving/sliding
surfaces.
o To reduce loss of energy in the form of heat (Coolant).
o To reduce waste of energy i.e., to increase efficiency of
machines.
hi
o To reduce irregular expansion of metals.
o To reduce weldingg of the two surfaces.
o To reduce or avoid rough relative motions of moving /
sliding parts.
o To reduce running and maintenance cost of the machine.
machine
o To reduce the leakage of gases under high pressure like a
seal or Teflon.
Mechanisms of Lubrication
Mechanisms of Lubricat

1 Fluid‐film (or) Thick‐film (or)

1.
Hydrodynamic lubrication

2. Boundary lubrication (or)

Thin‐film lubrication

3. Extreme pressure lubrication
 1. Fluid Film/Thick
Fluid Film/Thick‐Film/Hydrodynamic
Film/Hydrodynamic Lubrication  
Lubrication
(~ 1000 Å)

Characteristics:
o The surfaces are separated by a thick‐film (at least
1000 Å thick) and hence there is no direct surface to
surface contact.
o No welding of junctions.

o Since thick film lubricant covers/fills the irregularities

on the both surfaces, there is no direct contact
between material surfaces and so the wear is reduced.
reduced
In Fluid Film Lubrication, 
In Fluid Film Lubrication
the Lubricating properties depend on:

o Viscosity of lubricant (Lubricant should be

of low viscosity).
viscosity)

o Thickness of lubricant layer.

layer

o Relative velocity and area of moving/sliding

surfaces.
 Example: Shaft running (Journal bearings)

Lubricant oil covers the irregularities of the shaft as well as the

b i surfaces.
bearing f
o Examples where fluid film lubrication is  used are :
i) Sophisticated instruments
ii) Light machines like watches, guns, sewing machines etc.

o Examples for fluid‐film lubricants are:

Hydrocarbon oils are considered to be satisfactory lubricants.
¾ To maintain viscosity throughout lifecycles long chain polymers are
used as blenders with normal hydrocarbons oils.

¾ Small
S ll amountt off unsaturated
t t d hydrocarbons
h d b presentt in
i hydrocarbon
h d b
oils produced from petroleum fractions, which causes oxidation and
produce gummy like products. Hence, anti‐oxidant like aminophenol
are used in journal bearings with lubricant
Mechanism of fluid film lubrication
 2. Boundary Lubrication/Thin‐film 
Lubrication

Characteristics of thin film lubrication are:

o High viscosity
viscosity‐index.
index.
o Resistance to heat and oxidation.
o Good
G d Oiliness.
Oili
o Low pour‐point.
 Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication/Thin‐film 
Lubrication

This Lubrication takes p

place due to:
o Adsorption of lubricating oils to both surfaces by
physical/chemical means.
means
o The adsorbed layers on the both metal surfaces
carry the applied load.
o Co‐efficient of friction, f = 0.05 ‐ 0.15 and distance
between surfaces is to be the order of the distance
of the asperities.
For boundary
F b d l bi i
lubrication, the
h l bi
lubricant
molecule should have:

(i) Long hydrocarbon chain with polar groups.

(ii) Polar groups promote spreading and orientation

over the metallic surfaces at high pressure.

(iii) Lateral attraction between the chains.

(iv) Active groups or atoms,

atoms which can form
chemical linkages metal or other surfaces.
 Examples of Boundary lubrication
™ Vegetable and animal oils (glycerides of higher fatty acids
& their soaps).
o These oils either physically adsorbed to metal surfaces or react
chemically at the metal surfaces.
o Although these oils posses greater adhesion property and oiliness,
oiliness yet
they tend to breakdown at high temperatures. Hence, fatty acids are
added to mineral oils to improve the oiliness.

™ Graphite and Molybdenum disulphide alone or oil

suspension may be used because:
o They have Low internal friction
o They can bear/withstand compression
o They are thermally stable
Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication
 3. Extreme‐pressure Lubrication
™ When moving/sliding surfaces are under very high pressure
and speed, a high local temperature is attained.
™ In such conditions, liquid lubricants fail to stick and may
d
decompose andd even vaporize.
i
™ To avoid this, special additives are added to mineral oils. These
are called “extreme-pressure additives”.
Mechanism
¾ The “extreme-pressure additives” form on metal surfaces
more durable films, capable of withstanding very high loads
andd high
hi h temperatures.
t t
¾ Fe-Chloride = 650oC, Fe-Sulphide= 1100oC

Examples:
¾ Organic compounds containing chlorine, sulphur and phosphorus.
o These compounds react with metallic surfaces, at prevailing high
temperatures, to form metallic chlorides, sulphide or phosphides.
o These metallic compounds possess high melting points.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANT
CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANT

™Based on Physical state, lubricants are 
classified as:
a)  Lubricating oils or liquid lubricants
b)  Semi solid lubricants or greases

c)  Solid lubricants
 1. Lubricating oils or liquid lubricants
Purpose:
o Provide a continuous fluid film.
o Provide a cooling between the surfaces.
o Act as a sealing agent.
o Act as corrosion preventing materials.

Properties of liquid lubricants:
o Low pressure i.e., high boiling point. 
o Adequate viscosity for particular service conditions.
o Low freezing point.
o Heat stability. 
Heat stability
o Stability to decomposition at the operating terms.
o High oxidation resistance.
o Non‐corrosive properties.
 Types of Liquid Lubricants
a)  Animal and Vegetable oils:
‐ Usable under very high temperature and heavy load.
™ Di
Disadvantages of its usages are
d fi
1. Costly
2. Undergo oxidation easily in contact with air and forms
gummy and acidic products, and get thickened.
3. Tendency to hydrolyze in contact with moist‐air or aqueous
medium.  
So, they are used as “blending agents” with other mineral oils.

b)   Mineral oils or petroleum oils:
‐ They are obtained by distillation of petroleum. 
o Length of hydrocarbon chain varies between 12 to 50 carbon atoms.
o Shorter‐ chain oils have lower viscosity than the longer‐ chain 
h d
hydrocarbons.
b
™ Liquid lubricants are most widely used lubricants
b
because th are
they
1. Cheap
2 Available in abundance
2.
3. Quite stable under service conditions.

o But they have poor oiliness character compared to

animal and vegetable oils.
o So,, high
g molecular weight
g compounds
p like oleic
acid, stearic acid are used to over come this problem.
c) Blended oils:
o No single oil serves as the most satisfactory
f lubricant
for many of the modern machines. Hence, additives
are used to improve the properties. These blended
oils give desired lubricating property required for a
machinery.
Additives used are:
a) Oiliness- carriers:
o Coconut oil, caster oil, and palmitic, stearic and oleic acids.
b) Extreme-Pressure additives such as:
o Fatty esters or acids which form oxide film with metal surface.
o Organic
O materials containing sulphur.
o Organic chlorine compounds.
o Organic phosphorous compounds.
compounds
o Some times lead (Pb) compounds could be used as high pressure
lubricants.

c) Pour-point depressing additives:

o Phenol, condensation product of chlorinated wax with

naphthalene.
d) Viscosity index improvers : hexanol

e) Thickeners : Polystyrene or polystyers

f) Antioxidants or inhibitors : Aromatic phenolic or amino compounds

g) Corrosion p
preventers : Phosphorous
p or Antimony
y organic
g
compounds

h) Abrasion inhibitors : tricresyl phosphate

i) Antifoaming agents : glycols and glycerol

j) Emulsifiers : sodium salts of sulphonic acid

k) Deposit inhibitors : detergents such as salts of phenol and

carboxylic acids
 2. Semi‐Solid Lubricants or Greases
o Semi solid consisting of a soap dispersed throughout
a liquid lubricating oil.
a liquid lubricating oil.
‐ May be Petroleum oil or synthetic oil with a specific additive.
Preparation:
p
Saponification of fat (such as tallow or fatty acid) with alkali
(like lime, caustic soda etc.,)
↓
Addition of the above to hot lubricating oil under agitation
o To increase the heat resistance of grease, inorganic solid
thickening agents ( like finely divided clay, bentonite, colloidal
silica, carbon block etc.,) are added.
o Have higher shear or frictional resistance than oils and hence
support much heavier load at lower speeds.
Applications of Greases:
o When oil cannot remain in p
place due to high
g load,, low speed,
p ,
intermittent operation, sudden jerks etc.
o Work at high temperature
o When external contamination may create problem
o When dripping or spurting of oil is undesirable

Types of greases:
o Ca based greases or cup-greases (up to 80oC & water resistant)
o Soda-based
Soda based greases (up to 175oC and not water resistant)
o Lithium-based greases (up to 15oC and water resistant)
o Axle- greases → lime with resin and fatty acids (water resistant &
less delicate equipment under high loads and at low speed)
o Graphite greases (rail axle boxes, machine bearings, tractor
& wire ropes)
p )
o Soap stone (Steatite is relatively soft and may feel soapy when
touched, hence the name and rich in Mg).
 3. SOLID LUBRICANTS
3. SOLID LUBRICANTS
Solid lubricants are used when:
o Other lubricants can not be used
o Contamination undesirable
Contamination undesirable
o Too high temperature or load are involved 

o Combustible lubricants not acceptable

Examples of solid lubricants used are:

Examples of solid lubricants used are:
a)  Graphite (or) 
b)  Molybdenum disulphide
b) Molybdenum disulphide
c)   sandstone, mica, talc, etc. 
 Examples of Solid Lubricants 
1.Graphite: Talc

o Very soapy in touch
Very soapy in touch
o Non inflammable
o Not oxidized in air below 375°C
o Oil + graphite → oildag (internal
combustion engines)
o Water + Graphite → aquadag 
‐ Emulsifying agent (tannin)
(foodstuffs industry)
(foodstuffs industry)
o Grease + graphite → 
graphite –greases (at higher temp.)
 Examples of Solid Lubricants  Mo

2. Molybdenum disulphide:

ndwitch-like str
o Low coefficient of friction (0.005‐0.01) S

o Stable in air up to 400 ° C

Stable in air up to 400 
313 pm

308 pm Mo

San

™ Soapstone, talc or mica are also used as solid lubricants.
 4. Synthetic Lubricants
¾ Petroleum
P t l lubricants
l bi t + specific
ifi additives
dditi meets
t mostt drastic
d ti
and severe conditions
¾ Temp.
Temp range ~ -50
50oC to 250oC
¾ Low freezing point
¾ High viscosity
viscosity-index
index
¾ Non-inflammable
¾ High
g flash point
p
¾ High temp. stability
¾ High chemical stability

Examples:
ƒ Polymerized hydrocarbons: polypropylene, polybutylene,
polyethylene ~ molecular ranges of 500 to 50,000 Da
ƒ Polyglycols & related compounds: polyethylene glycol,
polypropylene glycol
glycol, polyglycidyl ethers & higher polyalkylene
oxides in rubber-bearings and joints.
™ polyglycidyl ethers & higher polyalkylene oxides in roller bearings
of sheet glass manufacturing machines
™ Oxides are not used at high
g temp.
p due to thermal decomposition
p
ƒ Organic amines, imines & amides:
- Low pour points
- High viscosity-index
- Temp. range: -50oC to 250oC
ƒ Silicones:
-Up to 200oC and applicable at low temp. lubrication process
- Starts cracking at 230oC
- High viscosity-index
ƒ Fluorocarbons:
- Not decomposable by heat i.e. temp. resistance
-CChemically
e ca y resistant
es sta t
- Non-oxidizable
- But reacts with molten sodium
5. Lubricating Emulsions
ƒ A fairly dispersion of two immiscible liquids, the one being dispersed as
fine droplets
p in the other
ƒ The disperse phase/the internal liquid that is broken into droplets (1-6µm)
ƒ The dispersing phase/external/continuous phase is the surrounding liquid
ƒ Emulsifier/emulsifying agent:
™ Oil in water emulsion: 74.02% water + 25.98% oil (3-20% water-soluble
emulsifying agent as sodium soap; sodium & potassium salts of
sulphonic acids) for cooling of cutting tools and for rust protection
™ Water in oil emulsion: 74.02% oil + 25.98% water (1-10% water soluble
Emulsifying agent like alkaline-earth soap e.g., calcium stearate)
 Properties  of Lubricants
1.  Viscosity:
™ The property of a liquid or fluid by virtue of which it offers 
resistance to its own flow .
‐ Viscosity should not be too low or too high. 
Viscosity should not be too low or too high
(viscosity is inversely proportional to temperature)
2. Flash ‐ Points and Fire ‐ Points :

™ Flash Point:
The lowest temperature at which the oil lubricant gives off enough
vapour that ignites for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near
it.
™ Fire Point: 
Fi P i t
The lowest temperature at which the vapour of the oil burn 
continuously for at least five seconds, when a tiny flame is brought 
near it. In most cases the fire‐points are 5 to 40oC higher than the 
flash‐points. It is measured by using Pensky‐marten’s apparatus.
3. Oiliness:
™A measure off its
it capacity
it to
t stick
ti k on to
t the
th surfaces
f off
machine parts under conditions of heavy pressure or load.
o For high pressure - high oiliness oil should be used
used.
o Important for extreme – Pressure lubrication
4. Cloud and Pour points:
™ When an oil is cooled slowly, the temperature at which it
becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance, is called
it CLOUD POINT.
its POINT

™The temperature at which the oil ceases to flow or pour, is

called its POUR POINT.
POINT

5. Volatility:
o Good
G d lubricant
l bi t should
h ld have
h low
l volatility.
l tilit
o It is measured by vaporimeter.
6. Emulsification:
o The property of oils to get intimately mixed with water forming
an emulsion.
o Emulsions have a tendency to collect dirt,
dirt girt,
girt foreign material
etc., causing abrasion and wearing out of the lubricating parts
of the machinery.
o A good lubricating oil should form an emulsion with water
which breaks off quickly.

7. Carbon residue:
Normally lubricants consist of high % of carbon containing
compounds.
o Lubricants decompose due to raise in temp.
temp and deposit
carbon creating problems to :
a) IC engines and b) Air compressors.

o A good lubricant should deposit least amount of the carbon .

8. Corrosion stability:
™ Corrosion Test:
o A polished copper strip is placed inside a lubricating oil for
a specified time and temperature and then checked for any
tarnishing .

o To
o prevent
p e e t or
o retard
eta d co
corrosion
os o eeffect
ect o
of lubricating
ub cat g o oils,
s,
additives such as Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony,
Chromium, Bismuth or Lead are added.

9. Decomposition stability:
o Lubricating oils must be stable to decomposition at the
operating temperatures by :
a. Oxidation: To prevent it anti oxidant or inhibitor are used.
y y
b. Hydrolysis: Moisture in oils causes hydrolysis
y y of esters
c. Pyrolysis : At high temperature
10 Aniline point: (A
10. (A.P.)
P)
o The minimum equilibrium solution temp. for equal volumes of
aniline and oil sample.
o A good lubricating oil should have higher aniline points (A.P)
o Higher A.P means higher % of paraffinic hydrocarbons and
hence lower % of aromatic HC.
(Aromatic HC dissolves natural rubbers and few synthetic
ones))

11. Precipitation Number:

o Th
The percentage
t off asphalt
h lt presentt in
i oil
il after
ft centrifuging
t if i oil
il
solution in petroleum ether.
o Precipitation Number is used to differentiate the different
classes of lubricants.
12. Specific Gravity: (useful to identify unknown oil)
A.P.I. ( American petroleum Institute) degree:
A.P.I degree = 141.5/sp. gr. at temp(60°F) -131.5
where 141.5 → modulus of the A.P.I scale.
API hydrometer
•API h d for
f oil
il starts at 10 which
hi h is
i equiv.
i to 1,
1 sp. Gravity
G i
of water at 60oF
• Lighter oil than water posses higher than 10 and vice versa
• Useful for interconversion of wt and volume measurements of oils

13. Ash Point:

o For used oil it is important to get an idea as to how much
abrasion and wear it may cause

14. Saponification number:

o Number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify
1g of oil.
15. Mechanical stability:
o At very high pressures of operation, the stability of a
lubricant is judged by four balls extreme pressure
lubricant test.
test
• To check maximum load that can be carried safely by a
lubricant

16. Neutralization Number:

o Is a scale to determine the amount of acidic or basic
constituents of an oil.
o Acid Number: Amount of KOH requiredq in milligrams
g
to neutralize the fatty acids in 1g of oil.
o Good lubricating oil → acid number value < 0.1
o More than 0.1 indicates oil gets oxidized and
corrodes the engine
 C. Propellants
p
™High oxygen containing fuels or mixture of 
fuels + oxidiser
fuels + oxidiser
↓
Controlled combustion
Controlled combustion
™Evolution of Huge volume of hot gases 
volution of Huge volume of hot gases
(temp= 3000oC   &  pressure: 300kg/cm2)
™Gases escape through a jet or nozzle at 
™Gases escape through a jet or nozzle at
supersonic velocity.
 Characteristics of a good propellant
o Have high specific impulse
o Deposit low molecular weight products( H2, CO2, CO, N2)
o Burn at a slow and steady rate
Burn at a slow and steady rate
o Have low ignition delay ( in milliseconds)
o Have high density
o Be Stable over a wide range of temperatures 
o Be Safe to handle and store at ordinary conditions 
i e under shock heat or impact
i.e., under shock, heat or impact
o Be readily ignitable at predictable burning rate
yg p
o Be Non corrosive and non hygroscopic
o Leave no solid residue after ignition
o Not release any toxic products on burning
o Give high temperature on combustion
Classification of propellants:
1)) Solid p
propellants:
p Homogenous
g or composite
p

***Homogeneous solid propellants:

¾One solid propellant or mixture of propellants forms a
colloidal state
I.Single-base propellant –from single P
II D bl b
II.Double-base propellant
ll t --- one solid
lid P which
hi h contains
t i ttwo
materials
Examples
nitrocellulose
Ballistite
Nitro glycerin

65% nitrocellulose
C dit
Cordite 30 % Nit
Nitro glycerin
l i
5% Petroleum jelly( as plasticizer)
Composition of D-B-P (Double-base propellant)

• 50-55% Nitrocellulose
• 40-45% Nitroglycerine
• Diethyl phthalate: up to 5%
• Diphenyl amine up to 1% is added as stabilizer
• Temperature: 27000 C
• Volume of the product gases = 1500 fold

*** Heterogeneous or composite:

Fuel + oxidising agent

Example:
ƒGun powder – oldest composite propellant
800 15000C
temp – 800-1500
Volume – 400 fold
ƒ 46% of ammonium picrate + 48% NaNO3 + 8% plastic resin binder
ƒ 25% potassium perchlorate+ 25% asphalt oil
ƒ 80% Ammonium perchlorate + 20% resin binder
Properties of oxidizing substances:

ƒ Non hygroscopic
ƒ Stable in contact with fuel
ƒ Does not form any y corrosive p
products..

¾Potassium perchlorate forms KCl (white powder)

¾ Ammonium perchlorate forms no residue but combustions products
HCl and water which are toxic and corrosive fog.

2. Liquid
q Propellants:
p

¾ More versatile
¾ Engine calibration is easier

Two Types

1. Mono
1 M propellants
ll t
2. Bi propellants
 Types : Mono propellants 
™Fuel + oxidizer are in the same molecule or in the
same solution.
™ Properties: 
o Safe to store
o Burning should be smooth
™ Examples : i) H2O2, 
ii) nitro methane, 
iii) ethylene oxide,
i )h d i
iv) hydrazine,
v) propyl nitrate 
)
vi) a mixture of 21.4% MeOH and 78.4% 
H2O2 solution
 Bipropellants 
™ Fuel and oxidiser are separate compounds and
injected separately to the combustion chamber from
separate compartments
™ Fuels:       Liquid hydrogen, hydrazine, ethyl alcohol,
aniline, kerosene.
,
Ethanol mixed with 25% of water
™ Oxidizers: Liquid oxygen, ozone, H
q yg , , 2O2,, fuming HNO
g 3,
liquid fluorine 
o Liquid O2 is non toxic but need high pressure insulated
container
t i f storing.
for t i
o Liquid O3 is also very good but forms toxic products and
can explode at high concentration
o Liquid fluorine is volatile, toxic, corrosive, very reactive,
difficult to store and handle.
 Comparative features of solid and liquid 
propellants
ll t
Solid propellants Liquid propellants

Low specific impulse High

Easily handling and storing Not easy

Simple engine Delicate engine design

More economical Less economical

Not versatile Versatile

Engine calibration difficult

Engine calibration difficult Easy
•Specific Impulse:
Th t in
Thrust i kg
k per second
d per kg
k off the
th ffuell b
burnt.
t Th
The value
l off thrust
th t or
propulsive force due to momentum of the exiting gases and is given by:

F= mv/g + (Pe - Pa)Ae

Where
F= thrust ( kg/m/kg); m = mass flow (kg);
g = acceleration due to g y ((9.81 m2/s);
gravity )
v = exhaust velocity (m/s); Pe = exit pressure (kg/m2);
Pa = ambient gas pressure (kg/m2) and
Ae = nozzle exit area (m2)