DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

STEEL DESIGN
Part 1: BRIDGE STRUCTURES
Lecture-2
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Minimum Slab Thickness

¾ Absolute Minimum Thickness =

175 mm (9.7.1.1)

¾ Traditionally, the minimum

thickness was specified in
AASHTO Standard Specification
for the purpose of deflection
control.

¾ However, AASHTO LRFD

removes all the requirements for
maximum deflection and leaves it
to the judgment of the designer.
Therefore, the thickness of slab
for deflection control is now
optional. (2.5.2.6.3)
S = slab span (mm)
L = span length (mm)
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Slab span (S) is determined from

1-Face-to-Face distance for slab monolithic with beam (i.e. cast into one piece)

2-For composite slab on steel or concrete girder, the distance between the face of the
webs
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Minimum Cover of Reinforcement

¾The clear cover is the distance from the top or bottom of the section to the outer
edge of steel reinforcement (not at the center!)

¾Minimum cover is specified so that there is enough concrete to cover the steel and
prevent the steel from corrosion A large covering is required in corrosive
environments
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
Minimum Cover of Reinforcement

¾ Minimum clear cover for reinforcing

steel and pre-stressing steel (5.12.3)

¾ Adjustments for Water-Cement Ratio:

a. For W/C < 0.4, the concrete tends to be

dense; therefore can use only 80% of the
value in the table (i.e. multiply by 0.8)

b. For W/C > 0.5, the concrete tends to be

porous; the value in the table must be
increase by 20% (i.e. multiply by 1.2)

¾ If there is no initial overlay of wearing

surface, should add another 10 mm to the
clear cover on the top surface to allows
for some wear and tear
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Types of Slab Reinforcement

The deck slab may be designed as One-Way Slab with main reinforcement perpendicular
or parallel to the traffic direction

1-Main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic

Found in girder bridges
Girder Spacing must not be too large

2-Main reinforcement parallel to traffic

Slab on floor beams (Truss Bridges)
 DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Types of Deck

1-Conventional reinforced concrete decks

supported on girders

2-Slab superstructures, cast-in-place,

longitudinally reinforced

3-Stay-in-place formwork decks

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB

Methods for designing slab are

1. Empirical Method (9.7.2)

2. Approximate Method (Strip Method) (4.6.2.1)

3. Refined Method including

a. Classical force and displacement methods

b. Yield Line Method

c. Finite Element Analysis

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
1-Empirical method

Empirical method is based on the test data (this is why it is called “empirical”) that the
primary mechanism of the bridge deck under wheel load is not flexure but rather
complex arch-action and punching shear.

Empirical method of design can be only used for concrete isotropic decks (having two
identical layers of reinforcement, perpendicular to and in touch with each other)
supported on longitudinal components.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
1-Empirical method

Conditions that must be satisfied in order to use the Empirical Method

1. cross-frames or diaphragms are used throughout the cross-section at lines of
support
2. the supporting components (girders) are made of steel and/or concrete
3. the deck is fully cast-in-place (no precast!) and water cured
4. the deck has uniform depth except any local thickening.
5. core depth of the slab is not less than 100 mm.

6. the effective length (or slab span “S”) ≤ 4.1 m

7. the ratio of effective length (S) to design depth is between 6 and 18
8. the minimum depth of the slab is 175 mm, excluding the wearing surface
9. the specified 28-day fc’ of the deck concrete is > 28 MPa
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
1-Empirical method
Conditions that must be satisfied in order to use the Empirical Method (Continued)

10. There should be an overhang beyond the centerline of the exterior girder equal to a
minimum of 5 times the depth of slab or 3 times depth of slab with vertical barrier.
11. A minimum of two shear connectors shall be placed at a spacing of 600 mm C/C
between the steel girders and the deck slab. For concrete girders, stirrups extending
into the slab satisfy this requirement.

Reinforcement Requirement for Empirical Method

¾Isotropic bottom layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.570 mm2/mm width of slab.
¾Isotropic top layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.380 mm2/mm width of slab.
¾The outermost layer of steel along the depth of the slab is to be placed in the direction of
the effective length.
¾Spacing of steel must be ≤ 450 mm
¾4 layers of isotropic reinforcement (same in all directions) shall be provided
¾The minimum depth of the concrete slab to be used as a deck should not be less than 175
mm. (NHA suggests a minimum value of 220 mm). The wearing surface is separately
provided.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method (Approximate Method)
¾Strip method is an approximate analysis method in which the deck is subdivided into
strips perpendicular to the supporting components (girder)

¾The slab strip is now a continuous beam and can be analyzed using classical beam theory
and designed as a one-way slab

¾Slab is modeled as beams and with girders as supports

¾Wheel loads are placed (transversely) on this slab to produced the maximum effect
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method
1. The deck is subdivided into strips perpendicular to the supporting components
(girder)

2. Determine the maximum moment (M+ and M-) based on classical beam theory
(These moments are considered as representative and may be used for all panels.)

3. Determine the width of strip for each M+ and M- case

4. Divide the maximum moment by the width of strip to get the moment per 1 unit
width of slab

5. Design an RC slab for this moment – the reinforcement required will be for 1 unit
width of slab (this is for the primary direction)

6. The reinforcement in the secondary direction may be taken as a percentage of those

in the primary direction
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method

Equivalent Strip Widths for Various

Parts of the Deck

S = spacing of supporting components

X = distance from load to point of support
+M = positive moment
-M = negative moment
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method
The previous procedure is quite complex for routine designs (need to consider transverse
placements of live loads to get the maximum effect). Therefore, AASHTO offers a
simplified procedure to determine maximum M+ and M- directly!!!

1. Slab is modeled as beams and with girders as supports

2. Determine the maximum M+ and M- from table (Table A4-1) based on the slab
span – this is the LL+IM moment per mm.

3. M+ and M- from DL/DW are relatively small and may be approximated as

M=wl2/c where c ~ 10-12

4. Design an RC slab for this moment – the reinforcement required will be for 1 mm
of slab (this is for the primary direction)

5. The reinforcement in the secondary direction may be taken as a percentage of

those in the primary direction
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method)
The design section for negative
moments and shear is taken as
the face of the beam for
monolithic construction and
concrete box beams and one
quarter the flange width from
the center line of the support for
steel beams
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method
Distribution Steel
Reinforcement in the secondary direction may be determined as a percentage of
that in the primary direction.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS OF CONCRETE DECK SLAB
2-Strip Method

Load Combination

In the case of deck design only one of five strength load combinations needs to be
investigated:

STRENGTH I
This limit state is the basic load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the
bridge (without wind).
U = η [1.25 DC + 1.75 (LL + IM)]

Resistance factors for strength limit state:

¾0.90 for flexure and tension of reinforced concrete
¾1.00 for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE LOAD TO GIRDERS

¾A bridge usually have more than one girder so the question arise on how to distribute
the lane load to the girders

¾The problem is three-dimensional and involves complex behavior of load transfer

from concrete slab to steel girder.

¾The AASHTO bridge specification suggests many methods to analyze bridges, i.e.,
finite element analysis, grillage analysis, and a load distribution factor (LDF) equation.

¾Finite element analysis (FEA) is considered to be an accurate method, but it requires

much effort in data preparation, bridge modeling and analysis, and interpretation of
results.

¾The LDF equation is introduced to facilitate in determination of maximum moment in

the girders.

¾With the LDF equation, the maximum moment in the girders is obtained by
multiplying a moment from a one-dimensional bridge analysis by the value obtained
from the LDF equation.
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

¾The wheel load distribution factor from the “S/D” equation, the AASHTO standard
equation (AASHTO 1996), for concrete slab on steel girder bridges with two or more
design lanes loaded is:
LDF=S/D

¾where S is girder spacing in mm and D is the co-efficient depending on the type of

superstructure, D=1670 for a bridge constructed with a concrete deck on pre-stressed
concrete or steel girders carrying two or more lanes of traffic.

¾.The S/D equation, first introduced in 1930s, involves only one parameter. Although
the S/D equation is simple to use, it is considered to be unsafe for some bridges and too
conservative for others.

¾The effects of various parameters such as skew, continuity, and deck stiffness were
ignored in this expression and it was found to be accurate for a few selected bridge
geometries and was inaccurate once the geometry was changed.
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

¾Development of a formula for a broad range of beam and slab bridges, including
prestressed concrete and steel girder bridges was needed.

¾Much research was carried out using finite element analysis, grillage analysis, and field
tests to arrive at more accurate expressions for DFs.

¾The maximum moment at a critical location is determined with an analytical or

numerical method and is denoted as Mrefined. Next, the same load is applied to a single
girder and a 1D beam analysis is performed. The resulting maximum moment/shear is
denoted as Mbeam. The distribution factor (g) is defined as:

¾DFs are different for different kinds of superstructure system

¾DFs are different for interior and exterior beam

¾DFs are available for one design lane and two or more design lanes (the larger one
controls)

¾Must make sure that the bridge is within the range of applicability of the equation.
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

Factors affecting the AASHTO LRFD distribution factor includes:

Span Length (L)

Girder Spacing (S)

Modulus of elasticity of beam and deck

Moment of inertia and Torsional inertia of the section

Slab Thickness (ts)

Width (b), Depth (d), and Area of beam (A)

Number of design lanes (NL)

Number of girders (Nb)

Width of bridge (W)

AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

Condition for Applicability of DFs’ for concrete deck on steel or concrete beams.

1. Spacing of beams, S, should be between 1.1 and 4.9 m.

2. Thickness of deck slab, ts, should be between 110 and 300 mm.
3. Length of beam should be between 6.0 and 73.0 m.
4. Number of longitudinal beams in the cross-section, Nb, should be greater than or
equal to 4.
5. The width of deck should be constant.
6. Multiple presence factor is not to be applied when the using the given expressions.
However, it is always to be considered if the lever rule is used to the find the force
effects.
7. If beam spacing exceeds 4.9 m, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of
the loaded lanes based on the lever rule.
8. Beams should be parallel and should have approximately the same stiffness.
9. The curvature in plan is less than the specified AASHTO limit.
10. The roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed 910 mm.
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

Notation Used
g = distribution factor
S = spacing of beams or webs (mm)
L = span of beam (mm)
Nb = number of beams, stringers or girders
ts = depth of concrete slab (mm)
n = modular ratio between beam and deck materials
I = moment of inertia of beam (mm4)
eg= distance between the centers of the basic beam and deck (mm), considered zero for
non-composite beams
A = area of stringer, beam or girder
Kg =n(I+Aeg2), longitudinal stiffness parameter (moment of inertia of one beam modified
to equivalent concrete section and transferred to a point at the center of the slab)
Kg/Lts3= a parameter proportional to the ratio of beam stiffness to total slab stiffness in
transverse direction at the level of the slab centerline
de = distance between the center of exterior beam and the interior edge of curb or traffic
barrier mm). It shall be taken positive if the exterior web is within the roadway inside the
curb and negative when it is outside the roadway.
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS
AASHTO GIRDER DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

LEVER RULE
The lever rule is a method of analysis which involves a statical distribution of load
based on the assumption that each deck panel is simply supported over the girder,
except at the exterior girder that is continuous with the cantilever. Because the load
distribution to any girder other than one directly next to the point of load application is
neglected, the lever rule is a conservative method of analysis.

Multiple presence factor is not to

be applied when the using the
given expressions by the
specifications (already included in
the equations). However, it is
always to be considered if the lever
rule is used to the find the force
effects.