Colour by numbers

Alison Gilchrist and Jim In order to fully describe the appear- Hering pointed out that the four unique
ance of an object or image (as distinct hues of red, green, yellow and blue,
Nobbs discuss the standard from simply its colour), more complex when taken together with white and
systems of expressing colour colour appearance models are required, black, form a group of six basic colour
such as the CIECAM97s model recently properties. The six properties can be
in numerical form. recommended for evaluation by the CIE. grouped into three opponent pairs, white/
Despite these limitations, CIE L* a*b* black, red/green and yellow/blue. It
(1976) is, through incorporation into seems sensible to associate these three
Specifying colour by numbers replaces
many national and international stand- opponent pairs with the three axes of a
subjective responses, such as ‘light
ards, the most common method of three-dimensional colour space.
blue’, ‘rich dark purple’ or ‘bright gold’,
surface colour specification. On a colour chart, the amount of red-
with an objective numerical system. You
Three things contribute to the colour ness or greenness of a colour sensation
may wonder why we need numerical
appearance of an object (Figure 1): could be represented by the distance
colour specification, when we have a
• The nature of the illumination along a single axis, with pure red lying at
complex and sensitive system of colour
• The optical properties of the object one extreme and pure green lying at the
appreciation built into our heads. On the
itself other. In a similar way yellow and blue
other hand, if you have ever tried to
• The response of the human eye. are opposite extremities of a second axis
match a shade from memory, you will
which could be placed perpendicular to
know very well why instrumental colour
The nature of the illumination can be the red/green direction. The third axis
specification is important.
characterised by the spectral power would go from white to black and lie in
Human colour memory is quite poor,
distribution, S(λ), of the light source, the the plane normal to the other two. CIE
and verbal colour communication is not
relative intensity of the illumination at L*a *b * (1976) space uses the terms L*,
much more precise (how many shades
each wavelength in the visible spectrum. a * and b * to represent colour, as shown
of ‘navy blue’ can you imagine?). Add to
The object reflects a certain fraction of in Figure 2.
these problems the relatively high
the incident light toward the eye and this
frequency of colour vision deficiency and
can be characterised by the reflectance
the case for numerical colour specific-
spectrum R(λ). The intensity of light CIE L*C *h° coordinates
ation is clear.
entering the eye, I(λ), is the product of The coordinates of the points repre-
Numerical methods of describing
these terms. senting the colour of a sample can also
colour appearance allow the communic-
Although it gives a good description of be expressed in cylindrical coordinates
ation of colour information without the
the optical properties of the object, the of lightness L*, chroma C * and hue h °,
need for physical samples. Ideally the
reflectance spectrum alone is not partic- as illustrated in Figure 3. Neutral grey
numbers involved should be easily
ularly useful for communicating colour samples would have C * values between
interpretable in terms of visual attributes
between people. In order to achieve this 0 and about 5 units.
such as lightness, chroma and hue. The
aim, reflectance spectra are commonly The hue angle is always measured
widely accepted and used CIE L*a *b*
transformed into coordinates such as L*, anti-clockwise from the positive a * axis.
(1976) system, together with associated
a * and b*, representing the position of It is traditional to associate one of the
terms C * and h°, achieves these aims to
the colour in a three-dimensional colour psychological primary hues with each
a large degree, but only describes the
space. axis direction, as shown in the diagrams,
colour of an object or image under
CIE L*a*b* colour space is based on although in reality the angles of the pure
specific viewing conditions (such as
the opponent theory of colour vision, hues do not lie exactly along the axis
illumination type and level, object size
which arose from the ideas of Hering. directions.
and background colours).
Study of the structure of the eye
shows that the perception of an area of
colour depends on a number of things Light source
other than the spectrum of the light S(λ)
entering the eye from that area. The Light entering eye
main influences are the colour of the I(λ) = S(λ)R(λ)
background (lateral inhibition), the size
of the image (variation in retina sensi-
tivity) and the intensity of the illumination Figure 1
(rod signal intrusion). How coloured light reaches the eye Reflectance of object R(λ)

4 JSDC VOLUME 115 JANUARY 1999


e gre
Lim
Green
C ya
n nta
L* Vertical axis, represents lightness, 100 being a perfect white sample and 0 a perfect black
a* Axis in the plane normal to L*, represents the redness–greenness quality of the colour,
positive values denoting redness and negative values greenness
b* Axis normal to both L* and a*, represents the yellowness–blueness quality of the colour,
positive values denoting yellowness and negative values blueness
Figure 2 CIE L*a*b* colour space
White
en
e gre
Lim
Black
Green
C ya
n
B lu e
Visual assessment of
colour difference
A reliable method of assessment of
colour difference is extremely important
as the incorrect rejection or acceptance
of a batch of material has the conse-
quence of extra cost and time in un-
necessary colour correction. In visual
assessment, viewing conditions are ex-
tremely important if reproducible judge-
ments are to be made. In particular, the
following conditions should be ar-
ranged:
• The level of illumination must be
sufficient to produce cone (photopic)
vision
• The illumination should be a good
simulation of one of the CIE standard
illuminants
• The nature of the background against
which the sample is viewed must be
controlled; a medium bluish grey
(smoky) is to be preferred
• The field of view should be controlled;
if the panels are of different size or
shape then a mask should be cut from
White L* Instrumental
assessment of colour
en
Yellow difference
Ora
b* ng The CIE L *a*b* system includes an
e
equation for the total colour difference
Black a* between a trial and standard sample.
Red
The total colour difference is the distance
between the two points representing
those colours in colour space, as shown
B lu e Mage
in Figure 4. The distance, expressed as
∆E*ab, is determined using the laws of
right-angled triangles.
It is worth remembering that the
scaling of the colour space was set up so
that a value of ∆E *ab is unity between the
colour of two samples should be just
visually perceptible. This means that if a
large number of people were asked to
L* C * chroma, C * = (a *2 +b *2 ) judge the colour difference between the
two samples, about 50% of observers
 b *
h° hue angle, h° = tan−1  would say that there was a difference in
 a *
Yellow L* colour, the other 50% would say the two
Ora colours matched. This is the point of
b* ng
e
C* maximum argument: something worth
remembering when debating with sup-
ho Red
a* pliers or customers about the quality of a
match!
Figure 3 Comparisons between the majority
Mage
nta CIE L*C*h° colour coordinates
visual decision and a numerical
assessment, based on the condition that
∆E *ab must be less that unity for a match,
show that the instrument decision will
disagree with the majority visual decision
thin grey card and placed over the
about 19% of the time. Pass/fail de-
panels so that equal areas of the two
panels are in view
cisions based on the CIE L*a *b * (1976)
equation with a limit of ∆E *ab = 1 are, on
• The two panels should be positioned
average, slightly less reliable than visual
side by side, with no gap between
judgements made by a single colourist.
them
• Always position the standard on the
same side of the pair, usually the left L*
Trial
hand side
• Allow a few moments for the eye to
∆ L*
become adapted to the ambient b* ∆E*
illumination in the lighting cabinet
before viewing the colour-difference ∆b*
panels Standard
∆a*
• If highly chromatic panels have been
viewed, then allow a few minutes for
the eye to readapt to neutral before
a*
judging the next pair of panels.
* = ∆L *2 + ∆a *2 + ∆b *2
∆Eab
The correct or ‘golden answer’ as to
whether a trial colour matches that of the where ∆L* = L*trl − L*std
standard is taken as the majority de- ∆a * = atrl
* − a*
std
cision of a group of colourists. On aver- ∆L* = L*trl − L*std
age an individual colourist will disagree and ∆b * = btrl
* − b*
std
with the majority decision about 17% of
the time when judging pairs of panels Figure 4 The CIE L*a*b* colour-difference
with fairly small colour differences. calculation
JSDC VOLUME 115 JANUARY 1999 5
 Some scientists have devised more
reliable or optimised colour-difference
equations. The simplest method of
improvement is to assign individual toler-
ances to ∆L*, ∆a * and ∆b *. Alternatively,
individual tolerances can be assigned to
∆L*, ∆C * and ∆H * (differences in light-
ness, chroma and hue).
The most successful equations are
based on the ∆L* ∆C * ∆H * system of
colour splitting and the CMC(l :c) and
CIE94 equations are of this type. The
CMC equation was developed by the
Colour Measurement Committee of
the Society of Dyers and Colourists and
has been adopted as the ISO standard
for small colour-difference assessment
of textile materials.
In 1994 the CIE suggested the simp-
ler CIE94 equation for evaluation. The
published evidence collected so far by
the CIE suggests that pass fail decisions
made using either of the optimised
colour-difference equations are con-
siderably more reliable than those based
on ∆E *ab or on the judgement of a single
human colourist. Comparison with de-
cisions made by panels of observers
show that the equations disagree with
the majority decision about 13% of the
time. Neither equation has yet been
adopted as a CIE standard as it has
been shown that significant improve-
ments can still be made.
Colour measuring
instruments
There are two types of instrument in
common use for the assessment of
colour, reflectance spectrophotometers
and tristimulus colorimeters. In both
cases light is shone onto the object and
part of the reflected light is collected,
analysed and the intensity recorded. In
the reflectance spectrophotometer the
intensity of the reflected light is measured
at a series of discrete wavelengths
spaced at 5, 10 or 20 nm throughout the
visible spectrum (usually 380 to 730 nm,
or 400 to 700 nm). The tristimulus colori-
meter analyses the collected light by
measuring the intensity transmitted
through each of three different optical
filters.
In general, the reflectance spectro-
photometer is the more accurate and
reliable of the two types of machine, but
is also the most expensive, costing be-
tween two to five times more than a
6 JSDC VOLUME 115 JANUARY 1999
tristimulus colorimeter. Instruments are
generally able to quantify colour
differences ten to twenty times smaller
than can be seen with the human eye.
Standard CIE optical
geometries
A quality instrument will be able to give
repeatable measurements of the same
sample. It is also reasonable to expect
that different instruments of the same
type from the same manufacturer will
give similar results when measuring the
same samples. Ideally instruments of the
same type should give the same result,
irrespective of the manufacturer. In an
attempt to achieve this aim the CIE have
defined four standard optical geometries
and in general instruments of the same
optical geometry will give similar results.
Each of the geometries is denoted by
two terms separated by a backslash, for
example 0/45 and 45/0; the first number
refers to the illumination geometry and
the second the observation geometry.
The first two definitions are illustrated
in Figure 5. The sample is illuminated
with a collimated beam of light at either
0° or 45° to the surface normal, and the
light reflected into a narrow range of
angles centred on the observation angle
is collected. The observation angle can
be either 45° or 0° relative to the surface
normal. In principle, since the photons in
CIE 0/45 geometry
0o illumination
45
o
ob
se
rv
at
io
n
Figure 5 CIE optical geometries
CIE 0/T geometry
0o illumination
Diffuse
observation
Figure 6 CIE optical geometries
the light beams do not ‘know’ which way
they are travelling, both arrangements
should measure identical values for the
same sample.
The third and fourth CIE geometries
are illustrated in Figure 6. In the third
arrangement (0/T) the sample is illumin-
ated with a collimated beam of light
approximately normal to the surface and
all of the reflected light is collected,
irrespective of direction (diffuse observ-
ation). In the fourth optical geometry
(T/0), the sample is illuminated with light
of equal intensity from all directions
(diffuse illumination) and a narrow cone
of rays is collected centred on an angle
at, or near to, the normal to the sample
surface. In principle both these arrange-
ments give identical measurements for
the same sample.
Use of calibration
standards
The calibration procedure is extremely
important and should be carried out each
time the instrument is switched on and at
regular intervals in between. The stand-
ards used are normally a white tile,
whose reflectance properties have been
determined using a reference instru-
ment, and a black trap of some kind,
whose reflectance is usually taken to be
zero. These standards set the reflect-
ance scale of the instrument, and so
CIE 45/0 geometry
0o observation
45
o
illu
m
in
at
io
CIE T/0 geometry
0o observation
Diffuse
observation
affect any measurement taken after
calibration. It is therefore very important
to keep the calibration standards away
from dirt and dust or other contaminants.
The surface should not be touched or
wiped (unless absolutely necessary) as
any contact may alter the reflectance
properties of the surface.
Performance of colour
measuring instruments
Modern colour measurement instru-
ments are reliable and require little
maintenance. However, this does not
mean that checks on performance are
unnecessary. The properties of the optic-
al components will gradually change with
time, although the double-beam principle
combined with the calibration process
means that such changes are, to a
certain extent, automatically taken into
account. The following precautions
should be taken to ensure consistent
results:
• The instrument should be kept in a
clean, dry and dust free environment
• The instrument should be handled
with care; a drop or a bang may move
the optical components out of align-
ment
• It is important to allow time for an
instrument to reach room temperature
if it is moved from a cold room to a
warmer one; moisture can condense
from the warm air onto the exposed
faces of the cold optical components
and lead to spurious results
• The instrument should be occasion-
ally examined through the sample
port for the presence of dust, fluff or
other debris as contamination will
reduce the sensitivity of the device; in
some cases contamination can be
removed by gentle suction through a
small, soft rubber tube (great care is
necessary as the white coating in the
integrating sphere is extremely
fragile)
• A set of standard panels should be
measured regularly and the results
kept in a logbook; sets of special
standard ceramic tiles are available
that have been selected for stability
and to pick out errors in measurement
Summary
The use of colour measuring instruments
allows specification and communication
of colour in international standard terms:
CIE L*, a *, b *, C * and h °. Colour-differ-
ence values can also be determined
instrumentally, and if optimised colour-
difference equations are used, can out-
perform a single trained colourist.
However, the visual appreciation of
colour and colour difference is still a
subjective response, affected by many
factors. Care must be taken to include
measurement conditions in the interpre-
tation of colour measurement data. The
golden answer must always be that
which agrees with the majority of a group
of human observers. How this will be
achieved, whether through an optimised
colour-difference equation based on CIE
L*a *b * space, a new truly uniform colour
space, or colour appearance models, re-
mains to be seen. The CIE has estab-
lished technical committees in each of
these topics, but no firm conclusions are
likely to be reached before 2000.
Alison Gilchrist and Jim Nobbs are
members of the Colour Physics Re-
search Group, Department of Colour
Chemistry, University of Leeds.

Imagemaster wins Millennium Products status

In November the UK government trade
and industry secretary Peter Mandel-
son announced that ImageMaster, the
system that allows companies to
control and monitor colour without the
need for physical fabric submissions,
has been granted Millenium Products
status by the Design Council. The
system is a result of collaboration be-
tween Marks and Spencer, its key sup-
pliers, the University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology
(UMIST) and Datacolor International.
ImageMaster permits images of
real substrates to be shown in their
actual production colours on screen. It
allows alternative colourways to be
assessed on different substrates with
all the components, such as buttons
and zips. The system can predict the
appearance of a colour under any illu-
minant, ensuring that any problems in-
volving metamerism can be identified
and corrected at an early stage.
Andrew Summers, chief executive of ing together to develop and implement
the Design Council commented: ‘I am the measurement, control and
delighted that ImageMaster has been communication of colour through
announced as a Millennium Product and Colorite and ImageMaster in par-
is going to form part of our collection of ticular.’
the most innovative products and ser-
vices created in Britain for the new
millennium.
Datacolor also announced that work
is being undertaken with one of Marks
and Spencer’s major suppliers, Chris Sargeant, Marks & Spencer,
Stevensons. John demonstrating ImageMaster
Scotney, technical di-
rector at Stevensons
said: ‘We have long
recognised that the
best way to deliver
positive, practical re-
sults is to work in par-
tnership. Evidence of
this is the way that
Stevensons, Datacolor
and Marks and Spen-
cer are currently work-

JSDC VOLUME 115 JANUARY 1999 7