TOXICITY OF FOOD

• Some plant toxic: genetic.

• Some toxic compounds: introduced by man e.g., residues from pesticides, fertilizers &
growth-regulators.
• Poisons may be absorbed into crops e.g., nitrate, selenium & toxic metals.
• carcinogens: Dose-related & probably have a “no effect level”
• fed to animals: decreased growth due to
• a, partial, complete destruction or removal of nutrients.
• b, rendering of nutrients indigestible or unabsorbable, due to interaction of labile
components.
• c, appearance of harmful principles that may bring about anatomical & physiological
abnormalities.

HEAT TREATMENT
• Heating operation may bring about chemical changes esp. vitamins & amino acids
• e.g. lysine, glutamic acid & alanine with glucose at 100 °C in air: induced formation of
N-nitrosamines (potent carcinogens & mutagens )

NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS & CARBOHYDRATES.

• Maillard reaction.
• Decrease in nutritive value: unavailability of amino acids & destruction of other food
components e.g. ascorbic acid.
• Some browning reaction products are toxic
• Browned apricots fed to rats: decreased weight gain, feed efficiency, serum glucose &
urea
• increased water consumption , serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase & glutamic -
pyruvic transaminase activities,
• hypertrophy of the liver & kidney.
Premelanoidins:
• toxic to animals & microorganisms
• reducing sugars & free NH2 groups in proteins, their oxidation derivatives, & cyclic
compounds
• Most important derivatives formed: N-substituted 1-amino-1-deoxy-2-ketose.
• The resulting products include reductones, furfural
• “caramelization” catalysed under acidic / alkaline conditions caused:
• Slight liver hypertrophy & reduced N,
• caecum hypertrophy, decreased, reproduction, lactation, & pups per litter
• lower average weight at birth & weaning
Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
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• Fivefold increase in fetal resorptions.
• allergic reactions.
• Mortality from liver necrosis in rats fed overheated milk powder increased
• RNA + glucose: reduced rats growth rate & feed efficiency.
• Candida utilis cells (very rich in RNA) stored at 10 - 30 °C & high RH decreased
casein utilization, although supplemented with met.

FURFURALS
• Bread, coffee, processed fruits & fruit juice and certain alcoholic beverage.
• in foodstuffs: furfural (I) & 5-hydroxy methyl furfural (II).
• fed to rats produced liver cirrhosis.
• Furfural arguments the carcinogenic action of benzo(a)pyrene.
• reductones: Hyper excitability, elevation & head nodding, & whirling in mice.
OTHER PREMELANOIDINS
• Nonenzymatic browning reaction between amino acids & glyoxal (OHC-CHO)
• Pyrazines & imidazoles identified in ammoniated molasses & have toxic effects.
• Undergone heating , dimethylpyrazine (VIII) & trimethylpyrazine (IX)
LIPIDS
• Refining, bleaching, deodorization, hydrogenation, frying, baking & roasting.
• Occur during prolonged storage under unfavorable conditions.
• into volatile chain-scission & oxidation products, nonvolatile oxidized derivatives,
cyclic compounds & dimers & higher polymers.
• Frying fats consisted of oxidation products, glyceride hydrolysis products & polymers.
• Unsaturated materials more reactive & more likely to undergo oxidation &
polymerization
• Heme compounds: powerful prooxidants
• Natural antioxidants: tocopherols , phospholipids, ascorbic acid, flavonoids
• Highly unsaturated linseed oil: very susceptible to heat treatment.
• Animals grew poorly & died within the first 18 weeks of experiment.
• Not only groundnut & sesame but also coconut oils.
• Growth depression & enlarged livers contained an abnormally high fat level.
• Fats & oils during storage / heat treatments:
• a)auto-oxidation
• b)thermal oxidation
• c)thermal polymerization
• auto-oxidation: fat oxidation at <100°C.
Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
• Thermal oxidation: fat oxidation at about 200°C in air or with aeration.
• Thermal polymerization: fat oxidation 200 - 300°C, without O2
• Non Urea- Adduct-Forming Compounds:Fatty acid derivatives incapable of forming
complex with urea, due to their conversion into cyclic or branched polymers or
• oxidation & scission products containing < 7 carbon atoms.

NON UREA- ADDUCT-FORMING COMPOUNDS (NAF)

• fed to Weanling rats: died in 3 days.
• NAF from heated corn oil: has carcinogenic or cocarcinogenic effect.
• incidence of tumors induced by painting 20-methylcholanthrene & feeding heated
vegetables oils substantially increased 2-acetyl amino fluorine on rats skin.

Primary products & Secondary Degradation Products

• Destruction of essential dietary vitamins (A, E, B complex), essential fatty acids &
essential amino acids.
• Poor performance of animals fed autoxidized oil not remedied by supplementation
with appropriate amounts of the damaged nutrients
• Increased requirement for certain nutrients.
PRIMARY PRODUCTS
• Hydroperoxides > 465 mEq/kg oil.
• Rearrangement of the double bonds, & formation of new isomers.
• Exposure of fats to air: ophthalmia, digestive disturbances, reproductive failure,
anemia, leukopenia, dermatitis wt loss, increased liver wt & high death rate
(macroscopic effects).
• Autoxidizing fats may react with proteins & amino acids.
• Hydroperoxides: carcinogenic.
• Potentate or promote carcinogens.
• Microscopic effects: changes in endoplasmic reticulum & microbodies in liver cells.
Thermal Oxidation & Polymerization
• Fatty necrosis
• Calciferous lesions in the myocardium.
• Disturbance in the liver function, increased response of the central nervous system to
stimuli , increased spontaneous moving about of animals,
• alteration in kidney function, increased capillary permeability, changes in motor &
secretory functions of the intestinal tract, microscopic changes in the thyroid gland and
• deposits in the kidneys.
• Rats fed with thermally oxidized oil oils had liver hypertrophy.
• : proliferated smooth endoplasmic reticulum & induced certain microsomal enzymes
Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
• : hepatomegaly- a decrease in the number of red blood cells & in their hemoglobin
content.

TERATOGEN
# Bahan kimia yg. menjejas tumbesaran sel somatik embryo dgn mencacatkan sistem
organ. Selalu nya individu itu shj. yg. terjejas , oleh itu kebanyakan
mengganggu fungsi plasenta. eg. kurang vitamin ,penyakit virus yg. ringan (rubella ,
german measles )semasa mengandung pd. tempoh hamil yg. kritikal.
• Selalunya individu itu shj. yg. cacat, tidak menjadi baka turun temurun
• boleh mencacatkan embryo pd. tahap yg. tidak mengakibatkan ketoksikan serius bagi
ibu atau mengganggu fungsi plasenta. sprti kurang vitamin, penyakit virus yg. ringan
(rubella) semasa tempoh hamil yg. kritikal.

MUTAGEN
• Bahan -bahan yg. menjadikan perubahan kekal pd. sel-sel pembiakan (gamete , sel
germ) mengakibatkan pengumpulan gene - gene tidak normal sebagai baka turun -
temurun pd. sebilangan penduduk.

KARSINOGEN
• * Bahan - bahan yg. boleh menyebabkan mutasi pd sel - sel somatik, mengakibatkan
pembiakkan sel-sel tidak terkawal pd. seseorang individu (barah)
• Utk. menapis bahan - bahan mutagen dan karsinogen pd. alam sekitar boleh gunakan
ujian mutasi Salmonella (Ames test ) atau gunakan E. Coli,
• Bac. subtilis , Neurospora , Saccharomyces , DNA.
BAHAN-BAHAN KARSINOGEN DLM. MAKANAN.
• Myristicin dlm. buah pala, Parsley & lobak merah -> Hallucinogen.
• Carotatoxin / Felcaravol dlm. lobak merah ->Neurotoksik.
• (Cili api): Barah hati pd. tikus yg. makan 10% cili dlm. makanan lebih tinggi.

PENENTANG VITAMIN
• 1) Anti thiamin
• a) fenol tumbuh-tumbuhan
• b) Thiaminase - pd. makanan laut spt. ikan kaloi (carp)
• c)pd. Fern ( pokok paku Pteridium aquilinum )
• 2 ) linatine-> (hydrolysis ) 1 amino-D-proline->ikat pyridoxal fosfat kompleks
hydrazone yg. stabil. pd. flax & linseed (anti pyridoxin)
• 3) Anti - vit. B12 ---> dlm. kacang soya mentah.
• 4) lipoxygenase ->Anti - vit. A + carotene
• 5) tocopherol oxidase pd. kacang soya dan kacang merah mentah ->Anti vit. E
Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
• 6) Anti vit. K :- Dikumerol , menghindar vit. K dari menghasilkan thrombin dlm. hati.
• 7) Kutu tepung :- genus Tribolium mengkumuhkan beberapa ortho-terganti p-
benzoquinon yg. bertindak dgn. mudah mengurangkan lysine dan thiamin yg. tersedia.
• avidin: dlm putih telor mentah mengikat 4 biotin
• ovaflavoprotein: ikat riboflavin, terurai dalam usus

Dosage
Lethal Dose: LD50:- Dose required to kill 50 % of the animals fed with the substance.
No effect dose
acceptable daily intake: No effect dose x 100. Expressed as mg/kg/day

Miscellaneous Food Components

Extreme temp:roasting & toasting
Preserved & flavored by smoking
Most prevalent cmpd: benzo[a]pyrene(x) - potent carcinogen.
In smoked foods may exceed 50 ppm
The soot & skin of coffee beans roasted by direct contact with the combustion gases

BAHAN-BAHAN KARSINOGEN DLM. MAKANAN.

• Myristicin dlm. buah pala, Parsley & lobak merah -> Hallucinogen.
• Carotatoxin dlm. lobak merah ->Neurotoksik.
• (Cili api): Barah hati pd. tikus yg. makan 10% cili dlm. makanan lebih tinggi.

ALKALOID
• 1.Bahan organik yg. mengandungi N. base dari pohon-pohon dan mempunyai kesan
physiology.
• Phytotoxin :- toxin dari pohon sama spt. toxin bacteria dlm. struktur t/bls. physiology
dan sebagai antigen.
• 2. Abrin (Abrus Precurtor), Curcin (Jatropha Curcas), Ricin (Rianus Comunis - pokok
jarak - castor bean) Robin (Robinia pseudoacacia), modeccin Ademia digitata)-
• 3.Biji jarak jika dikunyah --> pening kepala, kekejangan otot-otot, ceret- beret,
‘sawan’ dan kematian : kidney tidak berfungsi (uremia) --> 2-4 biji.
• 4.8 biji boleh mati.Oleh krn. kulit bijinya keras ketoksikan hanya berlaku jika
dikunyah.
• 5.Pressor amines :- pisang, nanas, keju, arak dan coklat yg. mengandungi
• amine yg. menambahkan tekanan darah.
• 6.HEPATOTOXIC alkaloid yg. boleh menyebabkan barah hati yg. merbahaya dlm.
binatang-binatang kajian.
• asid amino ganjil/pelek

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
neuro & osteo Lathyrism: spastic paralysis toxic amino acid.
I a,g, diamino butyric acid (DABA): osteo lathyrism, Lathyrus sativas or odoratus
(fodder) bean
II b cyano alanine (BCNA): (16 Vicia spp.) - pyridoxal antagonist, inhibit liver cys
thionase & enzymes with pyridoxal
III b n-methyl amino alanine: neuro lathyrism, resembles Glutamic acid -(Cycads)
dementia, Parkinson disease
IV β-oxalylamino-L-alanine (BOAA) or g diamino propionate (DAP): 24 Lathyrus
spp.; 13 Crotalaria; 17 Acacia & Panax ginseng. Neuro toxic, pass blood brain barrier,
interfere with acidic a.a. uptake --> NH3 toxicity (increase ammonia in the brain), Glu
analogue on CNS receptors excitatory, produces acidosis, occur only with vit C
deficiency.
Lathyrus dhall closely resembles red gram, if eaten as staple food I.e >100g a day ->
irreversible crippled paralysis - exagerated knee jerk, later toe jerk when knee is hit.
Only males and very young or old women gets it. Ini. Walk w 1 stick, then 2 sticks,
and then crawl. Lathyrus, resistant to drought, 28% protein, and has edible tasty
leaves and beans.
Boiling removes toxin (90-95%), but taste is reduced, nutrient loss, & desirable
glutinous nature necessary for making chapatis are lost. Grows along with other crops
(wheat). Dry Leaves edible
Red lentils Veno occlusion disease- perut boncit- veins in liver occluded- amino ac.
Pyrolizidine alkaloids - pains in joints- drink bush tea) Jamaica & West Indies.

ALKALI TREATMENT used functionally to:

a) dissolve proteins e.g. for extraction, concentrates & isolates
b) produce proteins with special properties, e.g. foaming, emulsifying, stabilizing
c) destroy aflatoxins, other toxins
d) Prepare protein fibers & TVP.
e) to chemically peel fruits

EFFECT OF ALKALI & HEAT

lysinoalanine, lanthionine, ornithinoalanine formed.
Lysinoalanine: Increased nephrocalcinosis in females; diarrhea, pancreatic
hyperplasia, hair loss.
Free state or protein bound: Nephrotoxic to rats; nephrocytomegalia,
nephrokaryomegalia & nephrocalcinosis, excreted in faces & urine
Increased nuclear size & DNA content.
Arginine degraded to ornithine, react with dehydroalanine (DHA) to form
ornithinoalanine
DHA also react with cys (lanthionine) or ser.
Alkaline medium induces deesterification of pectin, release of methanol, pectin-rich
plant materials are limed before fermentation, manufacture of citrus peel juice or apple
cider.

BLEACHING

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 Oxidizing agents: e.g. NH4 persulfate, K bromate, some peroxides, and chlorine
dioxide, SO2 for sterilization.
Nitrogen trichloride NCl3 (Agene) + Met => toxic Met sulfoximine => nervous
disorder (barking, running fits & later convulsive fits) in dogs.
Fat free chlorinated wheat flour & their lipids reduced rats growth rate & increased
liver size.
H2O2: a preservative, bleaching agent & bread improver, detoxifies glucosinolates in
rapeseed.
Other met oxidative, met sulfoxide & met sulfone: utilised like met.
Met sulfone cannot substitute met, is toxic, depressed food intake.
Met supplementation did not restore normal growth.

CARCINOGENIC RISK
Half of substances tested at their maximum tolerated dose (MTD -customary
regulation) induced cancer.
Hence proposed acceptable daily level of exposure to a substance that does not induce
cancer
Risk assesment: strength of the data + assumptions used => educated guesswork.

High Dose Rodent Feeding Studies.

chronic rodent-feeding studies: test material at MTD for 2 years => induced neoplasia.
Predicted: minimal observable toxicity in the animals.
high dose exposure: Elevated cell proliferation
Biochemical/cellular end points, induced mitogenesis => effect as indirect mutagen.
Xenobiotic at MTD: => cell proliferation => accumulation of mutations, => finally
expression of malignancy.
Carcinogenesis: multistage process => pathogenesis of cancer: - sequential steps: from
normal cells => premalignant foci => localized tumors => invasive tumors =>
metastatic lesions.
Cell proliferation necessary but not sufficient to induce cancer
Mitogenesis: central process of carcinogenesis

A PROPOSAL FOR REVISING THE MTD

Chemically induced mitogenesis considered toxic manifestation: to be avoided unless
for sound scientific / public safety reasons
Immunostaining for proliferating-cell.
In practice the doubling of the PCNA index in a given tissue, whether continuous or
transient, could be taken as positive evidence of mitogenesis.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Depend on amount of toxin :
a) acute & clinically obvious disease
b) chronic, less clinically apparent, impairment of health & productivity; Reduced
growth rate, feed efficiency & carcass quality
c) impairment of resistance & immune responsiveness

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
ADDITIVES
Polyphosphate additives, including hexametaphosphate and tripolyphosphate, can form
complexes with certain minerals, thereby limiting the availability of those minerals.

Certain substances in foods decrease nutrient utilization in vivo by inhibiting digestive

processes or by acting as structural or functional analogs of the nutrients. Again, the toxic
effects exerted by the utilization of nutrients would include enzyme inhibitors, certain
vitamin antagonists, goitrogens, certain phenolics, saponins, heavy metals, canavanine
and nitrite.

Regulatory Aspects of Food Additives

SWEETENERS
1) Polyol Sweeteners
2) Cyclamate- carcinogenic
3) Saccharin
Antioxidants BHA, BHT
EXTRACTION SOLVENTS
SULFITING AGENTS
COLORS
FLAVORINGS

Cyclamate
sulfamate ester => hydrolysis => cyclohexylamine (carcinogen)
not by monogastric digestive system but by intestinal microbe
carcinogen found in urine => caused bladder cancer

MUKOTOKSIN
Di keluarkan oleh kulat
Ada pd. makanan walaupun slps. kulat mati. Kebanyakkannya masih toksik stlh.
makanan dimasak atau diproses & terdapat dalam susu, telur &daging binatang yang
memakan makananberkulat.
Mukotoksin lain:-okluratoksin, patulin, zearalenon, penisilik asid & trikotheken.
Trikotheken dari kulapok Fusarium > kerosakkan gastrointestin & penyakit-penyakit
hemorrhage.
Trikotheken [mthl. T-2 toksin, vomitoksin (deoksynivalenol), nivalenol
diasetoksyscirpenol & fusarenon X
Memakan trikotheken > Kehakisan selaput lendir & gastroenteritis yg. berdarah
t’utama pd. lapisan epithelia perut & usus-usus kecil....>Ulser, muntah-muntah, ceret
beret. Kerosakkan juga b’laku pd. tissu badan lain, t’utama yg. cepat membiak spt.
thymus,testes, ovaries, bone marrow, lymph nodes & spleen,
Patulin :- antibiotik kuat - dari 9 jenis penisillia. Berat molekul rendah mengandungi
lakton tidak tepu. Ketoksinannya agak kuat =>sawan & gumpal edema=>Karsinogen.
Mukotoksin lain:-okluratoksin, patulin, zearalenon, penisilik asid dan trikotheken.
Trikotheken dari kulapok Fusarium > kerosakkan gastrointestin dan penyakit-penyakit
hemorrhage.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 Trikotheken [mthl. T-2 toksin, vomitoksin (deoksynivalenol), nivalenol
diasetoksyscirpenol & fusarenon X
Memakan trikotheken > Kehakisan selaput lendir dan gastroenterritis yg. berdarah
t’utama pd. lapisan epithelia perut dan usus-usus kecil....>Ulser, muntah-muntah, ceret
beret.Kerosakkan juga b’laku pd. tissu badan lain, t’utama yg. cepat membiak spt.
thymus,testes, ovaries, bone marrow, lymph nodes & spleen,
Patulin :- antibiotik kuat - dari 9 jenis penisillia. Berat molekul rendah mengandungi
lakton tidak tepu. Ketoksinannya agak kuat ....>sawan dan gunpal ederma....>Karsinogen.

ALGAE
Shellfish poisoning, caused hundreds of cases of severe toxication & death, due to the
presence of specific toxic algal substances in healthy shellfish, mussels, clams,
scallops + crab.
Toxins of Dinoflagellates :- tetroclotoxin, complex nitrogenous compounds cooking
eliminates 1/3 of the toxicity
(normally in reddish water or at bloom level not visible to the naked eye) Leaching
with water may reduce toxicity.
Paralytic shellfish poison - PSP- LD50 = 8mg/kg - neorotoxin - red bloom (shellfish
eating m.o) - saxitoxin - complex alkaloid in uncommon guanidin moiety.

GLUCOSINOLLATE: -NITRILES

R-C-S-GLUCOSE R-C-SH + GLU.

NOSO3 NOSO3
Most toxic glucosinolate breakdown products
LD50 - acute toxicity):
1-cyano-2- hydroxy-3-butene: 170mg/kg
1- cyano-2- hydroxy-3,4-epithiobutane: 178mg
decrease body weight, lesions in liver, pancrease & kidneys
poor performance of animals fed Brassica oilseed meals and forages
acute renal failure: degeneration & necrosis of proximal tubular cells , preferential
involvement of pars recta
1-cyano-3,4-epithiobutane caused decreased foetal weight & embryonic death in rats
1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane : weak mutagen

Toxic fatty acids

Erucic acids in rapeseed: heart lesions
cyclopropane fatty acids in Malvales (e.g. durian) esp the germ: malvalic acid and
sterculic acid: cancer in rainbow trouts, aortic atherosclerosis - lipid deposits

BAKTERIAL TOKSIN
Staphylococcus aureus - anteroktoksin -tahan panas. Berat molekul rendah (protein)
terdapat pd. makanan-makanan yg. tidak disejukkan (makanan berkuah)

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 Sakit perut yg. amat dlm. 1-6 jam. (Hilang sils. 8 jam. Jarang sekali mati atau
pengsan, tetapi memerlukan byk. air bg. kanak-kanak & org. lemah.
CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM.
Protein berat molekul tinggi dijadikan aktif oleh enzim-enzim proteilytik ->
menghasilkan pecahan-pecahan toksik yg. diserap kedalam saluran darah, dimana
mereka mengganggu sist. saraf. Merendahkan atau menghalang pengeluaran
asetykolin & menghentikan transmissi pd. simpang,pd. synopsis & oleh koline
pd. simpang saraf otot - lebih awal dikesan simpton lebih kuat keracunan.
TANDA-TANDA -
lemah, pening kepala, sembelit, penglihatan berganda,susah utk. menelan, bercakap &
Paralysis. Kadang - kadang muntah & ceret-beret. Kematian disebabkan jantung &
sist. pernafasan berhenti 2/3 hari slps. tanda-tanda.

GLYKOSIDE
Glykosid ->(hidrolisis)-->1 atau lebih gula (glykon) & sebatian lain (aglykon---->
sebatian toksik atau mempunyai kegiatan Fysiology Aktif )
Glykosid cyanogen :- mengeluarkan asid hydrocyanin (HCN) stlh. hydrolysis. Mthl
Amygdalin (keluarga Rosaceae) dlm. biji epal , pear , aprikot , badam , ceri , peach &
plum.
Dlm. badan ----> enzym emulsin mengandungi glukosidas. Dlm. siput ----> enzym
mandelonitril & gentiobios. HCN menghalang t/bls. enzym cytokrom oksidas , enzym
t’akhir dlm. pernafasan yg mengikat O udara dgn. pernafasan ungkaibina ( sel lemas
) 60-200 mg cukup utk. mengakibatkan kematian ( 1ppm 1 berat badan )
Pokok-pokok mengandungi glykosid synogen -- > ubi kayu ( manihot ) sorghum, zea,
eukalyptus, cassia ( senna )
Ubi kayu :- Daun & akar mentah - mengandungi HCN cukup utk. membunuh. Akar
dikupas kulit & direndam & buang air masakan.

GLYKOSIDE ANTICACING
Koumarin , (Artemisia - wormwood racun ,
sweetclovers - antispasmodik )

GLYKOSIDE ANTITHYROID
Kale , kabis , brokoli , brussel sprouts , glykosid pati minyak pedih ---> biji sawi.

GLYKOSIDE TRITERPENOID
cucurbitacins. Struktur bergelang spt. lanosterol dan cabang pd. C17

SAPONINS
1. Glykosid steroid + triterpenoid boleh menjadi kompleks dgn. kolesterol dlm. usus-
usus -> mengurangkan kolesterol pd. plasma.
2. Berbentuk serakan kloroid dlm. air --> menjadi buih bila digoncang,
selalunya pahit & pedas (tajam)
--> menyakiti selaput bendalir, memusnahkan darah merah secara hemolysis toksik
terutama pd. binatang berdarah sejuk.
3.Bahan-bahan steroid saponin sesuai sebagai kortison atau prekursor hormon.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 4.Digunakan utk. melawan arthritis, utk. perancangan keluarga (keladi,tongkat Ali &
ginseng )
5.Keladi ->basuh dan rebus dgn. betul dpt. mengelakkan keracunan yg. membawa
maut-buang saponin.
6.Keladi ->sumber diosgenin - prekursor steroid itk. pil perancang keluarga.

GALIAN BERAT Film F308

1. Menjejas penggunaan pemakanan. Fe dan Cation lain
boleh memangkinkan pengoksidaan asid lemak tidak tepu (ALTT)& mengurangkan
ALTT, vit. A & E yg. tersedia ada.
2. Menjadi kompleks dgn. berbagai ligand
3. Membina kompleks yg. stabil dgn. S, N, Hg. + Ag. mengenakan penjejasan melalui
kumpulan-kumpulan amino, imidazole (P), Karboxylate + Sulfhydryl.
4. Pertingkatan pengambilan protein boleh mengurangkan ketoksikan Cadmium. Putih
telur lebih berkesan drpd. kacang soy, gelatin atau casein (dlm. puyuh).

KERACUNAN CD.
1.testicular nekrosis.
2.pemusnahan uri (placenta)
3.keguguran, kecacatan teratogen
4.tumbuhan pd. testis (tumor)
5.kerosakan pd. tiub renal + proteinuria + glucosuria.
6.kemusnahan struktur + fungsi bagi hati Cd terkumpul disitu
7.pertukaran pd. bhg. gigi
8.kekurangan Ca2+,Fe2+,Fe3+,Cu2+ & Zn2+. Cd menghalang penyerapan galian.
9. penyah kalsium pd. tulang
10. anemia
11. haemorhagic lesion pd. sensory ganglia
12. hyper tension (darah tinggi) krn. tidak seimbang Cd: Zn dlm. hati.
13. oedema paru-paru dan emphysema
14. osteomalacia syndrom.

RAKSA (MERCURY )
Bentuk yg. paling toksik - raksa methyl - berkumpul dlm. ikan.
- Had paling tinggi yg. dibenarkan dlm. udara berindustri :0.5 mg.Ng.m3 udara
bersamaan dgn. 35 ug/ml kandungan dlm. darah,150 ug/l kandungan dlm. air
kencing.Lebih dr. ini akan menyebabkan seseorg. tidak boleh tidur ,pemalu, pening
kepala & nervous (gugup).
Lebih tinggi :menggeletar,keluar air liur, gingintis proteinuria, syndrom nefrotik atau
penyakit merah jambu.
- HgCl > had yg. boleh membunuh - 0.1 hingga 1.0 g.Berkumpul dlm. buah pinggang
dan menyebabkan kerosakkannya.
- Demam > meruam berwarna merah muda.Spleen dan glanda-glanda bengkak
,hyperkerotis oedema pd. jari.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
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 - Methyl mercury :- ‘biological half life’ yg. panjang krn. lambat dipecahkan kpd.
mercury bukan organik.Methyl mercury boleh menembusi uri dan dikeluarkan di dlm.
susu.
- Kandungan mercury selalunya ditentukan dr. sel darah merah, darah putih atau
rambut. Methyl mercury boleh melalui rintangan antara darah dan otak - menyebabkan
kemabukan -
- menggeletar, ataxia, dysarthria & kaw. penglihatan menjadi kecil. Sist. saraf rosak
dan tidak boleh dibaiki. Penghapusan mercury dari darah boleh dipercepatkan
menggunakan D-penisillamin.

PLUMBUM
1. Had paling tinggi dibenarkan dlm. makanan adalah 2.0 ppm 2mglg
2. Kerosakkan mental boleh terjadi jika kandungan plumbum tinggi dalam kanak-
kanak.
3. Penggugur -bg. ibu mangandung Kadar keguguran tinggi.
teratogen.

ENZYME INHIBITORS
decrease nutrient utilization in vivo by inhibiting digestive processes
Or by acting as structural or functional analogs of the nutrients.
Toxic effects dependent upon the level present in food, the level of the affected
nutrient in the diet, & the nutritional status of the consumer.
Reduced nutrients: caused by enzyme inhibitors, certain vitamin antagonists,
goitrogens, certain phenolics, saponins, heavy metals, canavanine & nitrite.
The protease inhibitors have the greatest nutritional significance of any of the enzyme
inhibitors found in the foods.(Liener & Kakade, 1980: Rackis, 1981: Whitaker, 1981)
Unheated soybeans & some other foods, particularly other legumes, would not support
the growth of rats because of the poor utilization of protein.
Soybeans contain at least two distinct trypsin inhibitors, the Kunitz inhibitor & the
Bowmen - Birk inhibitor. These inhibitors block the action of trypsin on protein,
Egg whites protease inhibitors: ovomucoid & ovoinhibitor.
ovomucoid & ovoinhibitor do not have any effect on protein utilization in humans
(Scudamure et. al., 1949 ).
Ovocumoid has been shown to inhibit bovine trypsin but not human trypsin ( Feeny et
al., 1969 )

Amylase inhibitors detected in several foods (Power & Whitaker, 1977 ) However, no
effect of growth rate in rats,

The trypsin inhibitor has little effect for human.

Only about 40 % of the growth depression & pancreatic enlargement effect caused by
the ingestion of raw soybean protein are due to trypsin inhibitors.
Bovine or Porcine trypsin under test may react differently to other species.
Human trypsin exists in anionic & cationic forms, the minority anionic form, is
inhibited in the stoichiometic manner

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 The cationic form (over two thirds of the total human pancreas trypsin activity) is only
very weakly inhibited.
Only animals whose pancreas weight exceeds 0.3 % of their body weight becomes
hypertropic to trypsin inhibitors.
Trypsin inhibitors can be eliminated by heat treatment

Mechanism for trypsin inhibitor (TI) toxicity

Trypsinogen (pancrease) CCK(mucosa)

Dietary protein TI
trypsin (intestine)

proteolysis trypsin-TI
CCK=cholecystokinin

UNUSUAL AMINO ACIDS

Canavine is a structural analog of arginine (Bell 1973). This unusual amino acid is
found in many species of Papilionoidae, including Canavalia ensiformis. These plants
are used in the diet in some of
the native areas in which they are found. Canavinine acts as an antimetabolite of
arginine & interferes with arginine metabolism & utilization.
Phytotoxins :- molecule yg. amat toxic - sama spt. toxin bacteria dlm. struktur t/bls.
physiology dan sebagai antigen :-
• abrin (Abrus precator ); Curcin (Jatropha curcas); ricin (Ricinis communist ); robin
(robinia pseudoacacia); modeccin (Ademia digitata)
Castor bean seeds hard seed coat, toxic only when chewed: cause nausea, muscle
spasms, purgation, convulsions & death; kidney dysfunction, (anemia); 2 - 4 seeds
seriously poison man; 8 - fatal.
Jack bean contains concanavaline A -> mitogen + lectin.
Leucaena leucocephala - (petai belalang type) mimosine in seeds & young leaves.
Loss of hair on animal and antithyroid.
Djenkolic acid in petai & jering- sparingly soluble & may block the urether, invisible
to X ray, cause haematuria, pain during urination, difficulty in urinating, death

GOITROGENS
The goitrogens interfere with iodine utilization by the thyroid.
Most goitrogens are glucosinolates.
glucosinolates common sources: plants of the Cruciferae family, including cabbage,
mustard, horseradish & radish.
glucosinolates hydrolyse under a variety of conditions most typically initiated by the
enzyme, thioglucosidase

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 The hydrolysis products are dependent upon the structure of the particular
glucosinolate but include oxazolidonethiones, thiocyanates, isothiocyanates, nitriles &
epithionitriles. The interact glucosinolates & certain of the hydrolysis products inhibit
the uptake of iodine by the thyroid.
Oxazolidonethiones inhibit the incorporation of iodine into thyroxin & interfering with
the secretion of thyroxin.
The methyl, n - propyl & allyl disulfides at Allium species (onion) are also known to
inhibit iodine uptake by the thyroid.
Seeds, leaves & roots contain glucosinolate (thio glycoside), goitrogenic thiocyanates,
isothiocyanate & oxazolidone - thiones produces specific effects of goiter + inhibit the
biological utilization of protein.
Detoxification :- destroying myrosinase-> heating at 100oC, seed ground + intact
glucosinolates leached out to water
At pH 6 + 25 °C lysine in protein unchanged.
3 types of products
1. volatile isothyiocyanates e.g. allyl isothiocyanate (sinigrin -> mustard)
2.Non volatile, but relatively polar, oxazolidine thiones from spontaneous cyclisation
of hydroxyallyl isothiocyanates, as in rapeseed, which yields goitrin (R) & (S) - 5
vinyl oxazolidine - 2 - thiones inhibit the organic binding of iodine in thyroid .
Goitrogenic effect not prevented by addition of iodine to the diet.
3. Water soluble thiocyanates arising from the base catalysed hydrolysis of aromatic
isothiocyanates lowers iodine in thyroid.
Effect overcomed by increasing iodine in the diet
Removal of :- Full fat ground meal moistened to a water content of
15% & cooked for 45 minutes at 55°C -> than raised to 100 °C -> by steam injection
Goitrin :- seperated after autolysis by solvent extractors - extracted to water at 25 - 27
°C for 3 hours.
Goitrin seperated extracted with aceton.
Antithyroid compounds may be detected by a radioactive iodine test. Stanley +
Astwood (1947). Feed radioactive iodine to healthy humans & then test material.

CYANOGEN
Pohon-pohon lain yg. mengandungi glycoside cyanogen :- manihot (ubi kayu)
sorghum, zea, eucalyptus, cassia.
Manihot esculenta :- (cassava, maniac, tapioca). Daun dan akar mentah mengandungi
high concentrations of hydrocyanic & sufficient to cause death from cyanide poisoning
poisoning can be avoided if the roots are peeled & several changes of cooking water
are employed during preparation.

LEKTIN
*. Ialah protein yang menjadi titi antara sel a/b tersentuh dangan glykoprotein pd. selaput
sel yg. bercabang polysakarida.....menyebabkan kelekatan.
1. membunuh sel-sel tumor terpilih dan menjadi mitogen.
2.tingkatkan pembahagian dan pematangan sel-sel lymphoid B dan T.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 ..Aktiviti boleh dibalikkan dgn,. menggunakan penghalang sakarida t’tentu pd. waktu
kritikal sbim. mitogenesis b’laku.
3.Mengahalang tumbesaran tikus
4. kerosakkan patohlogi _sel epithelia musnah imflamasi (bengkak) Edema, hyperemia
& homorrhage pd. tissu lymph.. Kerosakkan lemak pd. hati & nekrosis & semua organ
menjadi besar dan terisi dgn. bekuan darah.
...cara mengesan :- boleh melekatkan sel-sel merah
...kesan toksik : - melekat pd. tapak-tapak penerima khas pd.
permukaan sel-sel epithelia usus-usus.
5. Mengganggu penyerapan makanan
6. Mengganggu mekanisme pertahanan yg. normal pd. sel-sel ini utk. menentang
bakteria.
Tindakkan mengaglutinat boleh dihalang menggunakan gula-gula t’tentu.

NITRAT & NITRIT

Nitrit - kurangkan kegunaan Fe dlm. daging. Nitrit bertindak dgn. asid amino dan
protein t’utama lysin dan systein.
Alkylnitrosamide mungkin menyebabkan
2. Ada kaitan dgn. pembinaan nitrosamine (carcinogen) dan methaemoglobinemia pd.
Bayi.
Methaemoglobinemia boleh memenyah toksik cyanide yg. t’bebas dr. glycoside
cyanogen.
Nitrates....> jika t’lalu byk. guna baja.
Kimia.....>T’dpt. kandungannya tinggi dlm. bijirin.
Nitrate. ----> Nitrite
Nitrite & Amine kedua ---> nitrosa

PELAWAS
Mengurangkan pemakanan yg. t’sedia t’utama Zn.
Selulos & hemiselulos menghalang penghazaman protein & serapan pemakanan potein,
vitamin CHO & galian
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Pose digestibility problems in food because humans lack the Alfa galactosidase & beta -
D fructosidases capable of hydrolysing them to readily absorbed monosaccharides. In the
absence of
andogenous & galactosidases ( 55 oC - pH 5.2 )

ASID FYTIK
T’dpt. dlm. kekacang dan bijirin menghalang penyerapan logam-logam dwivalent spt.
Zn. , Ca. , Fe. , Cu. dsbnya.
1. Mengganggu penyerapan galian-galian Surih dgn. mengikat diri kpd. kation 2 valensi
atau 3 valensi.
*Yg. paling terjejas ialah Zn.W/pun Mg., Ca.,Fe.dan P.juga t’jejas.
*60-80 % fosforus dlm. btk. fytate dan tidak boleh diserap oleh binatang-binatang
monogastrik.
Manusia makan P b’lebihan --->tidak bahaya
Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 Bayi--> bahaya (makanannya b’asaskan kacang soya )
Fn Fytat dlm. tumb.:- menyimpan (P) simpan tenaga dan mulakan kedormanan.
Hasil t’akhir dlm. metabolisme (P) semasa keranuman.

TANNIN
# Kemerosotan tumbesaran - krn. b’tindak dgn. pemakanan (mthl. @ protein -
membuatnya tidak boleh dihazam. Vit.B12 kpd. galian ---->anemia.
# Asid Tannik menghadkan penyerapan glukos dan Met. dlm. usus tikus dgn.
mengikatkan diri kpd. p’mukaan epithelia dan musnahkan kebolehan menyerap.
c) Barah tekak --> org. yg.kerap makan makanan yg. kaya dgn. tannin.
d) Mendapat Fibrosarcoma ---> pd. tempat suntikan estrak-estrak daun kesum.
#Tannin menjadi tidak larut - oleh susu (b’tindak dgn. casein ) --> menghalangnya
merosakkan selaput lendir dlm. mulut.
#Asid gallik lebih toksik drp. asid tannik agen lypotropy yg. kuat.
Ketoksikkannya b’gantung kpd:
1. jenis tannin
2. janka masa ia di makan ,umur binatang.
3.lebih muda,lebih bahaya.
Tahap selamat ---> 560 mg / hari
16#Ketoksikan terhad krn tidak mudah diserap dan senang dipenyahtoksikkan jika
diserap. (pd. manusia)
Keracunan --> indigestion. Kekurangan berat badan dlm. binatang ternakan -->dan
akhirnya mati.
FAVISM
1. Biji Vicia faba (kacang lebar) boleh menyebabkan hemolytik anemia (babarapa hari
stlh. disuntik atu tersedut debunganya)
# Tanda - tanda :- lemah , lesu , pucat , kuning - jaundis hemoglobinnuria.
G6PD = glukos 6 PO4 dehydrogenase
GSH = glutathion terturun
GS - SG = glutathion
# 2/3 dari favism :- disebabkan kacang lebar yg. mentah atau kering
# 1/3 dari favism :- disebabkan kacang yg. masak

PENYAHTOKSIK
Visin / konvisin ditukarkan kpd. divisin & isouramin menggunakan ‘beta’
glikosidase atau asid.
Divisin & isouramin tidak stabil & dgn. cepat boleh dimusnahkan menggunakan haba.
Visine / konvisin amat stabil , tidak boleh diestrak atau dihapuskan menggunakan haba.
Mereka menjadi kompleks dgn. protein dan senang dikesan.
Tepung kacang lebar ini boleh dipenyahtoksikan sedikit dgn. merendamnya dlm. air pH
6

FENOL
1) Gossypol - pigmen fenol , mengurangkan penyerapan protein dan galian (menjadikan
mereka tidak larut ) terdapat pd. biji kotton.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
 2) Asid Sinnamik dan terbitannya atau asid benzok dan terbitannya - dioksidakan kpd.
oquinon oleh Fenol Oksidas.
Methylen Oquinon - menyerang NH2 , S-S dan kumpulan , menyebabkan lysin &
mehtionin tidak dapat digunakan dan thiamin kekurangan.
3) Florizin :- dihydrokolkan terdapat pd. kulit dan biij epal - menghalang pengangkutan
glukos dlm. usus dan buah pinggang dgn. mengikatkan diri kpd. tapak-tapak penerima
utk. glukos.
Florizin hydrolysis floretin - menghalang ATPase mitokondria --> menjejaskan segala
proses pengangkutanyg. bergantung kpd. tenaga.

RACUN PEROSAK
Mempunyai interaksi buruk atau memelihara.
1. DDT & racun serangga organoklorin meningkat pengeluaran enzim dlm. badan yg.
menyahtoksikan bahan kimia lain
3. Gossypol pd. biji kapas (cottonseed) meningkatkan penyahtoksikan separuh racun
serangga karbamat.
4. Lindan telah dilaporkan melawan-kesan plumbum

PESTICIDES
May have antagonistic or protection interaction
1) DDT and most the organochlorine insecticides promote the production of enzyme in
the body that detoxify many other chemicals, including some of the organophosphate
insecticides.
2)Pesticides pyrethium & piperonyl butoxide have similar enzyme inducing properties
3) Gossypol in cotton seed has recently been found to promote the detoxipication of
some carbamate insecticides.
4) Lindame has been reported to antagonize the depressent effect of lead on
hemoglobin levels in nice.

OXALATES
- Oxalates occur in a number of plants, including spinach, rhubarb, tea and cocoa
(Fassett, 1973);spinach may contain as much as 1% oxalates.They can theoretically
interfere with calcium status by
occurs to perturb calcium availability.Soluble oxalates may result in colic, depresson,
coma & even death if enough is consumed to reach toxic level-polygonun (kesum) -
contains high Ca

DIETERY FIBER
Lessens the availcibility of nutrient. Nutrient interaction = nutrient + source + type of
fibre. Normally levels of fibre in diet not enough to affect the nutrmency status of a well
nourished consumer . Avaibality of Zn affected. Cellulose + hemicellulose inhibit protein
digestion + absorpton from diets containing maginal quantities of protein. Vitamin +
carbohydrate avaibality may climinish.

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my
OILS, FLAVOURS AND SPECIES
Safole (p- allylyne ethylene diozybene) is a component of many essential oils melinding
stan oil (pumpinells anism) comphor oil (Cinnamorrum camphora), more and nutmueg
(Myristica fragrance,
used as a flavouring agent in rootbeer. At concertrations of 0.5 and 1 % of the diet,
safrole induces hepetomas in rats; cassein supplements aggravate the saffrole indicced
aclenomatoxis and
incidence than in the control group.
Myristicni - ( Nutmeg Pansley Canols )- Hallucinogens
fal - canols - Neutrotoxity

Suhaila Mohamed (PhD), Professor in Food Science, Department of Food Service Management
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, 43400 Universiti Putra Malaysia
603-89468391; 017-3872878, Fax: 603-89423552, Email: suhaila@food.upm.edu.my