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8.2. Give the examples of display of reactivity on different levels of live objects organization.
On the molecular lever – the movement of the line of dissociation of oxyhemoglobin to the right in conditions of
acidosis, caused by hypoxia Bore’s effect.
On the cellular level – the realization of phagocytosis by leukocytes in reply to the inculcation of
microorganisms into the tissues.
On the tissue level – the development of complicated complex of reactions, named “inflammation” in reply to
damaging factors (l. part. 14)
On the organs’ level – the augmentation of frequency of heart beat rate during the elevation of blood
temperature.
On the level of physiological systems – the reactions of the external breath systems, blood circulation during the
oxygen starvation (hypoxia) (l. part. 19)
On the level of organism in general –complicated oriental reactions in reply to the influence of the sound and
light signals.
8.7. What is passive and active resistance? What is the difference between them?
A passive resistance is an insensibility to the action of pathogenic factor, insusceptibility to it. It appears when
the interaction between the organism and pathogenic factor is impossible or difficult. Passive resistance is
energetically dependent and can be stimulated by the following mechanisms:
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1) existence of barriers for interaction between the pathogenic factor and the structure of organism (biological
barriers);
2) absence or destruction of the organism’s structures, which can interact with the pathogenic factor, for
example, an absence of the receptors to the pathogenic viruses;
3) the destruction of the pathogenic factor by the mechanisms, which are not connected with the reaction of
organism to the acting of this factor (for example, the destruction of choleric vibrious by gastric juice);
4) the moderation of realization of pathogenic mechanisms, which are started up by the interaction of the
organism with the pathogenic factor (for example, the increasing of passive resistance during hypothermia)
An active resistance (resistibility) is a stability, which is provided with a complex of defensive-compensation
reactions, directed on the destruction of pathogenic factor and the results of its acting. The active resistance is
energetically dependent; the mechanisms of reactivity form its ground (for example, phagocytosis, synthesis of
antibodies, the reactions of cellular immunity).
8.9. Name the mechanisms of nonspecific resistance, which provide the stability of organism to the acting
of infections agents.
1. Areactivity of cells.
2. Physical and physicochemical factors.
3. Biological barriers.
4. Antagonistic interrelation between the normal and pathogenic microflora.
5. The functioning of physiological system of connective tissue.
6. Humoral factors of nonspecific resistance.
7. Phagocytosis.
8. Inflammation.
The works of one of A.A. Bogomoletz pupils – E.A. Tatarinov were dedicated for studying nonspecific
mechanisms of antinfection immunity.
8.10. What is areactivity of cells, characterizing the mechanisms of not specific resistance to infections?
The areactivity of cells is their inability to interact with infections agent. It can be caused by: a) absence of
receptors’ cells to the viruses on the surface; b) absence in cells the receptors to the bacterial toxin; c) connection of
toxin with the receptors of cells, which are not sensitive to its acting.
8.11. What physical and physicochemical factors are the factors of nonspecific resistance of organism to
infections?
1. The temperature. Birds have the level of temperature which provides their insensitivity to the bacteriums of
Siberian ulcer. During the increasing of body’s temperature, the reproduction of many viruses decreases and they die.
2. The importance of pH habitat. In acid habitat of stomach many maters of infections diseases die, mainly, the
choleric vibrious. In the focus of inflammation a high concentration of ions of hydrogen appears, that causes the
damage of microorganisms, staying here.
3. Pressure of oxygen in tissues. In usual conditions pO2 in tissues prevent the development of anaerobic
infections.
8.15. Give the examples of humoral factors of nonspecific resistance of organism to the acting of infection
agents.
Such factors are lysocime, C-reactive protein, leukins and β-lysine, inhibitors of bacterium’s enzyme, inhibitors
of viruses, interferon, and the system of the complement.
8.24. What mechanism provides the adhesion of phagocyte to the object of phagocytosis?
Nonreceptoral and receptoral mechanisms are distinguished.
Nonreceptoral mechanisms are electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction of the phagocyte’s surface with an
object of phagocytosis. As a superficial electrical charge of phagocytes is negative, so the particles with a positive
electrical charge stick well. Also particles with hydrophobic surfaces stick well.
Receptoral mechanism caused by the existence of special receptors on the surface of phagocytes to substances-
opsonins. An interaction of phagocyte with an object of phagocytosis takes place with the help of opsonins, which are
connected with receptors.
8.25. What are opsonins? What opsonins have the main importance for phagocytosis?
Opsonins are the substances, which help the sticking of bacterial and corpuscular antigens to phagocytes and
stimulate phagocytosis in such way. Adsorption of opsonins on the surface of bacterium cells and corpuscular antigens
is opsonization.
Antibodies – IgG and intermediate products of complement’s activation, in particular C3b have the main
importance for phagocytosis among opsonins. Their opsonizative effect is connected with the presence on the surface
of mononuclear phagocytes special receptors to Fc-part of IgG and receptors to C3b.
Besides, C-reactive protein, fibronectin, taftsin also play the role of opsonins.
8.26. What processes make the essence of third stadium of phagocytosis - the stadium of absorption?
1. Invagination of plasmatic phagocytes membrane in the place of its contact with an object of phagocytosis.
2. Appearing of phagosoma surrounding by membrane, which has the object of phagocytosis.
3. Fusion of phagosoma with lysosoma, as a result of this phagolisosoma appears.
8.27. What happen during the 4-th stadium of phagocytosis - the stadium of digestion?
1. The damage (killing) of bacteriums – is intracellular cytolysis. It is accomplished with the help of bactericidal
phagocyte’s systems.
2. Strictly digestion – is the hydrolysis of components of the bacteriums killed with the help of hydrolytic
enzymes of lisosoms. The products, which appear during this process can be used by phagocytes for own necessaries.
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8.29. How does the myeloperoxidasa system of phagocytes functioning?
The activation of myeloperoxidasa system in phagocytes’ lisosoms produces two groups of factors:
1) hypochlorit-ion (ClO-), which causes galogenisation (chlorination) of microbe walls’ components, and as a
result of this bacteriums die.
2) free radicals and peroxides (·O2-, HO·2, OH·, H2O2), which activate lipid peroxide oxidation and, as a result,
break the barrier properties of the microbe membranes.
8.31. Give the examples of phagocytosis’ breaches, connected with peculiarities of phagocytosis’ object.
Incitants of some infections diseases - mycobacteriums of tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, brucellosis, listerias,
incitant of lepra, many kinds of simplest, being in phagosoma, secrete substances, which perplex or make impossible
the confluence of phagosoma and lysosoma - the formation of phagolysosoma. Macrophages during this are in state of
constant activation, they secrete contents of lisosoms into surrounding tissue and in such way support the chronical
inflammation.
Phagocytes, absorbing crystals and dust particles of inorganic compounds (guarts, osbestos, cement, caolin, coal
and other.) can neither digest no utilize them. During this the damage of lisosoms takes place, crystals and dust
particles release from dead macrophages info the tissue again, where they are absorbed by new macrophages. And in
such way everything is repeated again. Constant death of macrophages and their secretion info tissue of contents of
lisosoms cause chronic inflammation and sclerosis. According such “script” the development of lungs’ diseases, well-
known under the name of pneumoconioses (silicosis, anthracosis, asbestasis and other) takes place.
8.32. What reasons can break the processes of opsonization and cause the breaches of phagocytosis?
1. Immunodeficite, which are showed by the breaches of appearing of immunoglobulin G (IgG).
2. The breaches of activation of complement system, causing to the deficit of C3b.
3. The breaches of properdin system.
4. The deficit of fibronectin.
5. The removal of spleen, causing to the deficit of taftsin.
8.33. What quantitative changes of phagocytes can be a reason for the phagocytosis’ breaches?
1. The breaches of receptors to chemotaxins and opsonins (inheritly caused changes, blockade of receptors by
immune complexes).
2. The breaches of specific membrane glycoprotein (GP 110), which supports adhesiveness of phagocytes’
membrane.
3. The breaches of microfilaments - the syndrome of “lazy leukocytes”. As a result of incapacity of actin to the
polymerization, the migration and the process of absorption by leukocytes the phagocytosis’ object endocytosis break.
4. The breaches of microtubules - Chediak-Higashi syndrome. It is characterized by the appearing of huge
lisosoms. It is appeared by the breaches of chemotaxis, appearing of phagolisosoms and secretoral degranulation
(exocytosis).
5. The breaches of bactericidal systems of leukocytes. The next inheritly caused confusions are described:
a) The deficit of NADPH-oxydase (develops the disease under the name of chronic granulematosis);
b) The deficit of glucose-6-phosphatdehydrogenase, as a result, the pentose cycle and the generation of free
radicals violate; c) the deficit of myeloperoxidasa (it displays by the breaches of halogenisation of membranes of
microbe cells).
6. The breaches of lysosomal enzymes. The uncompleted phagocytes is the result of it.
7. The disorders of the phagocytes’ energy-providing. During this, break the processes, such as: the emigration,
chemotaxis, endo- and exocytosis) which need the expense of energy.
9.8. What part in the realization of immune answer is taken by the macrophages?
1. Macrophages are taken in, processed and give an antigen to the immunocompetent cells (T- and B-
lymphocyte).
2. Macrophages take part in the T- and B-lymphocyte cooperation.
9.9. What are the thymus-independent antigens? What are the mechanisms of humoral immune answer
on antigens when they come in organism?
Thymus-independent antigens are the antigens, the formation of antibodies against which does not require the
T-lymphocyte participation. In general antigen-polymers have the plenty of identical repetitive determinants.
The immune answer of the organism for the receiving of thymus-independent antigens is characterized by such
sequence of processes.
1. Cooperation of antigen with the B-lymphocytes, that has on the surface the receptors specific to the antigen.
2. Blasttransformation of the B-lymphocyte is the result of such cooperation, i.e. transformation in lymphoblast.
3. Fission and proliferation of lymphoblast with the formation of a B-lymphocyte‘s clone.
4. B-lymphocyte differentiation into plasmatic cells.
5. Synthesis by the plasmatic cells of antibodies - IgM.
9.10. What are the thymus-dependent antigens? What are the mechanisms of humoral immune answer on
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such antigens when they come in organism?
This kind of antigen has such name, because formation of antibodies against thymus-dependent antigens
requires complex cooperation of macrophages, T- and B-lymphocytes.
The immune answer for these antigens is characterized by the following stages.
1. Macrophage stage. There is absorption and digestion by macrophages of antigenic cells and particles from
subsequent presentation of antigens determinant on the plasmatic membrane of macrophage.
2. Cooperation of macrophage with T-lymphocyte. As the result of such operation clone of specific T-helpers
appears.
3. The T-helpers and macrophage cooperation with B-lymphocyte. Because of the cooperation of these cells the
antigen determinants are passed to the B-lymphocytes.
4. Blasttransformation of the B-lymphocyte with the formation of plasmatic cells’ clones, that produce the
antibodies of all classes against one antigen.
9.13. What is primary immunological insufficiency? What reasons can cause it?
Primary immunological is insufficiency which arises up because of innate defects of the immune system.
The reasons of origin of primary immunodeficiency can be:
а) gene mutations. Appeared imperfect genes pass coupled with a sex (1/3 known for today primary
immunodeficiency) or by autosome-recessive way;
b) chromosomal mutations. Most often the development of immunodeficiency connected with the anomalies in
14-th, 18-th, 20-th pair of chromosomes and the Dawn syndrome. Immunological insufficiency combines with other
difficult syndromes arising up because of chromosomal aberration here;
c) infections. Often the virus of German measles and cytomegalovirus led to the appearing of immunological
insufficiency that bring over arises, causing the difficult vices of a baby development.
9.18. What are the secondary immunodeficites? What reasons cause them?
Secondary immunological insufficiency is the acquired immunological insufficiency (immunodepressive states).
The reasons of its development can be the exogenous factors of physical (ionizing the radiation), chemical (matters
possessing action, - immunodepressants) and biological (viruses) origin.
The senescence and intoxications (under uremia, burn disease, malignant tumors) are the endogenous factors
that lead to development of secondary immunedeficite.
9.19. What is the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)? What is its reason?
AIDS is the infectious disease appears as a result of defeat by the virus of immune and other systems, as a result
an organism becomes highly-receptive for secondary infections and malignant tumors.
The reason of AIDS is the retrovirus – human immunedeficite virus (HIV).
9.21. What mechanisms are the basis of development of acquired immune violation of humoral type?
I. The B-lymphocytes violations (cellular level).
1. Reduction of the B-lymphocytes maintenance: a) violations of limphopoesis; b) the destruction of B-
lymphocytes (action of viruses, autoimmune reactions).
2. Quality changes of B-lymphocytes: a) transformation into the tumor cells (leucosis, immune-proliferative
diseases), b) the violation of the B-lymphocytes transformation into plasmatic cells.
3. Violations of cooperative communications: а) repression of function of macrophages; b) reduction of the T-
helper influences; c) increasing of T-influences.
II. Violations of immunoglobulines (molecular level)
1. Violations of biosynthesis of immunoglobulines: a) slowing down of transcription processes b) oppression of
translation processes; c) deficiency of aminoacids; d) deficiency of energy; e) violations of posttranslation
modification.
2. Activation of processes of disintegration of antibodies – hypercatabolism of immunoglobulines: a) formation
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of aggregates of immunoglobulines; b) production of antibodies against immunoglobulines.
3. Loss of immunoglobulines (for example – under nephritic syndrome).
9.22. What are the characteristic for immune violations of humoral immunity?
Violations of this type appear through the reduction of resistivity of organism to the primary bacterial infections,
caused staphilo- and streptococcus, and in a less degree – enterococcus and gramnegative bacteriums.
9.23. What mechanisms can be the basis of development of acquired immune violation of cellular type?
1. Reduction of the T-lymphocytes amount: 1) violations of lymphopoesis; b) the T-lymphocytes destruction
(AIDS, autoimmune reactions).
2. Quality changes of T-lymphocytes: a) violation of cytotoxicity; b) violation of formation of lymphokines.
3. Violations of cooperative communications: a) oppression of function of macrophages; b) violation of
formation of interleikin-2; c) increasing of the T-suppressor influences.
9.24. What displays are characteristic for immune violation of cellular type?
1. Reduction of stability to the infections and mycosis, viral and protozoon infections.
2. Increasing of frequency of malignant tumors forming.
3. Increase of time of transplants acclimating.
4. Autoimmune reactions (the result of the T-suppressor deficit).
9.27. What methods are possible to get the state of immunological tolerance?
Injection of the different substances can be used for this purpose:
а) antigen in the organism of fetus in a critical period of forming of natural immunological tolerance to the
own antigens;
b) large doses of soluble antigen (immune paralysis of Felton);
c) gaptene, binded to the nonimmune carrier;
d) antigen on a background of artificially created immunedeficite state;
e) antiidiotype antibodies, i.e. antibodies against specific determinant of immunoglobulines;
f) antigen-specific T-suppressors, taken from tolerant organism.
9.28. What is the reaction of "transplant against the recipient"? Under which conditions does it arise?
The reaction "transplant against the owner" (homological disease) - is the immune aggression of the
transplanted cells of donor, directed against the antigen structures of recipient.
Its appearing requires some condition, in particular:
1) states of immunological insufficiency at a recipient (immunological immaturity at a fetus or new-born,
primary and secondary immunodeficiency);
2) transplantation of the immunocompetent cells;
3) antigen distinctions between a donor and recipient.
If such conditions are created, immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes) of donor are not limited in the
development and begin to react on tissues of owner by the complex of cellular and humoral immune reactions.
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9.30. What methods of immunosuppression exist?
Suppression of function of the immune system can be carried out by a number of methods:
1. Surgical methods: 1) removal of central and peripheral organs of lymphatic tissue: thymus, spleen, lymphatic
nodes; b) removing of circulates in blood and lymph of lymphocytes in way of forming of chronic drainage of pectoral
lymphatic channel;
2. Physical methods - action of x-rays or γ-radiation.
3. Chemical influences - using of immunodepressants.
4. Immunological methods - are infusion of immune wheys (antilymphocytes, antimonocytes, antiglobulines).
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