La

Sustaining Urban Agriculture

in the Greater Accra
Metropolitan Area
Case study of La, Accra, Ghana
for the DPU and IWMI
Aslj

June 2010
Nargiz Abiyeva, Deyanira Cerdas-Calvo, Elena Espinoza, Dominic Gogol, Leigh Holford,
Alizay Jaffer, Joyce-Lynn Njinga, Blanca Palos Pamplona, Namrata Sandhu, Lorena Viale
1
La

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Table of Contents
1.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS & ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................... 5
2.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 8
3.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND................................................................................ 10
4.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................ 15
5.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, LIMITATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS....................................... 18
6.0 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES........................................................................ 18
7.0 RESULTS OF THE STUDY................................................................................................... 23
8.0 STRATEGIES .................................................................................................................... 32
9.0 MONITORING AND EVALUATION..................................................................................... 42
10.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 45
11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................. 47
14.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 49
15.0 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................. 52

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Section 1.0 Acknowledgements &
Abbreviations

4
1.0 Acknowledgments &
Abbreviations

1.1Acknowledgements
Picture: Focus group with the women of La
To:

 IWMI especially Dr. Olufunke Cofie;

 Nii Ashie Kwei our facilitator from MoFA;
 The La Farmer’s Association, especially
Emmanuel Mensa, Anouk Mensa, and
Elizabeth Mensa for spending so much of
their valuable time with us;
 Adriana Allen, and all of the DPU staff
Pascale Hofman, Alex Apsan Frediani and
Rita Perez Valencia; and
 the many people who visited to speak with
us in London, and the many institutions
and individuals who made time for us in
Ghana

Thank you for your time and assistance during

our trip to Ghana. We hope that this report
reflects the value of all of your input, for which
we are very grateful. There are many other
people that have helped us through this process
and a detailed list is presented in appendix
13.11.

5
1.2Abbreviations NLC – New Lands Commission

AMA – Accra Metropolitan Assembly MDG - Millennium Development Goals

AWGUPA – Accra Working Group on Urban and MoFA – Ministry of Food and Agriculture
Peri-Urban Agriculture
MoL – Ministry of Land
CICOL - The Civil Society Coalition on Land
MPC – Municipal Planning Committee
DPU – Development Planning Unit
NGO – Non Governmental Organisation
EDDT (The Trust) - East Dadekopoton
Development Trust PUA – Peri-Urban Agriculture

FA – La Farmers’ Association RUAF - International Network of Resource

Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations SUA – Sustainable Urban Agriculture

FEDUP – Federation of the Urban Poor TCP – Town and Country Planning

FDI – Foreign Direct Investment ToR – Terms of Reference

GAMA – Greater Accra Metropolitan Area UA – Urban Agriculture

GIDA – Ghana Irrigation Development Authority UCL – University College London

LAP – Land Administration Project UoG – University of Ghana

IFPRI – International Food Policy Research

Institute

IWMI – International Water Management

Institute

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Section 2.0 Executive summary

7
2.0 Executive summary
La tells a story of an agrarian society in
transition, where farming is being engulfed
through residential development and land
speculation, pushing UA to marginal lands. It
also challenges the prevailing perception that
men farm and women trade.
Land is an issue of confusion, where the
statutory and customary systems struggle to
coexist side by side. La also helps us to
appreciate the spatial and social transformations
fuelled by neo-liberal policies that are directly
related to unequal economic growth.
The La site includes 300 farmers, mostly from the
Ga Stool, currently farming on 500-600 acres of
land largely controlled by the East Dadekotopon
Development Trust.
These farmers have experienced rapid
encroachment from housing development,
leading to a reduction of farming land. Farmers
are responding to encroachment by relocating to
areas where vacant land is available.
While there is a sense of reciprocity between the
farmers, trust and collective action is currently
through informal channels, with the formal
Farmers Association (FA) collective weakening
from a lack of political power.
Based on our fieldwork this report will propose
two principle strategies focused on land. These
deal with the access to institutional land and a
designated Green Belt within La.
In order to meet these objectives both the
strengthening of the FA as a collective and
engagement of support networks such as
AWGUPA with the issue of land must occur.
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 Section 3.0 Introduction and
Background

9
3.0 Introduction and Background
3.1Introduction
This report is a summary of the research
undertaken in 2010 relating to urban agricultural
practice in La, Accra.
This report represents a process of analysis and
fieldwork that occurred over 5 months and
contains the finalised findings and strategies for
the case study of La.
This research builds on the previous work carried
out by ESD students who began this study with
the DPU in 2009 and provides a basis for the
2011 ESD student to begin their work. The
purpose of this report is to analyse the
achievements, obstacles and potential
interventions in the development of sustainable
UA and PUA in GAMA by identifying the
stakeholders involved in UA/PUA, and relevant
organisations, policies and projects related to UA
in Accra.
This study tries to answer the following
questions presented as the Terms of Reference
(ToR) for the project.
A. What are the conditions/threats and
actual/potential benefits from urban and
peri-urban agriculture in each case study
perceived by: (a) farmers (women and
men) and their organisations; (b) local
dwellers (women and men) and their
community organisations, and (c)
relevant urban and sectoral planning
institutions?
B. What have been the main improvements
in the development of UA/PUA in your
site so far? How were those
improvements possible? Which actors
were involved and how did they
contribute to the changes? Which
lessons can be drawn from those efforts?
C. Focusing on land, water and solid &
liquid waste: What strategic
interventions could be devised to
promote sustainable urban and peri-
urban agriculture in each site and more
widely in GAMA, whilst addressing the
conditions and benefits identified by the
three key groups of stakeholders
outlined above? How could these be
implemented in terms of time frame,
resources required and specific
activities?
The importance of sustainable UA has been
recognised globally for its economic, social and
ecological benefits many of which can be seen in
Accra already. This report will focus specifically
on the case of La in which the coexistence of the
customary and statutory systems of land tenure
leads to uncertainty in terms of land ownership
and marginalisation of land for UA through urban
development.
Based on our conceptual framework we
conducted a research plan to be carried out in
two stages. First, a preliminary literature
research, and then two weeks of fieldwork
carried out in Accra, Ghana.
From the results of the research plan, we were
able to build a set of strategies to help the
farmers of La to make UA more sustainable.
3.2 Background
Ghana
Ghana’s stable democracy and growing
economy, supported by gold (GMFS, 2001) and
cocoa exports, contributed to sparing it from the
recent economic crisis. This relative economic
resilience turned it into a key destination for
foreign investment, set to continue with the
discovery of oil in 2003. This is expected to bring
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in about 800 million dollars by 2010, rising to 2
billion by the end of the decade (Reuters, 2010).
This transformation into a commodity-led
economy could be accelerated by the vast
increase in petrodollars from offshore oil
reserves. This may increase Ghana’s vulnerability
to shocks due to oil prices volatility as has
happened in neighbouring countries (Boorman
and Christensen, 2010).
In the period from 2005-2008, Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) rose by over 14 times from 145
million to over 2.1 billion, according to the UN
Trade and Development Department (UNCTAD,
2009).
This national trade liberalisationpolicy has
affected local producers, including urban
farmers, who are competing for land with
housing developers. The nature of the housing
market is set to change dramatically with
increase in oil revenue affecting demand for
upper class dwellings for Ghana’s growing middle
class and expatriate communities. La farmers are
not strange to this situation, being force to
move, as the pressure in land increases for real
state development.
This poses the biggest obstacle for the
sustainability of agricultural practices within
Accra and especially in our site of study, La.
Major projects underway markets to the periphery of Accra. The markets
are planned to be hubs for both the import of
A number of important capacity building and
food from surrounding regions, and as a
development projects are underway in Accra at
majoring export hub. This project is also
the moment supported by the Accra
expected to attract residents from Old Fadama
Metropolitan Municipality and various
market who currently work in the onion market
government ministries. A brief of description of
and Obogloshie market away from the city
the initiatives identified are below:
enabling the redevelopment of Old Fadama.
Millennium City: is a project of the Earth
Ga West agricultural land: the Mayor of Accra,
Institute, Columbia University, to assist cities to
along with several ministries discussed the
attain the Millennium Development Goals by
planned location of agricultural land in Ga West
2015. The projectis strongly supported by the
(outside of Accra) under discussion with the Ga
Mayor of Accra Dr. Alfred Okoe Vanderpuije.
West authorities. This is a temporary strategy to
Slum Upgrading: this initiative has been provide land for lease in an area not currently
identified by the Mayor of Accra as a key priority under development pressure. The land would
of the Municipality. The ‘slum areas’ targeted not however be secured indefinitely.
were defined as those in central locations and in
Land administration project: hosted by Ministry
which tenants have land tenure. Redevelopment
of Land and New Lands Commission, it provides a
is intended to increase the density of current
framework for easy land registration and
dwellings into 3 story dwellings units, making
transfer. It includes digital mapping through a
land available for other uses such as higher
Social Development Framework.
quality housing and mixed use development
(Mayor of Accra, 2010) Land use and management: Capacity building
hosted by T&CP. It consists of the modernisation
Market Development and Relocation of Old
of current systems according to international
Fadama residents:Dr. Larbi from the Planning
standards on town planning (see Strategies
and Coordination Unit of AMA reported an
section for further detail on this initiative and the
initiative to relocate the major food and produce
Land administration project).
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La case study site Figure 3.1Map of the La study site, Accra

La is 2200 acres situated in the east of Accra and falls under the
Accra Metropolitan Area jurisdiction. The position of the site within
Accra can be seen in figure 4.1 and the limitations of the site can be
seen in figure 4.2.

Figure3.1 Map of La situated within Accra

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The site of La offers very interesting
characteristics in terms of land,the farmers
themselves, and farming practices.
Land
 Most of the land in the area is customary
land, with Chief resident and the East
Dadekotopon Trust as custodians of
these lands.
 There is a complex land arrangement. A
portion of the landwas acquired by the
government, for military use, but now is
being claimed back by the Trust, who
controls the rest of the land in the La
site. This situation makes the zoning of
the land difficult as agricultural land until
the conflict over land use is resolved.
 There is a rapid encroachment upon land
and high pressure for housing
development, especially from the Trust.
Farmers
 There are 130 farmers working in the
area, from which 46% are women and
54% are men
 Most of the farmers are local residents,
and from the Ga tribe. There are not
many immigrants in this area. Some of
them have been farming for more than
40 years and come from generations of
farmers of the area
 The Farmers Association is in existence
since 1988, though its membership has
been declining, particularly men. The
farmers do not make most use of the
Association as collective capital but rely
more on informal social networks
Farming Practices
 Many of the sites are very dependent on
rain water for irrigation, the sites near to
the streams are able to pump water for
irrigation but it gets more expensive with
distance
 Farmers do not use compost, because of
the time needed to prepare and because
of bad past experiences with the local
compost plant
 Not enough local livestock, due to
environmental measures from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
This reduces the use of manure as
fertilizer
 Chemical fertilizers heavily relied on,
thanks to the MoFA subsidies
 Crops:Okra (specialty), pepper, maize,
watermelon, tomato, cassava, plantains,
yams, and others
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Section 4.0 Conceptual Framework

14

4.0 Conceptual Framework
Refocusing the lens
Environmental justice provides a lens through
which to examine these issues facing urban
agriculture in La and to understand their
instigators.
The concept of environmental justice can be
defined as the equal distribution of
environmental goods and bads and the
processes that construct social recognition as
the means to attain a greater equity in
accessing resources (Schlosberg, 2007).
According to Schlosberg, environmental
injustice is reproduced and challenged across
the following four dimensions: distribution,
recognition, participation and capabilities
(Schlosberg, 2007). The distributional factors
include access to resources such as land, inputs
and processes. Recognition and participation
refers to the notion of re-correcting systematic
disempowerment within the socio-economic
and cultural spheres. And finally, capabilities
refer to the financial and knowledge based
capital (ibid).
From this research we developed our
definition of urban agriculture that we would
then use throughout our work. Urban
agriculture is food grown within the daily
rhythm of the city or town, produced for self
consumption, for the market, and processed
and marketed by farmers or their local
networks (Smit & Nasr, 1992). We have
developed criteria to evaluate the
sustainability of agricultural practices, shown
in Figure 4.1.
Urban agriculture is sustainable when:
1. There is regular and affordable access to
resources such as wastewater, solid waste, and
inputs, and their practices maintain local
environmental conditions (including soil quality
and water runoff);
2. Community knowledge and resources are
shared through local networks improving
members resilience and ability to overcome
shocks;
3. It is legitimized by formal or informal
mechanisms; and
4. It supports the well-being of the local
community.
The interaction between these four
dimensions reinforces equity, which in turn
increases individual and collective capacity of
farmers to revert the structural causes of
inequity.
It has been noted through our review of the
available literature that a certain level of
collectivism exists through formal networks
with the MoFA created FA. This is reinforced
through informal networks based on extended
families, trust, and solidarity. These need to be
formalised to increase their legitimacy and
effectiveness to address the power
asymmetries that create inequity.
We saw the benefits of applying a collective
action perspective to the social networks
between farmers themselves and with other
actors and institutions. Collective action can
increase the financial and negotiating
capability that provides the driving principle to
improve equity. As stated by Healey,
Collective action helps to articulate the
community’s behaviour in regards to a more
equitable allocation of resources (Healey,
1997).
Accordingly, as the International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) states: ‘organised
15
collectives can enhance productive and
negotiating capacity leading to increased
income’ (IFPRI, 2004, p 1), it also helps to curb
individual costs.

Figure 4.1 Criteria for evaluating the sustainability of Agricultural Practices

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Section 5.0 Research Questions and
Hypothesis

17
5.0 Research questions and
hypotheses
5.1 Research questions and hypotheses
The research questions and hypotheses
developed from our understanding of the
definition of UA, it was used to focus our field
work and analysis. The questions and
hypotheses are as follows:
Research Question 1
Collectively and individually, how do the
farmers cope, resist and seek security in land
and water for their livelihood in urban
agriculture?
Hypothesis 1
In urban agriculture farmers cope individually
to shocks to their livelihoods increasing their
vulnerability to land and water access
Research Questions 2
What are the perceived outcomes and
benefits of current farming practices?
What are the obstacles and perceived risks
associated with alternate more ecologically
sustainable farming practices?
Hypothesis 2
Farmers perceive that sustainable farming
practices have more benefits in the long term
to soil and crop conditions.
Given the vulnerability of the farmers’
situation in terms of land and water they
prefer to make use of more short term and
less sustainable practices.
Research Question 3
What is the flow and allocation of resources
and level of control in the different stages of
the production chain?
What are the financial costs associated with
each stage of production?
Hypothesis 3
Farmers have more influence and control of
the resource flow and allocation in the input
and production stages and very limited or no
control on the transport and market stages.
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Section 6.0 Research methodology,
limitations and achievements
6.1Research methodology
6.2 Limitations and achievements

19
6.0 Research methodology, limitations and achievements
After the preliminary diagnosis three research
6.1 Research methodology questions were build and for each of them we
decided on the best tools to get the most accurate
Figure 6.1 reflects the process of our research methodology throughout the duration of this results within the time we had in the field.
project. Our methodology included a review of secondary literature from relevant online
journals, IWMI reports, the RUAF foundation and academic papers; after which astakeholder In order to find information about coping and
mapping process was completed. With this information we were able to build a definition and resisting strategies of the farmers due to the land
criteria related to Sustainable Urban Agriculture and complete a preliminary diagnosis and insecurity we decided to use participatory mapping
analysis of the area of study. exercises and transect walks of the area.

Figure 6.1 Research Methodology To collect information on present farming practices

and what were the obstacles or perceived risks for
the farmers to switch to more sustainable practices,
we make use of focus groups and individual semi
structured interviews

To get and understanding of the flow and control of

resources through the chain of production, we
conducted focus groups and interviews with different
stakeholders. For the last session we were able to
test our preliminary strategies with a focus group
with the farmers and interviews with saving groups in
Accra.

To get more details about the schedule of the

fieldwork activities completed in La and the content
of the mapping and transect walks, interviews and
focus groups refer to appendices 13.2, 13.3, 13.5 and
13.6.

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 6.2 Limitations and achievements try and identify and acknowledge any biasesin
Figure 6.2 shows detailed information about the our work.
Limitations:
interviews and focus groups carried out, as well
about the number of participants. Achievements:
 Small sample sizes (70 farmers)
 Fieldwork and meetings with farmers  Mapping of farmers movements based
Literature review IWMI reports
RUAF Foundation was limited to four days on cluster and gender
Online journals  The entire time in Ghana was limited to
Academic papers 17 days o With causal reasons for moving
Semi-structured 45 male and why they settled where they
 Misinterpretation may have resulted
interviews 25 female did
from language barriers
70 total
 Disclosure of information may have at  Mapping of current level of housing
Focus groups 3 male
(Value chain, 3 female times been limited due to the political encroachment for entire 2200 acre site
farming Practices, 2 mixed sensitivity of certain issues
movements)  Our own perceptions and biases may o Three layered process building
from original maps in 2002, to
Participatory 2 have influenced our findings.
last year 2009, to May 2010.
Mapping
Formal meetings Government We felt we successfully managed to overcome
 Cost analysis across the value chain,
Key informants Private Companies these limitations by dividing our group and a
providing economic insight into UA
NGOs comprehensive reviewing process. By dividing
Transect Walks 6 the workload of the group during field visits we o Broken down by the costs
Other visits Saving groups were able to simultaneously conduct focus associated with raising one acre
Market
groups, interviews, and mapping processes while of okra with various external and
Chief
others were at meetings or back in the hotel internal costs effecting overall
Figure 6.2Research Methodology profitability
analyzing and organizing data.

In an effort to counteract our own biases and the
sensitive nature of some of the exercises, we
undertook a comprehensive reviewing process to
Contributing to overall knowledge regarding
Urban Agriculture in La, Accra and providing
valuable material for further research.

21
Section 7.0 Results of the study
7.1Cope, resist &seek security in land & water, collectively
and individually
7.2 Farming practices
7.3 Value chain

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7.0 Results of the study
7.1 Cope, resist and seek security in land
and water, collectively and individually
La’s farming area is divided into seven clusters:
Mongonno, Sowatey-Nmonaa, Tseado,
Korkodjon, Klandjii-Argon, Obediben and
Kpeletso, as showed in Figure 7.1. A detailed
categorization of the clusters can be found in
appendix 13.8
Figure 7.1 Clusters of Urban Agriculture
Figure 7.2Expansion of Urban Encroachment
In La the primary threat to urban agriculture is
land encroachment.
Land encroachment
Collectively and individually farmers primarily
cope with land encroachment through
relocation, resistance is no longer viewed as a
viable option for livelihood protection.
Using official maps from the Ghana survey Office
dating back to 2001-2 and last year´s work1, we
found that over the past 10 years encroachment
has been rapid, especially from the areas of New
La in the centre of the site and from Teshie
Bridge in the East.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the divergent nature of the
encroachment threats with more planned large
scale development in the North threatening the
Klandjii-Argon, Kpeletso and Obediben clusters,
compared with more independent and small
scale housing development by individual land
1
Information from last year’s work refers only to the speculators in the South threatening Mongonno,
area of New La.
Sowatey-Nmonaa, Tseado, and Korkodjon.
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East Dadekotopon Development Trust
The East Dadekotopon Development (EDD) Trust
was formed in 2003 to settle a land dispute
between the La Stool and two large land holding
families. As the new custodians of 2,200 acres of
which our entire site is included, they drew up
plans for a series of gated housing communities
with the appropriate education and leisure
facilities to match. The plan as seen by their map
on Figure 7.3 and 7.4 is outlined for 180,000
people and in 2003 was approved by Town and
Country Planning. The approved plan has
provision for 215 acres of farming in the west of
the site for a Green Belt, primarily focused on the
Sowatey-Nmonaa cluster. However through our
own mapping we could only account for
approximately 100 acres of land in the identified
area, which is already being encroached as seen
in Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5.
The creation of the Trust offers a unique insight
into the land debate within Ghana between the
customary and common land systems. Our study
area, which is now under control of the Trust,
was held in the customary stool and family
systems previously. Within this any profit
rendered on the land had to be handed over to
the Office of the Administrator of Stool lands
which divided this revenue accordingly: 49.5% to
the District Assembly, 22.5% to the customary Figure 7.3East Dadekotopon Development Trust
owner, 18% to the Traditional Council of Elders Master Plan
(the Chiefs), and 10% kept for administration
fees. In 2003 the land in out study area was
handed over to a private entity, in the form of
the Trust. The benefits of land being held in
private hands in this situation is obvious,
considering all revenue generated is instead kept
(outside of tax of course), whereas before a
majority was handed over.
The exact relationship between the Trust and
Council of Elders in terms of the appropriation of
revenue earned and the formal and informal ties
is still unknown, therefore further research must
be done in this area. The Trust also adds another
layer of complexity to the Farmers as they
previously had dealt with land issues through the
customary system and now it seems their land
has been changed into the private hands of the
Trust, with a vast majority of them having little
knowledge of this changeover.
The Trust is having a negative effect on the
strength of the La FA, with a splinter group of
farmers from Klandjii-Argon willing to negotiate
with the Trust for compensation. This only came
to light in our last field visit and should be
explored in depth next year.
24
Figure 7.4EDD Trust Master Plan in the Study
Area
Figure 7.5 Open spaces under the EDDT Master
Plan
Two factors are important to an understanding
of the EDDT. Firstly it has yet to find a significant
financial backing and is currently looking for an
international partner. Secondly, their connection
to the current encroachment and completed
development is unclear with the origins, funding,
and ownership of these houses unknown.
Nonetheless, irrespective of its origin current
urban encroachment has diminished the
available agricultural area per urban farmers in
La, from 4.43 to 3.03 acres, and in many cases
the famers have been completely displaced2.
Even in the clusters that are currently under
cultivation, foundations pillars for future
buildings and development are prevalent (Figure
7.6)
2
Based on interviews and focus groups in 3 clusters
25
Figure 7.6. Development pillars in Klandjii-Argon
cluster
Movements of the farmers
Based on our original research we expected to
see a clear pattern of movement of the farmers
from the southern clusters to the northern.
However we found a much more scattered
movement, that followed individual coping
strategies (refer to appendix 13.4 for focus group
data). These strategies utilised family networks
but were primarily chosen for personal reasons,
showing a lack of collective planning. Land
availability is the most important factor in
relocation, corresponding to 52% of respondents
(Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7. Factors affecting choice of new
location
Mongonno and Tseado are the most heavily
encroached.
Gender
We found that men have moved more than
women (Figure 7.9). The lack of women in
Kpeletso and Obediben clusters, is attributed to
the distance, time, and labour associated with
stump clearing and land preparation of these
sites inhibiting access to women.
The lack of available water, with irrigation
networks and water sources less available in
Kpeletso and Obediben, represent an additional
problem for farmers.
The following graph shows the difference
between men and women farmers in La.

Figure 7.8 Gender of farmers by

location
90% 80%
80% 75% 75%
70% 60% 60% 58%
60% 50%
50% 40% 40%
40%
30% 25% 25%
20% Women
20%
10% Men
0%

Currently, more land is available in the North in

Kpeletso and Obediben clusters, while

26
Figure 7.9 Gender of Farmers by Location 7.2 Farming practices Figure 7.10. Farmer spraying fertiliser

Closing the nutrient loop is one of the necessary

conditions for sustainable urban agriculture, as
explained in the first part of our definition on
sustainable urban agriculture.

How ecologically sustainable is urban

agriculture in La?
Results drawn from the earlier mentioned focus
groups and semi-structured interviews
conducted with male and female farmers in La
helped us understand not only the benefits and
perceived outcomes of current farming practices,
but also the extent to which these are affected
by the current land tenure difficulties.
MoFA subsidised fertilizers and pesticides (Figure
7.10) are provided to most farmers, although
there is a lack of access for some (2010). Their
use, as opposed to organic inputs such as
manure, is due to the fact that they are cheaper
and less time consuming. Furthermore, in the
case of the use of pesticides, pests were
mentioned by most farmers as being one of their
main concerns.
Although poultry manure is primarily used in
planting a nursery is a lack of water and time
makes composting difficult. Common to all
farmers was the willingness to use composting as
an alternate input should factors such as time
and money allow it.
While wastewater is being used by about half of
the farmers interviewed, there still exists a
negative public perception over its use (IWMI,
2010). IWMI is publishing research to reverse this
(refer to http://www.ruaf.org/node/1887).

27
Farmers fortunate enough (less than half) to
cultivate near a stream and able to afford a
water pumping machine (Figure 7.11), are less
vulnerable to rainfall dependence.
Figure 7.11 Water Pumping Machine being used
Furrow irrigation
Traditional irrigation practices such as furrow
irrigation continue being used by a handful of
farmers near the waste water treatment plant of
the Burma Camp, which due to a lack of funding
is no longer operational. Making use of the
gravity of the terrain, farmers irrigate their crops
planted near the ridges of manmade gutters
(Figure 7.12) through which released waste
water flows.
This type of irrigation practiced considerably
reduces the risk of contamination by waste water
since the polluted water is not in contact with
the typically high growing crops such as okra and
maize (IWMI, 2009).
Figure 7.12 Gutters for furrow irrigation
Land insecurity effects
Current land tenure difficulties are making the
shift to more ecological practices difficult. Firstly,
farmers who are being pushed to the
considerably drier northern clusters are facing
more restrictions to water access, increasing
rainfall dependency and reducing the scope for
composting or using other organic pesticides.
Secondly, the potential for groundwater
extraction in the northern clusters is being
discussed; however lack of finances and land
security discourages potential investment by
institutions such as the Ghana Irrigation
Development Authority (GIDA) (GIDA, 2010).
Livestock
It was noted that about one eighth of the
farmers interviewed are in possession of
livestock (Figure 7.13), ranging from grass
cutters, snails, goats and rabbits. There are legal
restrictions associated with the maintenance of
livestock in urban areas; hence it is mainly
farmers who have been pushed to more marginal
areas who are able to keep livestock.
Figure 7.13Goats at one of the farms near Burma
Camp
28
7.3 Value chain
Influence and control on resource flow
allocation
The focus groups conducted with farmers
focused on the flow and allocation of resources
in the value chain (Figure 7.14). The resources
studied were knowledge and experience, labour,
time, economic, and social and collective capital.
Figure 7.14 Value Chain
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Transformation
Inputs Production
& Transportation
Market
The main objective was to understand where
resources are allocated and the reasons behind
their choices in the value chain.
Given the current land tenure insecurity,
subsidized fertilizers and pesticides help farmers.
Though the farmers recognize that these
practices are not sustainable, they choose not to
move to more sustainable organic practices since
they are more time consuming and involve larger
capital investment which land insecurity
prevents.
The lack of access to water for irrigation makes Farmers have very limited or no access to the
farmers dependent on rainfall. This also limits rest of the stages of the value chain. Due to time
the use of Neem trees as local pesticides and the constraints, money and a lack of bargaining
use of poultry manure and compost as fertilizers power they do not have the ability to influence
the market stage for negotiation of sale prices.
The new farming sites in the north present the
added difficulties for women of stump and land To better understand the costs of each stage of
clearing, which is a strenuous process that production please refer to figures 7.16, 7.17 and
requires the expensive hiring of labour. 7.18 for the cost of cultivation of 1 acre of okra.
The total cost for all stages is 219 cedi. 3
Both, women and men farmers are more
involved in inputs/production and less with the Figure 7.15
transportation and/market stages in the value
Stage 5
chain. Input Cost (Cedis)
Home
Seeds 4
Cost and time of land preparation and Plowing Land 40
knowledge of crops and farming practices came Fertilizers 29
as the main obstacle for the input stage. Total 73
For the production stage the most important
Figure 7.16
resource is the time taken for cultivation
followed by the cost of irrigation practices. Production Cost (Cedis)
Casual labour cost becomes an issue when the Pesticides 96
farmers do not have family members to help Casual Labor 40
them during the production stage. Total 136
For the transformation and transport stage 3
storage space and cost of transport seem to be This is a basic cost and does not include the cost of
irrigation since that exponentially increases the total
the two most important constraints.
cost. Other capital costs that are optional such as land
clearing and tractors have not been included.
29
Figure 7.17

Transport Cost (Cedis)

Transport 10
Total 10

Final observations
Dependency on rainfall for irrigation is crucial for
farmers in La. Costs in the production stage raise
dramatically when farmers have to use pumping
machines for irrigation making them loose their
profits even during a favourable market.

Farmers work individually and don’t use formal

networks like the FA for transport and other
practices that could be done collectively.
Strengthening of the farmers’ collective would
enable greater control over the whole
production chain and reduce costs.

30
SECTION 8.0 Strategies
8.1 Expanding access to institutional land
8.2 Securing access to the Green Belt
8.3Opportunities and impediments
8.4 Building the collective capacity of the Farmers Association
8.5Dialogue and negotiation
10.6Scaling up and looking towards the future

31
8.0 Strategies
The development of strategies to address the
issue of land security is the most pressing priority
for the farmers of La in order to ensure the
sustainability of Urban Agriculture in La and
wider Accra.
As highlighted through the findings, the
encroachment upon farming land which has
reduced farmers to coping with insecurity
through relocation. The resultant reduction in
their ability to invest in long term farming
practices has undermined the sustainability of
farming in La, and threatens the livelihoods of
the farmers.
The current individual coping strategies relied on
by the farmers are not opening avenues for
ensuring the long term security of farming in La.
Further, the perceived divisions and individual
interests in the area are reducing their ability to
dialogue or negotiate with either the formal
system (government) or customary land routes
(the newly formed EDDT). Although the EDDT’s
master plan for the area has allocated land to
farming the security of this area is believed to
already be under threat from encroachment.
Building upon the pressing need for
environmental justice for the farmers of La in
terms of appropriation and access to
environmental benefits we saw an avenue in
expanding the use of collective action.
Through dialogue with the key institutional and
customary stakeholders two possible avenues for
improving land security for the farmers of Accra
have been identified:
1. Expanding access to institutional land
2. Securing the Green Belt on the EDDT
Master Plan
Both avenues present an opportunity to gain
access to land however, capacity building both
internally for the Farmers Association to
strengthen collective action, and externally by
AWGUPA to facilitate dialogue and negotiation
with both the statutory and customary system
are essential.
Within the Farmers Association the lack of
formal collective action has undermined both
their capacity to act and their recognition as a
legitimate group by both formal institutions and
the customary system.
Secondly, assistance from concerned
stakeholders, most importantly AWGUPA,
requires that stakeholders are able to engage
with issues of land security on behalf of the
farmers in Accra.
While the land strategies remain the long-term
priorities, capacity building efforts for the La FA
and actions to be taken by AWGUPA are more
immediate priorities. These priorities will
facilitate the FA’s ability to dialogue and
negotiate with formal institutions most
particularly the government, and the East
Dadekopton Development Trust. As depicted
below in Figure 10.1 these two capacity building
strategies are critical to unlocking land for the
long term security of farming in La.
These strategic were discussed during focus
groups conducted with the La farmers.
32
Figure 8.1 Strategies to Build Towards Securing
Land in La
8.1Expanding access to institutional land
This strategy is based on the procedural
mechanisms available to farmers to address land
issues through applying for a lease to farm on
institutional (government owned) land.
Two of the key institutional bodies that deal with
land in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, are
Town and Country Planning and the Land
Commission. As outlined in the background
section and section 8.3 below the issue of land is
complex, characterised by a lack of coordination
between ministries regarding land use and land
administration. The land administration project •
and land use and management capacity building
effort (see section 8.3) are attempting to address
some of these issues. These projects and the
initiative on behalf of the government to
harmonise land management procedures
present an opportunity to the FA to access
institutional procedures.
This engagement with institutional mechanisms
requires the FA to document and present a
collective claim for farming land to the
government. Raising the visibility of the FA as a
legitimate group who has had a long term
presence in La is critical to winning support from
the institutional stakeholders such as the Land
Commission. This must be done through multiple
systems, both the land use system which is the
responsibility of T&CP and the land registration
system now being overseen by the Land
Commission.
Application process for institutional land
The FA as a collective has to identify the
ownership of the farming land in La. In those
sectors were the land is publicly owned and it is
not being used, the FA can apply to for the
rezoning of the land for agricultural use.
During a meeting with the Town and Country
Planning Office they presented the steps for
gaining access to institutional land:
As an association, present a request for land
use designation of UA to the Town and
Country Planning Unit as ‘passive open space’,
which will be reviewed by the Municipal
Planning Committee. The acceptance of an
application for urban agriculture is currently
not politically acceptable therefore this is
their only option. The request should include:
• A site plan that maps the demarcation
of current limits.
• Explanation of the uses that are
planned for the property (it is not
necessary to include present uses).
• The Committee sends an inspector to
verify the limits, and that the plan
presented is feasible.
• The designation is granted or denied in
approximately 1-3 months.
• Once the new designation is obtained, it
is necessary to apply for a license to use
the public land with the Land
Commission.
(T&CP, 2010)
Regular monitoring and action follow up will
enable the process to be completed.
This process involves the submission of
documents, financial resources and ability to
dialogue with official processes.
33
It is clear that in order to access this process,
building the collective capacity of the FA and
improving their ability to dialogue and negotiate
with institutional processes is critical. Before
examining these two strategies, the second land
security strategy will be explored.
8.2 Securing access to Green Belt
This strategy aims to help the farmers gain
access to the designated green belt to be used
for agricultural purposes through the
development plans for the EDDT Master Plan
(Figure 8.2).
The allocation of farming land within the EDDT
Master Plan is a positive sign for the future of the
FA and other farmers in La. The recognition that
farming is of importance to the local community
and plays a part in the cities in which we live
provides a valuable platform to build upon to
ensure the long term sustainability of UA in La.
It is also clear that this Master Plan is being
undermined by encroachment (whether planned
or unplanned) in the designated farming area.
Further, the lack of a joint venture partner to
fund the Master Plan has meant the EDDT has
been unable to implement the plan, which was
approved by T&CP in 2003.
Securing this planned allocation of land Figure 8.2 East Dadekotopon Development Trust
represents the first challenge to the FA. The Plan
second is in developing a strong long-term
management plan for the area, which provides a
significantly reduced farming area reported to be
215 acres.
The following steps are recommended in order
to lobby for the security and use of the
designated green belt:
• Establish formal dialogue with the Trust,
as a strong collective group.
• Present information regarding FA records
of membership and farming history.
• Create a proposal for land requirements
and cooperative management systems.
• Public lobbying with the help of
institutional bodies such as AWGUPA and
civil society groups, possibly CICOL, to
ensure the green belt is secured.
34
8.3 Opportunities and impediments
Two ongoing projects are occurring with regards
to land reform in Ghana:
a. Land administration project: hosted by
Ministry of Land and New Lands
Commission, it provides a framework for
easy land registration and transfer. It
includes digital mapping through a Social
Development Framework.
b. Landuse and management: Capacity
building hosted by T&CP. It consists of
the modernisation of current systems
according to international standards on
town planning.
Both projects have a total time frame of 25
years. Design will be completed by 2011 and law
and standards will be ready by the end of 2012
(T&CP, 2010).
These two projects represent an opportunity due
to the revision of the land law, which has not
been revised since 1945.
These projects represent changes into which the
FA might be able to input, potentially helping the
FA with their claims for land use re-zoning and
addressing the impacts of developments and
encroachments in the La area.
A number of impediments to realising the based agreement until that land is required for
aforementioned land strategies exist however. more strategic purposes. The perception of
farming as belonging outside the city and
There is uncertainty as to the existence of undertaken on a large-scale commercial basis
institutional land in La, further the land under
needs to be challenged in order to gain wider
military zoning is in the process of being returned
institutional support for UA.
to the Trust and until this process is complete,
there cannot be a rezoning of this land for The contribution of UA to the livelihoods of
agricultural use. Accra’s residents, the potential for contribution
to poverty reduction and the wider economic
Rezoning land use zoning could take time, and to benefits need to be communicated effectively to
ensure its success requires continuous address these perceptions (see page x for
monitoring and active presence on the part of
estimated local benefit of UA in La).
the FA.
These factors are constraints that the urban
AWGUPA has been very successful in their
farmers in La have to face as pressure on land in
lobbying efforts for UA. Policy makers and the Accra increases given the rapid urbanization of
government are aware of UA and its benefits the city. Given these impediments the following
however; there is still a need to influence the
capacity building measures are imperative to
actual policies and actions of all the stakeholders
ensure the FA is able to face these challenges.
involved.
Most of the institutional stakeholders
interviewed during the fieldwork make it very
clear that they believe there is no land for
agriculture in Accra, since many sectors are
competing for land and there has been an
increase in land prices. There are plans to
allocate land for UA in Ga West (a “new district”
at the Northwest), but this will be on a lease
35

8.4 Building the collective capacity of the
Farmers Association
Savings Groups
The formation of a savings group based on the 7
farming clusters within a larger integrated
collective savings group within the FA would
enhance collective economic and political ties.
Though the informal collective exists within the
farmers, strengthening the formal collective such
as the formation of a savings group would also
increase trust and reciprocity. We met with the
savings group in Old Fadama and a detailed
transcript can be found in appendix 13.10.
Steps to be taken
1. Form a formal savings groups of 10-18
people, provisionally based on already
existing clusters
2. Elect officials and agree on the rules and
organisational procedures
3. Hold weekly meetings
4. Provide support through networks and
discussions on the challenges being faced
5. Link to other savings groups (for instance in
other farming clusters)
6. Register under the Federation of the Urban
Poor as a collective
Why?
 To improve reciprocity and trust already
present in these networks
 To take risks together, strengthening
collective action
 To create potential for shared production of
resources and services
 To access flexible loans
Linking into the Federation
of the Urban Poor
The Federation of the Urban Poor is a
federation of savings groups across 24
countries. Its purpose is to use savings to
leverage funds for small loans to help grow
businesses. In addition they can provide:
 Links into regional, national and
international networks and information
sharing
 Supports against unfair eviction and
provide opportunities for interaction with
government
 Share knowledge and links to advocacy
and media groups
Members of the La Farmers Federation met
with Philip Kumah and participated in a
savings group meeting held for students of
the DPU at Old Fadama. Philip has offered
the support of the Federation of the Urban
Poor to the farmers of La (Elizabeth Mensa,
T.K. Monney and Lekia Olamptey) who have
expressed interest in pursuing the
opportunity both to received training and
resources from the Federation in Accra.
(Savings groups, Philip Kumah, 2010)
36

Participatory Monitoring
The purpose of this initiative is to continue the
participatory monitoring undertaken over the
past two years to document both the
encroachment of farming land, and to
understand the impact upon the farmers of La.
How?
 Through continuous mapping of movements
and encroachment by farmers, students from
the University of Ghana, AWGUPA and MoFA
 By mapping open, vacant or institutional land
suitable for UA
Why?
 To monitor impacts of movement and farming
practices: water, crops by farmers, students
University of Ghana, AWUPA, MoFA
This will provide valuable information which the
FA could use to present to both the institutional
stakeholders and EDDT to make their case for
improving their land security and to demonstrate
their legitimate presence on the land.
Record and Report
The purpose of this initiative is to provide
documented evidence of the Farmers
Association.
The oral history of the FA is very strong but Figure 8.3 Collective Capacity of the Farmers
ultimately must be documented to facilitate Association
interaction with institutional processes or to
engage with the EDDT. The FA has kept records
of the membership since 1989. This initiative was
required by MoFA in order to access financial
and technical assistance, which MoFA continues
to give. As highlighted in the findings, this
initiative has stopped due to land security
undermining the FA and resulting in reduced
meeting attendance.
How?
Through ensuring the FA records:
 Meeting attendance
These three strategies together (figure 8.3
 Membership status and evolution
above) are intended to build the collective
 Needs and aspirations of members
capacity of the Farmer’s Association and equip
 Impacts of movements on farmers and their
them with the information to be able to dialogue
farming practices (historic documentation)
and negotiate on a stronger basis with both
Why? institutional stakeholders and the EDDT.
 To increase cohesion
 To document the history and progress of the
Farmers’ Association (FA)
 To provide details of the farmers’ presence in
La
 To collect adequate information for creating
claims or petitions to various institutions
37
In order to begin strengthening the FA’s capacity
the collective vision and aspiration of the group
to work together must be built. Savings groups
provide one mechanism by which the FA could
both access valuable resources to improve their
own livelihoods and ability to invest, but
importantly it can be facilitated collectively,
building trust and reciprocity amongst the
savings group members. The FA in part was
undermined by the inability of the members to
directly address the issue of land security. The
savings group would provide another focus for
the FA members, allowing them to meet but to
focus on other goals and aspirations whilst
building their ability to address the issue of land
security.
‘Participatory monitoring’ and ‘record and
report’ are also essential to rebuilding the
collective strength of the FA, while providing
them with information that legitimises their right
to farm in the city and proves their ability to act
together with strength.

38
8.5 Dialogue and negotiation
Land issues need to be present at the dialogue
and negotiation table of AWGUPA. Expanding
membership to the Land Commission and CICOL
would allow discussion on and recognition of
land as an urgent matter.
Building direct links to AWGUPA
How?
 Greater integration of the La FA and
strengthening existing links with MoFA to
other stakeholders
 Increased dialogue
Why?
 To improve the FA’s ability to dialogue with
the statutory system regarding land issues
 To monitor actions of institutional
stakeholders regarding land encroachment
 To build awareness of the importance of UA
to Accra
AWGUPA’s engagement with land issues Figure 8.4 Dialogue and Negotiation
How?
 Integration of stakeholders involved in land
issues into AWGUPA
 Extend membership of AWGUPA to Land
Commission
 Inclusion of CICOL: Civil society organisation
monitoring Land Administration Project
Why?
 Commission research on policy issues
 Utilise CICOL’s capabilities
CICOL’s current roles:
 Civil society organisation monitoring the Land
Administration Project
 Commissions research on policy issues
 Awareness raiding through radio
 Information dissemination on market prices
for agricultural goods
(CICOL, 2010)
For more detail on the influence and
relationships between the key stakeholders
please refer to the web of institutionalisation
in appendix 13.7
39
8.6 Scaling up and looking towards the
future

Federation of Farmers’ Associations of Greater

Accra
Building upon improving the FA as a collective in
La, effort must be made to improve the citywide
structure and connections between the various
farmers’ associations scattered across Accra.

Linkages must be made highlighting the similar

challenges urban farmer’s face across Accra,
from development encroachment to
marginalisation at the market place. This will
give a larger citywide organization an
opportunity to set a precedent and access to
increased political and economic power in
negotiations; leading to an increased ability to
influence policy and decision making processes
at a sub-metro, district, metropolitan, and
national level.

As outlined in section 8.4 the Federation of the

Urban Poor is a valuable partner into which the
Farmers of Accra could link. Their past actions in
assisting members of many communities to
address issues such as unfair eviction enable
them to provide valuable technical assistance
and information sharing networks to the La
farmers.

40
SECTION 9.0 Monitoring and evaluation

41
9.0 Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation is essential in order to

track the implementation and progress of the
proposed strategies, and can aid in providing
unique information about the performance of
the various actors involved. As a result, this helps
to identify gaps, which enable improvement and
assessment in performance as and where
required.

Monitoring and evaluation also enhance

accountability and transparency of processes and
between actors. The table below demonstrates
our strategies, how they are to be monitored,
and by whom.

For more detail on the influence and

relationships between the key stakeholders
please refer to the web of institutionalisation
inappendix 13.6

42
 Who will monitor
Strategy Criteria Who will drive it? Indicators
it?
 Updated displacement maps
Strengthen the
 Recording and monitoring of
collective capacity of  Farmers  Farmers
Participatory Monitoring farmers attendance to meetings
the Farmers’  MoFA  MoFA
 Registration of the Farmers’
Association
Association as cooperative
 Farmers  Farmers  Increased savings
Creation of a Savings
Strengthened Capacity of FA  Federation of  Federation of the  Greater security in case of low
Groups
the Urban Poor Urban Poor harvest
Integration of  AWGUPA  New policy research on land
Inclusion of CICOL and Land
stakeholders involved  AWGUPA  CICOL issues
Commission in AWGUPA
in land issues  Land Commission  Awareness raising campaigns
 Farmers
through access
Integration of UA in urban  Farmers  Active use of land assigned for
Accessing Green Belt to public
management and policy planning  NGOs UA in trust land use plans
institutions and
NGOs
 AWGUPA
 Wider community awareness
 Town and
of the benefits of UA
Expanding access to Country  AWGUPA  Demarcation of passive land for
 Improvement in the
institutional land Planning  Farmers UA in land use plans
transparency of land use
Department
practices and distribution
 Farmers

43
SECTION 10.0 Conclusion

44
10.0 Conclusion
As shown in our work, we believe that the case
study of urban agriculture in La provides an
appropriate example of environmental justice in
a developing urban environment.
Our project benefitted from the use the four
dimensions proposed by Schlosberg, distribution
in the access to resources, recognition and
participation in the political processes, and
improvement of capabilities in the socio-
economic sphere. These dimensions were
visible in our findings and reinforced in our
strategies.
For our strategies we also adopted a collective
action approach through the strengthening of
the La farmers’ association, coupled with a just
and equal interaction between the latter and the
relevant institutional and other stakeholders who
can support and play a key role in ultimately
improving the rights of the urban farmers. For
this to occur the support of MoFA and NGOs to
drive efforts related to savings groups, land, land
use practices, and public awareness, is vital.
AGWUPA can play a key role in steering other
key stakeholders such as CICOL, the Land
Commission, the Trust, and Town and Country
Planning to be involved in land issues and policy
formulation supporting urban agriculture. As a
result, the collective effort can produce national
policies that support and secure urban farming
practices in Accra and all of Ghana.
The proposed strategies to address issues
affecting urban agriculture in La are closely tied
to improving ecological practices and making
them more sustainable, in terms of resource use,
and expanding farmers’ opportunities and
abilities. However, land tenure and security issue
in La are a major obstacles and hindrances to the
successes of the aforementioned strategies.
The first line of action occurred during the La
groups’ presentation in Accra, Ghana, where
multiple stakeholders were able to come
together and discuss the key urban agriculture
related issues they deemed important and where
action needed to be taken. While momentum
was gained on that day, it is necessary that the
recommendations proposed are monitored and
evaluated on a regular basis to ensure their
effective implementation over the long term.
45
SECTION 11.0 Recommendations for
further research

46
11.0 Recommendations for further
research
 Appreciate the wider economic value of
urban agriculture, analysing the supply
and demand for UA produced in Accra.
 Continuing and expanding the mapping
of encroachment in La and the farmers’
movement in all the clusters.
 The relationship between the EDD
Trust and the Council of Elders in
terms of formal and informal
financial and political ties.
 Exploring the actors and motives
involved in the other Klandjii-Argon
cluster FA and their relationship to
the La FA and the EDD Trust
 Exploration of alternative land-
use planning solutions which,
integrating UA into the urban
area through both the Land
Commission and TCP.
 Climate variability, especially the
implications of water shortages
on UA over the long-term
47
SECTION 12.0 References

48
12.0 References
Boorman, Jack and Christensen, Benedicte
Vibe (2010). “The Impact of the Global Financial
Crisis on Emerging and Frontier Markets in
Africa”, in: Global Journal of Emerging Market
Economies, Vol 2(1): (2010) pp 69–90.
CICOL (2010). Fieldtrip meeting 12 May
2010.
Dobson, A. (1998). "Justice and the
Environment. Conceptions of Environmental
Sustainability and Dimensions of Social Justice",
Oxford University Press, Oxford. Chapter
1: Environmental Politics and Distributive Justice,
pp 12-30.
DPU (2009). Terms of Reference: Promoting
sustainable urban and peri-urban agriculture in
Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) -
Ghana, BENVES3 2008-09, London.
East Dadekotopon Development Trust (2010).
Trustees Proposed Development of Land at East
Dadekotopon La, Accra Q&A session.
East Dadekotopon Development Trust (2004).
Trustees Proposed Development of Land at East
Dadekotopon La, Accra leaflet.
GIDA (2010). Ghana Irrigation Development
Authority, Meeting 7 May 2010
Gold Fields Mineral Services Ltd (GFMS)
(2001). Gold Production and Consumption
Weighted Price Indices Report
inhttp://www.gfms.co.uk/Market%20Commenta
ry/ProdConIndices.pdf .
Guha, R. and Martínez-Alier J. (1997).
Varieties of Environmentalism. Essays North and
South, Earthscan, London. Chapter 2:
FromPolitical Economy to Political Ecology, pp
22-45.
Institutional Food Policy and Research
Institute (2004). [Accessed online 29 May
2010] http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pu
blications/focus11.pdf
IWMI (2010). IWMI fieldtrip meeting 4 May
2010.
IWMI (2009). International Water
Management Institute, . Local irrigation practices
in Accra. [Accessed 27 May
2010]http://www.ruaf.org/node/1887.
Larbi, O. (2010). Land tenure and urban
agriculture in Ghana, Fieldtrip lecture.
MoFA (2010). (page 27 -1st column, farming
practices findings section) MoFA fieldtrip
meeting 5 May 2010.
Ostrom, Elinor (2004). “Understanding
collective action” in Collective action and
property rights for sustainable development,
Meinzen-DickRuth S and Di Gregorio Monica,
eds. International Food Policy Research Institute,
Washington DC.
Reuters (2010). Key political risks to watch in
Ghana. {Accessed May
2010}. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE64
Q1HC20100601 .
Savings groups, Philip Kumah (2010).
Federation of the Urban Poor. Fieldtrip meeting
13 May 2010.
Schlosberg, David (2007). Defining
Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements and
Nature. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Smit & Nasr (1992). Urban Agriculture for
Sustainable Cities: using wastes and idle land and
water bodies as resources Environment &
Urbanization, 4; 141.
Swyngedouw, Erik (2003). “Urban Political
Ecology, Justice and the Politics of
Scale”, Antipode, Volume 35, Issue 5, 898-918.
49
 T&CP (2010). Fieldtrip Q&A session on urban
planning in Accra, Ghana.
UNCTAD (2009). World Investment Report
2009: Transnational Corporations, Agricultural
Production and Development. {Accessed 27 May
2010} ; http://www.unctad.org/wir.

50
SECTION 13.0 Appendices

51
13.0 Appendices

13.1 Criteria for evaluating the sustainability of

agricultural practices
13.2 Schedule of field work activity in La, Accra
13.3 Interview questions
13.4 Focus group data
13.5 Transect walks
13.6 Farmer’s life stories
13.7 Web of institutionalisation and institutional analysis
13.8 Cluster characterisation
13.9 Productive scenarios figures
13.10 Notes from meeting with savings group
13.11 Additional acknowledgements

52