Zielske 1

Iris Zielske

Dr. Matondo

LIN4930

10 December 2008

Bilingual Education: Dual Language Programs

in the United States and Possibilities in Tanzania

Language use in the classroom has been a long debated issue in Tanzania. In light

of low achievement levels, Tanzania should reevaluate their language policies and if they

look to successful bilingual programs in the United States and other parts of the world,

they might be able to develop more successful policies for their own country. In the

1980s and 1990s attention and concern was being directed at the falling standards of

education in Tanzania (Batibo 7). This information leads to the questioning of the source

of these falling in standards or of low achievement levels in general. One debated source

is languages policies in education, specifically the medium of instruction used throughout

school: primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. This paper will look at

bilingual programs in the United States, giving specific attention to the success of dual

language programs, and the possibilities this may lead to for improvement of language

policies in the Tanzanian classroom. This paper will focus on the choice between Swahili

and English as languages of instruction in Tanzania.

Education in Tanzaia

After Tanzania’s independence, then President Julius Nyerere strove to develop

and implement policies that would unite the people of Tanzania and break from “the
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Western construction of social reality inherited from the colonizers” (Batibo 139). A

major part of this breaking free from the colonial reality was the promotion of Swahili as

the major language of the country and therefore breaking from the cultural power

English, the language of the colonizers, had over the people of Tanzania. One specific

policy that contributed to the promotion of Swahili was the establishment of Swahili as

the medium of instruction, giving it an official place in the school system (Batibo 139).

Nyerere’s original plan was for Swahili to be first introduced as the medium of

instruction in primary school and then later for secondary school to change from English

medium instruction to Swahili medium instruction and eventually for all education,

including the university level, to be conducted in Swahili. Starting in 1975 primary

school instruction (from standard 1-7) was being conducted in Swahili instead of English,

but the rest of the plan did not follow suit. Therefore the current language policies for

education entail the use of Swahili as the medium of instruction throughout primary

school, with English being taught as a second language, a single subject. The medium of

instruction then changes when students enter secondary school, where all classes are to be

conducted in English and Swahili becomes a single subject. This is a drastic change for

the students. Although English is taught in primary school as a second language, the vast

majority of Tanzanian children are not successfully learning the language in primary

school and do not have a good grasp of the English language when they begin secondary

school (Roy-Campbell 146). Therefore, in the beginning of secondary school, students

are being taught in a language that for the most part, they do not understand. “The abrupt

switch in the medium of instruction, from Kiswahili at the primary to English at the
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secondary school level, clearly affects student performance” (Batibo 147). The students

are striving to learn English and are not able to learn much content material.

This kind of situation where students are being taught in a language, in which

they lack proficiency, leads to low achievement levels – “Students cannot learn if they

cannot understand the language of instruction. If a child does not understand what the

teacher is saying, s/he is not going to learn content subjects such as math, science or

social studies” (Lindhom-Leary 12). This situation leads to problems in the way students

approach education and learning and the results of their education as well.

the children’s proficiency in these languages is so scant that the learning

process is reduced to the mere cramming of notes written by the teacher

on the blackboard…In these countries [Tanzania, included] children

reportedly copy their notes blindly so as to memorise and reproduce them

in an examination…this form of rote learning will not produce articulate,

assertive or skilled future citizens, but unskilled and unmotivated ones

who lack initiative and rely only on their memory. (Roy-Campbell 127)

In order for Tanzania to produce articulate, assertive and skilled future citizens, there

must be a change in the education system and specifically in language policies. The issue

of medium of instruction in schools in Tanzania has been a long debated issue, but the

issue has generally been presented as a dichotomy, with the choices being either the use

of Swahili or English as the medium of instruction, but not both (Batibo 141). The option

of using both languages as mediums of instruction should be considered and much can be

learned by looking as successful bilingual programs and dual languages programs in

other parts of the world.

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Bilingual Education in the US

Multilingualism and education in languages other than English has been apart of

the United States school system, in various forms, since the founding of the country. In

the 1800’s instruction was available in a variety of languages, beyond English, in over

twelve states in the country. Attitudes towards multilingualism and bilingual education

have changed in the US over the course of history. There was a decline in bilingual

education opportunities in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, but in the 1960’s and 70’s

there was again a rise in the interest and provision of bilingual education programs. This

specifically was seen in places such as New Mexico, California and Florida and the main

language used along with English in the bilingual programs was Spanish. (Freeman 19-

20, Lindhom-Leary 15)

There is quite a range of types of bilingual programs and many different types of

programs have been used in the US. Two significant ways programs differ is in goals of

the program and methods of implementation. Bilingual education programs can be

classified into different categories. A major division of bilingual education programs is

between subtractive programs and additive programs.

The goal of subtractive programs is to produce monolinguals in the second

language (Roy-Campbell 186). Examples of subtractive bilingual programs include:

English Immersion or ESL and Transitional or Early Exit Bilingual Education. In English

immersion programs all instruction is in English right from the start; students are fully

immersed in English from the beginning. Transitional or early exit programs allow

students to learn both content material and literacy skills in their native language as they

are learning English. There is instruction in the native language in the early stages of the
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program, usually 1-3 years, but as soon as a student shows basic competency in English

they are removed from the program and go to English only instruction. (Freeman 9-10)

The goal of additive programs is to promote bilingualism and biliteracy.

Examples of additive bilingual programs include: Maintenance or Late Exit and Dual

Language. In maintenance or late exit programs students receive content instruction in

the native language for a longer period of time, compared to early exit programs,

generally 4-6 years and as the English proficiency of the students increases so does the

amount of content instruction in English (Zelasko 20-21). Although the native language

is maintained and developed in these programs, there is an unequal emphasis, with

English being more fully developed than the native language. In dual language programs

content instruction is provided in both English and the native language throughout the

entire program. Dual language programs place emphasis on developing both languages

and strive to see students obtain high levels of proficiency in both languages. (Freeman

10-11)

Program Type Description Languages of Goal/Result

Instruction
English All instruction is in English. English only Monolingualism,
Immersion English acquisition
Subtractive

Transitional /
Some of the content instruction is Native language & Monolingualism,
Early Exit in the native language and some in English for first 1- English acquisition
English for the first 1-3 yrs, and 3 yrs and then
then all instruction is in English. English only
Maintenance / Initially (first 4-6 yrs.) most Native language & Bilingualism &
Late Exit content instruction is through the English for first 4- biliteracy
native language, but as students 6 yrs. and then
gain proficiency in English, the English only
Additive

amount of English instruction

increases, until all instruction is in
English.
Dual Language Content instruction through both Both English & Bilingualism &
English and the native language native language biliteracy
throughout program.
Table 1: Outline of major types of bilingual education programs.
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Successes with Dual Language Programs in the US

“The most effective model for instruction of English learners is dual language

education” (Freeman 11). Dual language programs have become more popular in the

United States because research has shown that compared to English learners in other

types of programs, students of dual language programs score higher on standardized tests

in English (Freeman 12). In 1999 there were at least 261 dual language programs in the

US, spread across 24 of the 50 states (Lindhom-Leary 14). The majority of these dual

language programs use English and Spanish. Even within the area of dual language

programs, there is still a fair amount of variability.

Further division of dual language programs can be made based on the make-up of

the students in the classroom. Some dual language programs are two-way, for example

50% of the students would be native speakers of Spanish and come from Spanish

speaking homes and 50% of the students would be native speakers of English and come

from English speaking homes. For all students in two-way programs one of the languages

of instruction is their native language and one is their second (or third) language. Other

programs are one-way programs where all of the students are native speakers of a

language other than English. (Carrera-Carillo x-xi)

The number of two-way dual language programs in the US has quickly grown

since the mid 1980’s because of the recognition of high achievement of dual language

students, but also because of the increasing desire to help children become bilingual,

biliterate and develop cross-cultural understanding. Two-way dual language programs are

a great way for monolingual English speaking parents in the US to set up their children to

compete in the global economy. (Freeman 22-23)

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Dual language programs can also be classified in terms of the amount of time

devoted to instruction in each of the languages. Within this division there are two main

types used in the US, referred to as 90:10 and 50:50. The 50:50 model is straightforward;

50% of the time instruction is in English and 50% of the time instruction is in Spanish.

This remains constant throughout all years of the program. The 90:10 model is a little

more complex. The ratio starts off with 90% of the instruction being in Spanish and only

10% in English. In the beginning all of the content instruction is in Spanish. As students

move up in grades, gradually they receive more instruction in English, until the ratio is

equal with 50% of the instruction time in English and 50% of the instruction time in

Spanish. (Lindhom-Leary 25)

Grade Spanish English

Level
K-1 90% 10%
2-3 80% 20%
4-6 50% 50%
Table 2: Distribution of instruction time
in 90:10 Spanish-English programs (Lindhom-Leary 25)
Some of the most successful dual language programs in the US have been two-

way, 90:10 dual language programs. Both two-way and one-way dual language programs

have been successful, but the ideal situation is to have half of the students in the

classroom to be native speakers of the one language and the other half of the students to

be native speakers of the other language. This situation allows for students to not only be

getting input from just the teacher in both languages, but also getting input from their

fellow classmates in each of the languages. Both 90:10 and 50:50 programs in the US

have been documented to promote proficiency in both languages used in the program, but

students in 90:10 Spanish-English programs had higher levels of bilingual proficiency.

The English proficiency of all students (native English speakers and native Spanish
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speakers) was equal for both 90:10 and 50:50 programs. The difference in the results of

the two types of programs comes in looking at the Spanish proficiency of the students.

For both native Spanish speaking students and native English speaking students higher

levels of Spanish proficiency were found in students of 90:10 programs. So, the

additional time spent in Spanish language instruction in the 90:10 programs does not

hinder the English proficiency of the students, but does promote greater bilingual

proficiency compared to the 50:50 programs. (Lindhom-Leary 29) Therefore there is

benefit to the 90:10 programs compared to the 50:50 programs and there is not a

drawback to the 90:10 program in terms of English development either.

Other positive results of the dual language programs in the US relate to

achievement levels for all students and the success of the Spanish-speaking students who

participated in dual language programs. Both the Spanish-speaking students and the

English-speaking students of dual language programs score on par with their peers not in

dual language programs, therefore dual language education does not impede the

achievement of students in content areas, such as mathematics, science and social studies

(Lindhom-Leary 30). It has been recognized in the US that language minority students

have difficulties in the mainstream education system.

[Language minority] Students receiving no special language training

inevitably fall behind in other subject matter; students may, over time,

become fluent in oral English, but are not promoted with their peers,

because they have missed several years of instruction in content areas; and

students are rarely able to overcome this and are, consequently, more
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likely to leave school before high school graduation…[these] students

have one of the highest dropout rates in the country. (Lindhom-Leary 10)

The language minority (Spanish-speaking) students of dual language programs have been

shown to experience success in four specific areas: high school completion, college plans,

school-related attitudes, and benefits to bilingualism. One hundred high school students,

who attended dual language programs prior to high school, were interviewed. Half of

these students reported that being a part of a dual language program kept them from

dropping out of school. Over 90% of these students also reported that they believe getting

a good education is important and they want to go to college. The vast majority of these

students had very positive attitudes toward dual language programs and believe their

participation in a dual language program gave them a better education. Most of the

students also said they see benefits to being bilingual, including doing better in school,

having greater confidence, and possibilities for getting better jobs in the future. It should

also be noted that these students came from families with low levels of education and

most participated in the free lunch programs at their schools, indicating low-

socioeconomic levels as well. (Lindhom-Leary 31)

Despite the differences in various dual language programs, there are certain

characteristics that are critical to all dual language programs. First, content instruction

through both languages throughout the program is a must. Second, there must be periods

in which only one language is used, lessons purely in English and lessons purely in the

other language. Third, the goal or aim of the programs is to develop both languages –

developing high levels of bilingual proficiency and biliteracy. (Lindhom-Leary 13)

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Possibilities for Tanzania

As with the variety that is found in types of bilingual education programs, there is

also a wide variety of situation in which these programs occurs, but there are still

underlying common features (Spolsky 349, 359). So, in light of the diversity of places

where students can benefit from bilingual education and the commonality that exists

between programs and the places they occur, much can be learned from the study of

successful bilingual education programs across the globe. The success of bilingual

education programs in one part of the world can help in the development or improvement

of programs in other parts of the world. Therefore, this paper now turns to address the

possibilities for Tanzania to improve their bilingual education policies, in light of the

success of dual language programs in the US.

For planning successful bilingual education policies, it is necessary to understand

the situation in which these policies will be implemented. This includes, the role and

domains of use of the languages involved in the program; the view of the languages by

the parents, students and society at large; the native language and proficiency levels of

the target students and also practical aspects of implementation of the program. Therefore

in considering possibilities for change in the education policies in Tanzania in light of the

success of dual language programs in the US, it is necessary to consider the context – the

language situations in both the US and Tanzania and identify similarities and differences.

In many ways the students in Tanzania are similar to the native Spanish-speaking

students in the US. These students in Tanzania and the US speak a language that has

lower prestige than English in their countries and in the regular school system they have

many barriers in terms of language to overcome in order to succeed in school. An

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important difference between the native Spanish speaking students in the US and the

students in Tanzania is that these students in the US trying to learn English are trying to

learn the de facto language of their country, but the Tanzanian students are trying to learn

a language, English, which is only spoken in very limited arenas. English is the language

of higher education in Tanzania, but is not used much on the streets or in homes. In this

way, Tanzanian students have a commonality with the English speaking students in the

US who are trying to learn Spanish.

Because of the differences in situations in Tanzania and the US, it would not work

to take the most successful type of bilingual program in the US and implement it in

Tanzania. One of the most successful types of bilingual education programs in the US is a

two-way, 90:10 dual language program. There are multiple reasons why this type of

program would not be successfully implemented or ideal for Tanzania. First, it is not

possibly to have classrooms in Tanzania be made up of 50% native English speakers and

50% native Swahili speakers. There are just not enough native speakers of English for

this to be achieved. Even when parents do speak English, English is rarely spoken in the

home and therefore English is not the native language of very many Tanzanian children.

Although, the same exact types of programs that have been successful in the US

may not be ideal for Tanzania, there are many things that can be learned from the

fundamentals of dual language programs that have contributed to their success in the US

and can have some similar results in Tanzania. First, both Swahili and English should be

from the beginning of primary school. Compared to the current language policies for

education in Tanzania this would mean introducing English earlier in school. Second,

both languages should be used for content instruction from the beginning of school.
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English should not just be introduced as a subject earlier, but as a medium of instruction

for content subjects.

The question then arises as to what percentage of each language should be used

during each year of school. In order to really develop proficiency in both Swahili and

English, a 50:50 ratio would not be ideal. I would recommend either 70:30 or 80:20

Swahili-English dual language policies for Tanzania. Although 90:10 Spanish-English

dual language programs have been very successful in the US, a 90:10 Swahili-English

program would not be ideal for Tanzania for two main reasons. First, in the US the

Spanish speaking students in dual language programs have a lot more exposure to

English than Tanzanian children and it is important in the early years for children to get

enough exposure to a language they are trying to learn. Research has shown that children

who begin to learn a second early on in their lives are more likely to achieve more

nativelike proficiency in the second language than students who begin to learn the second

language later in life (Carrera-Carrilla 4). But, a 90:10 English-Swahili program would

not be ideal either, because studies have shown that “Students need to reach a certain

level of native language proficiency to promote higher levels of second language

development and bilingual proficiency” (Lindhom-Leary 18). A possible option for

primary schools in Tanzania is outlined below in Table 3.

Grade Swahili English

Level
1-2 70 - 80% 20-30%
2-5 60 - 70% 30 - 40%
6-7 50% 50%
Table 3: Distribution of instruction time
in 70:30 or 80:20 Swahili-English program

This distribution of instruction time in Swahili and English would strive to firmly

establish Swahili, but at the same time introducing English early on. As the years go on in
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students receive increasing amounts of instruction and exposure to English. This type of

program would aim at producing students with high bilingual proficiency in Swahili and

English. Then instruction in secondary school could continue to be 50% in English and

50% or Swahili or all in English. Students entering secondary school should have high

enough levels of proficiency in English to succeed in English only instruction in

secondary school.

Two other important aspects for successful dual language programs to be

implemented in Tanzania are avoidance of frequent code switching during English

medium instruction and high quality English language instruction, including English

teachers in primary school with high levels of English proficiency. Research findings

have shown that it is important for the two languages not to mixed during instruction

(Carrera-Carilla 5). Monolingual lesson delivery, having different periods of the day that

are to be devoted to instruction in each of the languages, is a key feature of dual language

programs that promote bilingualism and biiteracy (Lindhom-Leary 21-22). This would be

a big change for many schools and teachers in Tanzania. Since many secondary students

in Tanzania have low levels of proficiency in English, the medium of instruction at the

secondary level, large amounts of code switching between Swahili and English occur in

secondary level classrooms. Roy-Campbell identified this as an issue after interviewing

teachers and he speaks to this issue saying, “students are experiencing a very difficult

time coping with instruction through the medium of English. Teachers invariably spoke

to this difficulty and many admitted that they tended to use Kiswahili in the classroom

when communication in English broke down” (146). This practice of intense code
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switching or mixing should not take place in the dual language classroom; it will impede

the success and achievement of the students.

As for teachers, even if Tanzania has the best language policies possible, these

policies will not be successful, without good implementation and good teachers. Dual

language programs will only be as good as the teachers in the programs (Carrera-Carrilla

18). If there are not enough qualified teachers to teach the English instruction time in

primary schools for a dual language program, the program will not be successful. There

needs to be enough teachers who are proficient in English and who are willing to teach in

primary school for dual language programs to be implemented in Tanzania. “The most

important aspect of any dual language immersion program is professional development

and planning. Obviously, implementing this program requires a drastic paradigm shift in

teaching, and much preparation and planning needs to be in place before a school begins

to implement the program” (Carrera-Carrillo 1). For Tanzanian students to be successful

in dual language programs in Tanzania, language policies must change, but also the

government, schools and teachers need to adequately plan for this change.

The issues discussed in this paper are not the only factors to be considered in

addressing achievement levels of students in Tanzania. Within the issue of language itself

Swahili and English are not the only two languages at play. There are over 120 different

languages spoken in Tanzania and therefore many children in Tanzania, specifically in

rural areas, will begin school without knowing English or Swahili. To completely address

the issue of language in education and come up with ideal policies for all children in

Tanzania, these other languages much be addressed as well. There are many factors

beyond language that affect the education of children and the achievement levels in
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schools. The low achievement levels in Tanzanian schools cannot be solely tied to the

switch from Swahili to English in secondary schools or even to medium of instruction

issues. Low achievement levels are not the result merely of the use of Swahili in primary

schools or the use of English in secondary schools. The quality of education in primary

school must be considered. According to the Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training in Tanzania 38.24% of standard seven primary school students failed their

Primary School Leaving Examination in 2005 (The United Republic of Tanzania 33). In

2006, only 2.8% of primary school teachers had diplomas or degrees, the remaining

teachers had certificates from teacher training schools, in which people are able to enter

directly after completing primary school or after completing secondary school (The

United Republic of Tanzania 35, Educations in Tanzania). A solid foundation in primary

school provides students with tools they need to become successful students in the long

run.

Conclusion

In 1984 Julius Nyerere said, “We need to look again at the quality of the

education which we are providing, and in particular consider whether it is appropriate to

Tanzania’s needs…Moreover, there is a danger that unless we re-examine and correct

ourselves, our education service will continue to grow in a manner different from that

necessary if we are to lay a solid foundation for Tanzania’s development in freedom and

equality” (Lema 147). It is time again for Tanzania to re-examine their education system

and to reevaluate their language policies in education. Tanzania should consider a dual

language program model, which incorporates English instruction of content material in

early primary school, while still maintaining Swahili instruction. Teachers should avoid
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code switching in the classroom and Tanzania should strive to improve the quality of

teaching staff in primary schools. The implementation of some or all of these changes

could help students reach higher levels of achievement in school and help students

achieve higher levels of bilingual proficiency.

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