Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AT
OF
KIBWEZI DISTRICT
DECEMBER 2010
CLIENT CONSULTANTS
THE CHAIRMAN
MANG’ELETE WATER PROJECT Justus T. Ituli /Kithome®
P.O BOX ….. Registered Hydro-geologists
Date: 15/12/2010
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
SUMMARY
Background
The consultants were commissioned by the Mang’elete Water Project/ World Vision
Mtito-Andei IPA to undertake investigations for suitable borehole site within UTU village,
Mang’elete Location of Kambu Division in different community designated areas with the
objective of supplying safe and clean water to the target communities. The current report
describes the objectives of the programme, the overview of the project area, the methodology
and the expected output. The report also describes the results of the geophysical surveys carried
between 26th November and 27th November 2010.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Project area
The Project Area is located at the southern tip of Kibwezi District and is bounded
by latitudes 2°5'S and 3°5'S and longitudes 37°20'E and 38°35'E (Fig. 2).The
physiography is characterised by flat lowland, with an altitude varying from 300m
to 900m above mean sea level (amsl). It has been described by Pulfrey (1960) and
Ojany (1966) as the low foreland plateau. It borders Cenozoic lava highlands,
represented by the Chyulu Range (2000m amsl), to the west and an
intermediate lava plateau, the Yatta Plateau (900m
amsl), to the far east of the study area.
The current water demand for the investigated community areas is not known due to lack of
proper demographic data. It is however reported that the community anticipates about 20m3
of water daily to meet their envisaged purposes.
Hydrogeological System
Conventionally, the semi-humid highland environment of Chyullu ranges about 3km away from
the study site appears to offer reasonable groundwater recharge potential to the investigated
area. The relatively high rainfall, undulating topography and deep weathering are all
comparatively favorable hydrological/hydrogeological characteristics. The presence of
pronounced relief in some places results in relatively high hydraulic gradients. As a result,
groundwater may be quickly drained from areas of high relief to low-lying areas where it
remains longer (available) for abstraction.
The hydrogeology of an area is determined by the nature of the parent rock, structural
features, weathering processes and precipitation patterns. Lava flows rarely possess significant
primary pore space; instead, groundwater occurs within secondary features, such as fissure
zones, fractures, sedimentary beds, lithological contacts and Old Land Surfaces (OLS). The
weathered zones or “Old Land Surfaces” (OLS) characterize periods of erosion between
volcanic eruptions and subsequent lava flows. These potential aquifers comprise soils,
weathered rocks and water-lain material of volcanic origin. The thickness of the OLS is
variable, but the water-producing zones, which are usually sandy or gravelly, rarely exceed a
few meters. Unlike lava flows, pyroclastic deposits and especially volcanic sediments (e.g.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
those embedded in the Chyullu Basalts) are generally porous: the cavities between the mineral
grains are usually open and interconnected. Consequently, they can contain and transmit
water. Whereas sedimentary deposits of pure, unconsolidated sands are highly transmissive,
the permeability rapidly decreases in the presence of clays, even if their portion is very small.
Heavy clays, marked by porosity as high as 50%, are generally impermeable. Tuff layers and
ashes generally possess unfavourable hydraulic characteristics, similar to those of clays.
Below this volcanic carpet, the metamorphic Basements rocks are generally hard and compact,
and posses no primary porosity. Groundwater occurrence in the Basement rocks is likely to be
localized, and limited to relatively small and isolated pockets. However, depending on the parent
material, water may be struck in the weathered top layers (regolith and saprock). The underlying
fresh Basement is in most cases dry, and significant amounts of groundwater can only be
expected in fractures (cracks, joints, fissures, and faults).
Geophysical Investigations
Combined geophysical and hydrogeological fieldwork was carried out between 26th - 27th
November,2010. The main aim of the geophysical investigations was to get an insight into the
hydrogeological conditions prevailing within the selected areas designated by the community
as well as identifying optimum borehole drilling sites in those particular community areas.
These investigations were carried out in six(6) community areas identified previously by
Mang’elete Water Project/World Vision Mtito-Andei IPA as areas that require intervention due
high water demand. In total Six (6)no.VES soundings and One(1) km of profiling was
executed. In the course of the fieldwork, rains caused some slight delays but no significant
amount of rain derailed the project execution. A Garmin e-trex GPS Satellite Navigator
and a Magellan Thales Mapper(Data logger) with GPS and Terrasync software was
used to obtain accurate co-ordinates of the measured/surveyed points and log the identified
VESs as well as collecting secondary hydrogeological data. All electrical measurements were
undertaken using a TERRAMETER SAS 300C with depth booster and LUND-Imaging.
Data analysis was qualitatively plotted in the field on Bi-logarithmic graph paper and later
detailed quantatitive interpretations were undertaken in the office using Interpex-1D and
Nile software as well forward modelling and inversion using LOKE software
Results and Discussion
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
In general, most of the profiles were executed in an east – west direction as the fault/fracture
zones generally trend north – south or northwest – southeast. In most cases the profiles which
were carried out using schlumberger array did not exceed 500 m. They were carried out at
20m station intervals and an AB separation of 100 m. While carrying out this exercise, the
target was low anomalies which in this case indicate weathered or weak zones considering that
the bedrock in most places is fairly shallow. The points at which low anomalies were noted were
marked for vertical electrical soundings (VES). It is worth mentioning that in some cases, other
indicators like large trees( e.g. VES I (MIWA I), VESII(KWA NDIKI), VES III(KWA
PAUL),clearly marked the fault/fracture zones and this in combination with the profiles gave
very excellent results.
The VES measurements were executed on the anomalous points along the profile lines. The
most distinct characteristic noted on these measurements is the presence of weathered zones
between 50m and a maximum depth of 80 m bgl within the suspected aquifer zones. It is quite
clear that these aquifers are discontinuous and are not necessarily all connected. However in
some places, the resistivities observed from the measurements indicate the presence of clayey
material at depth and this is also noticeable where gullies expose the stratigraphy though to a
shallow depth of not more than 3 metres. In interpretation of the resultant curves, 6 – layer
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
models were adopted based on the trend of the curves. It should be noted that although there
was vastness of the area of investigations, there was a slightly distinct variation in the trend of
curves, hence similar layered models.
In general however, the most promising curves depict a high resistivity layer overlying the low
resistivity regime (aquifer) in most of the layers. In theory, this indicates that the main aquifer
does not derive its recharge locally but is connected to a wider, probably regional recharge
system which would mean a more reliable and stable supply. It is expected that such an aquifer
would be semi confined or confined depending on the recharge.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Project Details
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Confined aquifer Confined aquifers are those in which the piezometric level is higher than the
elevation at which the aquifer was encountered. Static water levels are at a
higher level than the top of the formation.
Development In borehole engineering, this is the general term for procedures applied to
repair the damage done to the formation during drilling. Often the borehole
walls are partially clogged by an impermeable “wall cake”, consisting of fine
debris crushed during drilling, and clays from the penetrated formations. Well
development removes these clayey cakes, and increases the porosity and
permeability of the materials around the intake portion of the well. As a result,
a higher sustainable yield can be achieved.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Drawdown The distance between the static water level and the pumped water level. The
term residual drawdown is used for the same distance during recovery of
the well.
Evaporation Loss of water from a land area through transpiration from vegetation and
evaporation from the surface.
Fault A larger fracture surface along which appreciable displacement has taken place.
Hydraulic Head Energy contained in a water mass, produced by elevation, pressure, or velocity.
Hydrogeological Those factors that deal with subsurface waters and related geological aspects
of surface waters.
Infiltration Process of water entering the soil through the ground surface.
Percolation Process of water seeping through the unsaturated zone, generally from a
surface source to the saturated zone.
Phonolite Compact and fine textured volcanic rock, belonging to the trachyte-group
(together with trachytes and latite). Defined by a high portion of feldspar (40-
90%) and feldspatoidic minerals (10-60%: analcite, nepheline, leucite, etc.),
and very low to negligible quartz content (0-2%). Incorporated dark coloured
minerals (0-40%) most commonly include hornblende, olivine, melanite and
acmite. The structure is porphyritic with common phenocrysts of sanidine
(orthoclase, or Potassium-feldspar) and nepheline.
Piezometric level An imaginary water table, representing the total head in a confined aquifer, and
is defined by the level to which water would rise in a well.
Porosity The portion of bulk volume in a rock or sediment that is occupied by openings,
whether isolated or connected.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Pumping test A test that is conducted to determine aquifer and/or well characteristics.
Pyroclastic rocks Group of rocks consisting of volcanic dust, ashes, lapilli, and coarse fragments
or boulders of lava (volcanic bombs), which have been thrown out of the
eruptive centre in molten condition, and deposited by gravity. Hardened masses
of dust, ashes and lapilli are known as tuff, while coarse, consolidated
pyroclastic debris is referred to as agglomerate.
Recharge General term applied to the passage of water from surface or subsurface
sources (e.g. rivers, rainfall, lateral groundwater flow) to the aquifer zones.
Specific capacity Ratio of pumping rate and drawdown (m3/hr/m); a measure for the well
performance.
Static water level The level of water in a well that is not being affected by abstraction of
groundwater.
Trachyte Compact and fine textured volcanic rock, belonging to the trachyte-group
(together with phonolite and latite). Often marked by laminar flow structures.
Defined by a very high portion of feldspar (40-90%) and a relatively low portion
of feldspatoidic minerals (0-10%) and quartz (0-20%). Incorporated dark
coloured minerals (0-40%) most commonly include pyroxene, hornblende,
olivine, apatite and biotite. Porphyritic structure with common phenocrysts of
plagioclase (Sodium-Calcium-Aluminium feldspar), sanidine, pyroxene and
hornblende.
Transmissivity A measure for the capacity of an aquifer to conduct water through its
saturated thickness (m2/day).
Unconfined Referring to an aquifer situation whereby the water table is exposed to the
atmosphere through openings in the overlying materials (as opposed to
>confined conditions).
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
1.1 Location
The Project Area is located at the southern tip of Kibwezi District and is
bounded by latitudes 2°5'S and 3°5'S and longitudes 37°20'E and 38°35'E (Fig.
1).The physiography is characterised by flat lowland, with an altitude varying
from 300m to 900m above mean sea level (amsl). It has been described by
Pulfrey (1960) and Ojany (1966) as the low foreland plateau. It borders
Cenozoic lava highlands, represented by the Chyulu Range (2000m amsl),
to the west and an intermediate lava plateau, the Yatta Plateau (900m
amsl), to the east.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
3.1 Climate
The project site is located on a typical arid and semi – arid land (ASAL ZONE). It is
within ecological zones 4 & 5. It receives rains within two seasons of the year i.e.
between March & May and November & December rainfall seasons. Mean annual
temperatures range from 27-300C & 18-270C maxima and minima respectively.
There is high vapor-transpiration and percolation rates thus during rains water is quickly
lost to the atmosphere and to the ground respectively. The mean annual rainfall is 500
mm.
3.2 Physiography
The topography is undulating with basement and granite intrusive rock outcrops in
many places. The general physiography of the area is attributed to prolonged period of
weathering, deposition and volcanic intrusions. There area numerous dome-shaped hills
which expose the country rock. These outcropping features are dominantly basement in
nature and include gneiss, paragneisses as well as undifferentiated basement rocks.
3.3 Land Use Physical Development
The study area and its environs is characterized by open grasslands punctuated by
shrublands but some man-made forests do exist in places. These forests predominantly
comprise indigeneous species and are quite extensive in some places. In some places
where shallow groundwater is present, large Khat(Miraa) trees occur but further west
towards Chyullu hills, the vegetation is dominated by ‘thickets’. These consist of
heterogeneous dense trees and bushes, which form almost impenetrable thickets at their
peak development.
Apart from the thickets, other vegetation types predominant in the region are dependent
on the topography and soil types. In the ‘black cotton’ covered areas, tree-less grass cover
with occasional trees dominates the vegetation. The areas adjacent to the black cotton
grasslands are covered by different species of acacia while the hill-tops are covered by
bushes and woodlands. The seasonally wet areas have more typical woodland vegetation.
3.4 Soils
The soils of the Study area range widely in depth, colour, drainage, structure, chemical
and physical properties. However, most soils have a sandy texture in the subsoil. In
general, the parent material and physiography largely determine the pattern of the
soils. The variations in the present-day climate are in general too small to appear in the
morphology or chemistry of the soils in study area, particularly in the plains. The
Mtito-Andei and Chyulu hills form the exception. Here soils are found which differ
clearly from those dominating the lowlands. This can be attributed mainly to a much
higher rainfall on the hills. However, there are several major soil regions, which are
distinguishable from each other. These include (i) mountain, hill, low ridge and
scarps; (ii) foot slopes, piedmont plain and plateau; (iii) uplands; (iv) erosional plains;
(v) sedimentary plains; (vi) floodplains, (vii) alluvial valleys and bottom- lands; and
(viii) volcanic plains and lava flows.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
remnants can be found at the base of the Chyulu hill and Yatta plateau (Ojani
1976). The Yatta plateau consists of a protective cap of Miocene phonolite, only about
10 m thick, overlying gneiss of the basement system. The erosional plains are
developed on a variety of rock types, such as the basement system rock and the
Duruma sandstone. The sedimentary plains are developed on the Pleistocene ‘bay
deposit’ of an unconsolidated clayey and saline nature on the eastern side. The
gradual east-west gradient rises from the sea level in the east to over 1,000 m in the
west. The slope is gentle in the east, becoming steeper in the west. The generally flat
relief is interrupted by (i) a basement massif which constitutes the Taita Hills-Dabida,
which comprises about 48 hills, of which the highest are Vuria (2,228 m) and Sagalla
(1,450 m); (ii) the Machakos highlands in the west; and (iii) by ‘Inselbergs’17 such as
Endau, Ngulia, Kasigau and Kilibasi. They consist mostly of a quartzitic type of
basement system rock, which makes them resistant to weathering and erosion.
Where the basement system consists of crystalline limestone, low elongated ridges
are often formed.
The local geology has been delineated based on the few visible outcrops and geological
log of boreholes that have been drilled in the area. As observed during the fieldwork,
the investigated area around the compound is entirely underlain by rocks of the Tertiary
Volcanics and Pleistocene Pyroclastics composed of basaltic cones, cinders and ash. The
volcanic material tectonically sits on the basement regolith at depth.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
(a) Hydrogeology
The hydrogeology of an area is determined by the nature of the parent rock, structural
features, weathering processes and precipitation patterns. Lava flows rarely possess
significant primary porespace; instead, groundwater occurs within secondary features,
such as fissure zones, fractures, sedimentary beds, lithological contacts and Old Land
Surfaces (OLS).
The weathered zones or “Old Land Surfaces” (OLS) characterize periods of erosion
between volcanic eruptions and subsequent lava flows. These potential aquifers
comprise soils, weathered rocks and water-lain material of volcanic origin. The
thickness of the OLS is variable, but the water-producing zones, which are usually
sandy or gravelly, rarely exceed a few meters.
Unlike lava flows, pyroclastic deposits and especially volcanic sediments (e.g. those
embedded in the Chyullu Basalts) are generally porous: the cavities between the
mineral grains are usually open and interconnected. Consequently, they can contain
and transmit water.
Below the volcanic carpet, the metamorphic Basements rocks are generally hard and
compact, and posses no primary porosity. Groundwater occurrence in the Basement rocks
is likely to be localized, and limited to relatively small and isolated pockets. However,
depending on the parent material, water may be struck in the weathered top layers
(regolith and saprock). The underlying fresh Basement is in most cases dry, and
significant amounts of groundwater can only be expected in fractures (cracks, joints,
fissures, and faults).
Water exists in the aquifers under two different physical conditions namely confined and
unconfined aquifers. Confined groundwater is isolated from the atmosphere at the point
of discharge by impermeable geological formations and is generally subject to pressures
higher than the atmospheric pressure.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
All the springs yield water that is classified as fresh; Umani has the lowest TDS
value of 315 mg/l. According to WHO (1984), fluoride levels above 1.5 mg/1
may cause fluorosis. According to chemical analysis by Mailu (1983) and
Temperley (1955), Umani and Mzima springs are safe for human consumption, but
Chae, Makindu and Kiboko springs are unsuitable. Makindu has the highest
value of 3.6 mg/1 fluoride. According to WHO (1984), sulphate concentrations
above 400 mg/l may cause laxative effects in human beings. Records available
for Kiboko, Mzima, Makindu and Umani springs show that only Kiboko springs
have sulphate levels above 400 mg/l (Mailu 1983 and Saggerson 1963).
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Table 5 indicates that most of the boreholes have brackish water (>1000
mg/1). No clear pattern of distribution can be identified in relation to
lithology or structure
< 1.5 3
> 1.5 2
It will be observed from Table 6 that most of the water samples have fluoride
levels less than 1.5 mg/l. spatial distribution analysis has indicated that low
lfuoride levels are common in the Mtito Andei area and high levels are common in
the Kibwezi area.
< 400 2
>400 4
Table 7 shows that most of the borehole samples have sulphate levels
above 400 mg/l. The spatial distribution analysis shows that boreholes
around Mtito-Andei have sulphate contents of less than 400 mg/l, while
those around Kibwezi and Kiboko have concentrations greater than 400 mg/l.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
4.3 RECHARGE
There are two possible ways through which aquifers in this area may be recharged.
1. Direct replenishment at the surface: this may be by way of percolation of
rainwater through the overlying sandy soils and fracture/faults
2. Indirect recharge: there is a obvious indirect recharge from the Chyullu hills
through faults and fractures that connect to the aquifers in the study area.
4.4 DISCHARGE
There are two ways through which groundwater is discharged in the area. The first one
is through abstraction from the numerous boreholes. Groundwater in the area may also
flow through fractures and faults to the areas of lower elevation. For this to happen
however, the fractures and faults have to be extensively interconnected to allow for
movement of water.
E = 2775-0.4838*EL ….
Where Eo is evaporation in meters
However, what is very important is the combination of evaporation, which is here
referred to as evapotranspiration and is given by the following relationship:-
The actual value as indicated in the water master plan is around 600mm.
When rainfall, runoff and evapotranspiration data are known for particular catchment
area, the amount of infiltrated water can be calculated as follows:-
INF = P – Q – Eta
INF = Amount of infiltrated water (mm/year)
P = Mean Annual rainfall (mm/year)
Q = Mean annual runoff (mm/year)
Eta = Mean annual evapotranspiration(mm/year)
However, not all the infiltrated water will percolate to the permanent groundwater.
Part of the infiltrated water will remain in the subsurface as the moisture that may later
be evaporated. The water percolates to the deeper groundwater when the soil
moisture has reached a saturation level.
In the literature, several valves are used for maximum soil storage. Woodhead and
Ker, Priestman and Ass use amounts from 100mm – 200mm depending on the grade
and depth of weathering and climatologically conditions of the area.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Borehole data within a locality is useful in estimating the depth of a new borehole,
expected water quality and yield. The following boreholes are found within the vicinity
of the project area. The data is given in Table 2.1.
AQUIFER PROPERTIES
Where Q is the yield during the pump test and s is the draw down i.e. PWL-WRL
Transitivity on the other hand is calculated using the formula T= 0.183 Q/s. however
this formula is applicable where well test data is available in long scale.
Logan’s formula T=1.22Q/s is the best for estimating Transmissivity. The area does not
have aquifer test and it is difficult to ascertain specific yields, storage coefficients of
existing boreholes in the project area.
From Driscoll 1986 the following summary of specific yield ranges for earth materials:
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
The Specific capacity ranges from 0.04348 to 0.25862m²/hr while the transmissivity
range from 1.2731 to 7.57339 m²/day.
Hydraulic conductivity is calculated using the formula K=T/D where K is the hydraulic
conductivity, T is the transmissivity and D is aquifer thickness. D is assumed to be 30m.
In the ministry of water and irrigation data the start of the aquifer is the one recorded
and most of the time, the thickness is not given. Due to this a lot of assumptions will be
made in order to calculate the Hydraulic conductivity.
Darcy formula is used to calculate ground water flux. It is given as Q=T .I.W, where T
is the transmissivity of the borehole, I is the gradient and W is the width.
From the above formula I is the hydrostatic head. Where I=0.0375 and the width (W) is
considered as 1000 meters.
The calculated hydraulic conductivities and ground water fluxes of the existing
boreholes are presented in the table below.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
The hydraulic conductivity ranges from 1.6 to 284 m/day and ground water flux ranges
from 48 to 284 m3/day.
6.0 GEOPHYSICS
Several geophysical methods are available to assist in the assessment of geological sub
surface conditions. In the present survey the resistivity method also known as the (geo
electrical method) has been used. Vertical electrical soundings (VES) are carried out to
probe the cautions at such anomalous zones within the sub-surface and to confirm the
existence of deep ground water. The techniques are described below.
The electrical properties of the upper parts of the earths crust are dependant upon the
lithology. Porosity and the degree of pore space saturation and the salinity of the pore
water.
Saturated rocks have lower resistivities than unsaturated and dry rocks. The higher the
porosity of the saturated rocks the lower its Resistivity. The higher the salinity of the
saturating fluids, the lower the resistivity. The presence of clays and conductive
minerals also reduce the resistivity of the rock.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
VES 5/6
VES 3 VES 4
Figure 4 shows Horizontalprofile conducted within the designated points to reveal the respective anomalies
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
The main aim of the measurements was to determine the depth to the fresh basement
formation rocks, the degree of fracturing at depth, which should be directly related to
the Transmissivity layer and thus the potential yield. As a general rule, it can be
assumed that in this case the sounding with the lowest basal resistivities in the
expected water bearing range represent the most favourable drilling site.
Table : Table 14:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES I MIWA-1.
Table 14: VES I (MIWA). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by pyroclastic layer (50 Ωm) grades into weathered basaltic pyroclastic
material (300Ωm). Below this material lies an highly undifferentiated basaltic formation
of (3000Ωm) and further highly fractures to (25 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study is believed to be the contact zone between the fractured
basalts/basement. The underlying layer with resistivity of (7000Ωm) is composed of
fresh basement at depth
Table 15: Table 2:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES II (KWA NDIKI-1.
Depth Resistivity Interpretation Aquiferous?
(m) (Ohm)
0.0 – 1.8 15 Dry phanasols No
1.8 – 4.0 2500 Fresh Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
4.0 – 11 600 slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
11 - 24 100 Compact (undifferentiated) basalts No
24-150 35 Fractured volcanic material basalts/basement(wet) Yes
>150 2000 Fresh Basement (Dry) No, Impervious
Table 15: VES II (KWA NDIKI). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone:
Relatively low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by fresh pyroclastic layer (2500 Ωm) grading into slightly weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (600Ωm). Below this material lies a differentiated basaltic
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
formation of (100Ωm) and further fractures to (30 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study. The underlying layer with resistivity of (2000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basement.
Table 16:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES III(KWA PAUL).
Depth Resistivity Interpretation Aquiferous?
(m) (Ohm)
0.0 – 0.8 70 Dry phanasols No
0.8 – 4.0 2000 Fresh Pyroclastic tuffs(Dry) No
40 – 11 500 slightly weathered pyroclastic material No
11 - 34 300 undifferentiated basalts No
23-100 40 Fractured volcanic material basalts(wet) Yes
>100 7000 Fresh Basement (Dry) No, impervious
Table 16: VES III (KWA PAUL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by fresh pyroclastic layer (2000Ωm) gradeing into slightly weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (500Ωm). Below this material lies a further differentiated
basaltic formation of (300Ωm) and further fractures to (4o Ωm) which happen to be the
Main aquifer targeted in this study. The underlying layer with resistivity of (7000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basalts.
Table 17:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES IV( KWA MIWA-II).
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Table 2: VES V (KWA MICHAEL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by loose pyroclastic layer (200-Ωm) transforming into sloose weathered
basaltic pyroclastic material (200Ωm). Below this material lies an slightly
undifferentiated basaltic formation of (600Ωm) and fslightly fractures to (100 Ωm)
which happen to be a probable aquifer which is not reliable.. The underlying layer with
resistivity of (5000Ωm) is composed of fresh basement.
Table 19:Hydrogeological Interpretation of VES VI(KWA KAKULI).
Table 2: VES VI (KWA KAKULI). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent. Physiographic zone: Relatively
low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by loose pyroclastic layer (170 Ωm) grades into weathered basaltic
pyroclastic material (180Ωm). Below this material lies an undifferentiated basaltic
formation of (900Ωm) and further fractures to (50 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study and is believed to be the contact zone between the
fractured basalts/basement. The underlying layer with resistivity of (5000Ωm) is
composed of fresh basement.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Table 20: VES (CONTROL DATA-EXISTING WELL). AB=250m; sounding data: consistent.
Physiographic zone: Relatively low ground, with Phanasols.
The geo-electric model consists of a thin sheet of dry Phanasols as the top mantle. This
is underlain by very loose pyroclastic layer (50 Ωm) grading into weathered basaltic
pyroclastic material (300Ωm). Below this material lies highly undifferentiated basaltic
formation of (2000Ωm) and further fractures to (30 Ωm) which happen to be the Main
aquifer targeted in this study. The underlying layer with resistivity of (4000Ωm) is
composed of fresh regolith.
7.0 GROUND WATER QUALITY
Generally ground water chemistry from volcanic rocks varies from place to place due to
the chemical constituents of various lavas. Water quality from the proposed borehole is
expected to be good though the fluoride level will be higher than the recommended
level by WHO. Some of the factors which determine the degree of mineralization of
ground water are as follow:-
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Considering the above factors the quality of water in our project area is expected to
vary from one bore hole to the other but generally the water has a high fluoride
exceeding the WHO limit.
In client’s study area, the rock formations are volcanic with basement at depth in
nature. Basement aquifers are localized, therefore drilling activity within the study area
shall have no impact on the aquifers, water quality, and the abstractors and neither
shall there be a likelihood of coalescing cones of depression. It shall have no negative
implications for other ground water users.
The water quality will mainly depend on the host rock and construction design. Overall,
the expected impacts resulting from the borehole to the environment and their
mitigation measures will be adequately addressed by the Environmental Impact
Assessment Study to be conducted
It is noteworthy that all the boreholes examined in this study area are more than 2km
away from the proposed drill site. Therefore we do not expect any negative impacts on
any other existing borehole within the vicinity.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
9.0 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 General
Studies and analyses have shown that all boreholes drilled within
the volcanic fields abstract their water from metamorphic rock rather
than volcanic rock aquifers. It is concluded, therefore, that all boreholes
considered in this study have derived their water from water-bearing
horizons within metamorphic rocks. Lithology and structural characteristics
of the rocks do not appear to have a significant influence on the
depths of water-bearing zones, borehole yields or water quality. However,
the contact between the metamorphic rocks and the overlying volcanic
rocks(Old surface Lands) along the tongues of volcanic flows has
proved promising for high yields for some boreholes.
9.2 Conclusion.
Based on the collected and analyzed data, the hydro geological prevailing
conditions it can be concluded as follows:-
There are good prospects of striking Groundwater within the investigated
site.
Water from this borehole is expected to be of good quality;
Information from the existing boreholes suggests that the locality has high
ground water potential.
The yield of a borehole drilled in the general area is expected to vary
between 8 and 12 cubic metres of water per hour.
Water occurrence is within the basaltic-basement contact zone
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
9.2 Recommendations:
Based on the above, it is recommended that:-
The study recommends that a borehole be drilled at the site designated as VES I
MIWA I, to an approximate depth of 160metres below ground level: this will be
sufficient for a sustainable yield of approximately 12m3/hr. It is however
expected that if drilling proceeds to bottom with good construction and borehole
design, more than 15 m3/hr can reasonably be attained.
It should be lined with appropriate casings and screens.
It should be protected from possible sources of contamination by grouting a
certain length of the borehole from the ground surface.
The borehole should be properly gravel packed to enhance yield.
• The drilling and test pumping should be supervised by water office.
• Upon completion, the borehole should be fitted with an airline/ piezometre and a
master meter to facilitate monitoring of static water level and groundwater
abstractions respectively.
• A two (2) litres water sample of this water is to be collected in a clean
container and be taken to any competent water testing authority for a full
chemical, physical and bacteriological analysis.
• It is a legal requirement, stipulated in the water act 2002,that the client applies
for a ground water permit from the Water Resources Management Authority
(WRMA) to sink a borehole. For this purpose, three signed copies of the present
report must be submitted to the authority for examination.
9.3 Further Recommendations:
The site is known to the the chairman, committee of Mang’elete water Project
and the World Vision, Mtito Andei IPA MWA Engineer
The site is accessible by a drilling rig as it is plain and road infrastructure leading
to the site is motorable.
To achieve and maintain a high yield, and maximize the efficiency of the
borehole, the importance of proper design and construction methods cannot be
overemphasized.
The water quality of the proposed borehole is expected to be palatable.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
References
Baker, B. H. (1954). Geology of the Southern Machakos District. Report No. 27. Nairobi,
Geological Survey of Kenya.
Braunn, H. M. H. (1977). Average monthly rainfall as a percentage of the annual rainfall in Kenya and
Tanzania, with particular reference to the Kenya coast, Misc. paper No. M14, Kenya Soil Survey,
Nairobi. pp. 1-5.
Central Bureau of Statistics. (1981 & 1986). Republic of Kenya. Ministry of Economic Planning
and Development.
Ferguson, A., E. Absalom, W. Kogi, and D. Omambia. (1985). Kibwezi Integrated Survey, AMREF.
April 1985. pp. 46-67.
Gachimbi, L. N. (1990). Land degradation and its control in the Kibwezi area, Kenya (Thesis).
University of Nairobi, 1990. 180p.
GoK. (1993). Makueni District Development Plan for the period 1994-1996. Govt. printer NRB.
Mbinda, B. M. (1992). Agronomic and Socio-Economic factors affecting Cotton Production in Makueni
Location, Machakos District. A Dessertation submitted as part of requirements for Bsc. in
Geography. University of Nairobi.
Mbithi, P. M. and C. Barnes. (1975). The spontaneous settlement in Kenya. East Africa Literature
Bureau. pp. 128-167.
Michieka, D. O. and B. J. A. Van Der Pouw. (1977). Soils and vegetation of the Kiboko range
research station. A semi detailed report No. 53.
Saggerson, E. P. (1963). Geology of Simba Kibwezi report No. 58 Geology Survey of Kenya,
Nairobi.
Tiffen, M. (1991). Environmental change and dryland management in Machakos District, Kenya 1930
- 1990. Population Profile: Working paper number 54. (ODI)
Touber, L. (1983). Soils and vegetation of Amboseli- Kibwezi area. Kenya soil survey report No. R
6 Nairobi In Pouw et al. ed. 1983. pp. 29-138.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
APPENDIX
Borehole Design
The design of the well should ensure that screens are placed against the optimum
aquifer zones. An experienced works drilling consultant/hydro geologist should make
the final design, and should make the main decision on the screen setting.
We do not encourage the use of torch-cut steel well casing as screens. In general, its
use will;
• Reduce well efficiency (which leads to lower yield).
• Increase pumping costs through greater draw down;
• Increase maintenance costs and eventually
• Reduction of the potential effective life of the well.
Gravel Pack
The use of gravel pack is recommended within the aquifer zones, because the aquifer
could contain sands or silts which are finer than the screen slots size. An 8” (203mm)
diameter borehole screened at 6” (153mm) will leave an annular space of
approximately 1”, which should be sufficient. Should the slot size chosen to be too
large, the well will pump sand thus damaging the pumping plant and leading to gradual
siltation of the well. The grain size of the gravel pack should be having an average of
2-4mm.
Borehole Construction
Once the design has been agreed, constructions can proceed. In installing screens and
casing, centralizers at 6 metres interval should be used to ensure centrality within the
borehole. This is particularly important to insert the artificial gravel pack all around the
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
screen. If installed, gravel packed sections should be sealed off top and bottom with
clay (2m). The remaining annular space should be backfilled with an insert material
and the top five meters grouted with cement to ensure that no surface water at the
well head can enter the well and thus prevent contamination.
Borehole Development
Development aims at;
• Repairing the damage done to the aquifer during the course of drilling by
removing clays and other additives from the borehole walls.
• Secondly, it alters the physical characteristics of the aquifer around the screen
and removes fine particles.
We do not advocate the use of over pumping as means of development since it only
increases permeability in zones, which are already permeable. Instead, we would
recommend the use of air or water jetting, or the use of the mechanical plunger, which
physically agitates the gravel pack and adjacent aquifer material. This is an extremely
efficient method of developing and cleaning wells.
Borehole Testing
After development and preliminary tests, a long duration well test should be carried out
on all newly completed wells. This gives an indication of the quality of drilling, design
and development. It also yields information on aquifer parameters which are vital to
the hydro geologist. A well test consists of pumping a well from measured start level
(water rest level (WRL) at a known or measured yield, and simultaneously recording the
discharge rate and the resulting draw downs as a function of time. Once a dynamic
water level (D.W.L) is reached, the rate of flow to the well is equal to the rate of
pumping. Towards the end of the test a water sample of 2 litres should be collected for
chemical analysis.
The duration of the test should be 24 hours; followed by recovery test until the initial
W.R.L has been reached (during which the rate of recovery to WRL is recorded.
The results of the test will enable the hydro geologist to calculate the following;
• Optimum pumping rate,
• Installation depth,
• Draw down for a given discharge rate.
• Pump size
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
WATER QUALITY
According to WHO (1984) water for human consumption should have a maximum TDS
of 1000mg/1itre, see Table 5.1.
The guidelines given in Table 5.2 are used in evaluating the quality of groundwater.
Table 5.2: Water Quality Guidelines
Water from the proposed boreholes should be analyzed to ascertain its chemical,
bacteriological suitability before it is made available for domestic use.
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
Well cover
Concrete slab
Sanitary casing
Groundlevel G roundlevel
Schematic Design for
Cement grout
Borehole Completion
Inert backfill
Plain casing
Bentonite seal
Screens
2-4 mm Gra vel pack
Bottom cap
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
V E S I( K W A M IW 'A I)
U n r e g i st e r e d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
A pp aren t R esistiv ity ( oh m - m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acin g (m )
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
V E S-II (K W A N D IK I)
U n reg istered V ersio n
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistiv ity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p aci n g ( m )
V E S-III(K W A PA U L )
U n re g i ste re d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistiv ity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acing (m )
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
1000
A pparent R esistivity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
Spacing (m )
V E S V (K W A M IC H A E L )
U n re g i ste re d V e r si o n
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistiv ity (ohm -m )
100
10
0 .1 1 10 100 1000
S p acing (m )
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
V E S V I (K W A K A K U L I )
U nregistered V ersion
4
10
1000
A pparent R esistivity (ohm -m )
100
10
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
1000
Apparent Resistivity (ohm-m)
100
10
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
Utu Area, Mang’elete, Mtito IPA
Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
▲Proposed Utu
Community BH site
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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Borehole Site Investigations World Vision-Mtito-Andei IPA
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Hydrogeological Survey Report Mang’elete Community Water Project
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