EXPLORATION FOR DEPOSITS OF

PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS
Mineralogical Association of Canada
Short Course Series Volume 35

Edited by

James E. Mungall
University of Toronto

Short Course delivered on behalf of the Mineralogical Association of Canada in Oulu, Finland,
6-7 August 2005.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction xvi

GEOCHEMISTRY OF PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

1. Magmatic Geochemistry of the PGE 1-34
J.E. Mungall

2. The Aqueous Geochemistry of the Platinum Group Elements (PGE) in Surficial, Low-T Hydrothermal
and High-T Magmatic-Hydrothermal Environments 35-56
J.J. Hanley

DESCRIPTIVE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT ORE DEPOSIT MODELS – PRECIOUS-METAL-

DOMINANT
3. Stratiform PGE Deposits in Layered Intrusions 57-73
R.G. Cawthorn

4. PGE Deposits in the Marginal Series of Layered Intrusions 75-96

M.J. Iljina, C.A. Lee

5. Behavior of PGE and PGM in the Supergene Environment: A Case Study of Persistence
and Redistribution in the Main Sulfide Zone of The Great Dyke, Zimbabwe 97-111
T. Oberthür, F. Melcher

6. Placers Associated with Ural-Alaska-type Complexes 113-143

N.D. Tolstykh, E.G. Sidorov, A.P. Krivenko

7. Descriptive Ore Deposit Models: Hydrothermal and Supergene Pt & Pd Deposits 145-161
A. Wilde

DESCRIPTIVE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT ORE DEPOSIT MODELS – BASE-METAL-

DOMINANT
8. Sudbury Cu-(Ni)-PGE Systems: Refining the Classification Using McCreedy West Mine and
Podolsky Project Case Studies 163-180
C.E.G. Farrow, J.O. Everest, D.M. King, C. Jolette

9. The Conduits of Magmatic Ore Deposits 181-201

N.T. Arndt

10. PGE Potential of Porphyry Deposits 203-246

M. Economou-Eliopoulos

EXPLORATION METHODS
11. PGE Exploration: Economic Considerations and Geological Criteria 247-274
A. Green, D. Peck

12. The Geophysical Signatures of PGE Deposits 275-285

S. Balch

13. PGE in Geochemical Exploration 287-307

E.M. Cameron, K.H. Hattori

iii
14. Lithogeochemical Prospecting 309-341
W.D. Maier, S.-J. Barnes

CASE HISTORIES
15. Fedorov-Pana layered mafic intrusion, (Kola Peninsula, Russia): approaches, methods,
and criteria for prospecting PGEs 343-358
F.P. Mitrofanov, A.U. Korghagin, K.O. Dudkin, T.V. Rundkvist

16. The Discovery and Characterization of the Nickel Rim South Deposit; Sudbury Ontario 359-368
S.A. McLean, K.H. Straub, K.M. Stevens

17. Discovery and Geology of the Lac Des Iles Palladium Deposits 369-390
M.J. Lavigne, M.J. Michaud, J. Rickard

18. Discovery of the J-M Reef, Stillwater Complex, Montana: the role of soil and silt platinum
and palladium geochemical surveys 391-407
M.L. Zientek, S.R. Corson, R.D. West

19. Exploration and Mining Perspective of the Main Sulfide Zone of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe 409-429
- Case Study of the Hartley Platinum Mine
A.H. Wilson, R.T. Brown

20. The Platinova Reef of the Skaergaard intrusion 431-455

T.F.D. Nielsen, J.C.O. Andersen, C.K. Brooks

21. Polymetallic PGE-Au Mineralization of the Sukhoi Log Deposit, Russia 457-485
V.V. Distler, M.A. Yudovskaya

22. Ni–Cu–Cr–PGE Mineralization Types: Distribution and Classification 487-494

R. Eckstrand

Index 495

iv
DETAILED LIST OF CONTENTS

GEOCHEMISTRY OF PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

1. MAGMATIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS

J.E. Mungall
INTRODUCTION 1
PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS 1
GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS – GENESIS OF PARENTAL MAGMAS 3
Origins of Basaltic Magmas 3
Physical Environments for PGE Deposits 7
GEOCHEMICAL CONTROLS – PARTITIONING OF CHALCOPHILE ELEMENTS 8
Direct Precipitation 8
PGE Alloy Solubility 8
Partition Coefficients 9
Mineral – Silicate Melt Partitioning 10
Sulfide Melt – Silicate Melt Partitioning 11
Solubility of Sulfide in Basaltic Melts 12
Mass Balance in Sulfide Melt – Silicate Melt Partitioning 14
Monosulfide Solid Solution – Sulfide Melt Partitioning 17
Fluid – Silicate Melt Partitioning 20
MANTLE MELTING AND MAGMA FERTILITY 20
SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS 24
FINAL COMMENTS 25
Appendix: Partitioning in magmatic systems 32

2. THE AQUEOUS GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS (PGE) IN SURFICIAL,

LOW-T HYDROTHERMAL AND HIGH-T MAGMATIC-HYDROTHERMAL ENVIRONMENTS
J.J. Hanley
INTRODUCTION 35
Concentration, Activity and Fugacity 35
Complexation 37
PGE Chemistry in Aqueous Fluids 38
Surficial Environments (~25ºC, 1 atm) 38
Low Temperature Hydrothermal Fluids (<500ºC) 39
Experimental Studies in Chloride-bearing Systems at low T 42
Experimental Studies in Bisulfide-bearing Systems at Low T 42
Chloride or Bisulfide? 42
The Role of Other Ligands 45
High Temperature, Magmatic Volatiles and Post-cumulus Magmatic Fluids (> 500ºC) 46
Experimental Evidence for Significant PGE Solubility at High Temperature (800–900ºC) 47
Additional Factors Limiting the Solubility of the PGE in Aqueous Fluids 48
The Importance of Field-based Observations 49
Estimating Fluid Salinity, Fluid Composition and Temperature 49
Estimating f(O2) 50
Major Conclusions to Take from this Chapter 50

v
DESCRIPTIVE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT ORE DEPOSIT MODELS – PRECIOUS-METAL-
DOMINANT

3. STRATIFORM PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT DEPOSITS IN LAYERED INTRUSIONS

R. G. Cawthorn
INTRODUCTION 57
BUSHVELD COMPLEX 57
UG2 Chromitite 57
Merensky Reef 59
STILLWATER COMPLEX 64
GREAT DYKE 65
MUNNI MUNNI INTRUSION 66
SKAERGAARD INTRUSION 66
CONTRASTS AND COMPARISONS 67
Stratigraphic Association 67
Mineral Compositions 68
Within-Reef Fractionation of the PGE 68
Cu/Pd values 70
SUMMARY 70

4. PGE DEPOSITS IN THE MARGINAL SERIES OF LAYERED INTRUSIONS

M.J. Iljina, C.A. Lee
INTRODUCTION 75
PORTIMO AND KOILLISMAA MARGINAL SERIES DEPOSITS 75
Portimo Stratigraphy and Structure 75
Diverse Portimo sulfide-PGE Mineralizations 79
Disseminated Suhanko and Konttijärvi Marginal Series Sulfides 81
Massive Suhanko Marginal Series Sulfides 81
Correlation of Portimo and Penikat Complexes 84
Haukiaho and Murtolampi Sulfide–PGE Deposits, Koillismaa 84
BUSHVELD COMPLEX 84
Platreef, Northern Bushveld 84
Platreef Stratigraphy 87
Platinum-group Minerals 88
Inter-relationship of Metals 88
Isotope Studies on the Platreef 88
SHEBA’S RIDGE, EASTERN BUSHVELD COMPLEX 89
EAST BULL LAKE INTRUSIVE SUITE 90
Se/S RATIO 92
CONCLUSIONS 94
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 95
REFERENCES 95

5. BEHAVIOR OF PGE AND PGM IN THE SUPERGENE ENVIRONMENT: A CASE STUDY OF

PERSISTENCE AND REDISTRIBUTION IN THE MAIN SULFIDE ZONE OF THE GREAT
DYKE, ZIMBABWE
T. Oberthür, F. Melcher
INTRODUCTION 97
GEOLOGICAL SETTING 97
SAMPLES AND METHODS 98
PRISTINE MAIN SULFIDE ZONE 98
Geochemistry 98
PGM and PGE-Carriers 99

vi
 Trace PGE Contents in Sulfides 100
OXIDIZED MAIN SULFIDE ZONE 100
Geochemistry 100
PGM and PGE-Carriers 102
(1) Relict PGM, and gold 104
(2) (Pt,Pd)-oxides and/or Hydroxides 106
(3) Secondary PGM (neoformations) 106
(4) PGE in Iron- and Manganese-hydroxides 106
(5) PGE in Smectites and Chlorites 108
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 108
METALLURGICAL IMPLICATIONS 109

6. PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT PLACERS ASSOCIATED WITH URAL-ALASKA TYPE

COMPLEXES
N.D. Tolstykh, E.G. Sidorov, A.P. Krivenko
INTRODUCTION 113
CLASSIFICATION OF PGM PLACERS AND THEIR LODE SOURCES 113
URAL-ALASKA TYPE COMPLEXES 116
Historical Geological Concepts for Ural-Alaska Type Zoned, Igneous Complexes 116
Geodynamic Conditions of Formation of the Ural-Alaska type complexes 116
PGE-BEARING PLACERS CONNECTED WITH URAL-ALASKA TYPE COMPLEXES 117
The commercial significance of the platinum placers 117
Features of PGM Placer Deposits 118
Morphology of PGM grains 119
Composition of Pt–Fe alloys in Placers 120
Composition of Os–Ir–Ru alloys in placers 125
Equilibrium Mineral Paragenesis in PGE-Bearing Placers 129
1. Pt–Fe Alloy-Osmium Paragenesis 129
2. Isoferroplatinum-Iridium Paragenesis 129
DISCUSSION 136
Typomorphic Features of Placers Related to Ural-Alaska Complexes as Compared to Placers
Associated with Ophiolites 136
Evolution of the Ore-Forming System of Ural-Alaska Complexes 137
CONCLUSIONS 138

7. DESCRIPTIVE ORE DEPOSIT MODELS: HYDROTHERMAL AND SUPERGENE Pt & Pd

DEPOSITS
A. Wilde
INTRODUCTION 145
DEPOSITS OF REDUCED PASSIVE MARGINS 148
Orogenic Au-Pt-Pd Deposits in Carbonaceous Metasedimentary Rocks 148
Sediment-Hosted Ni-Mo-Zn Deposits 149
DEPOSITS OF OXIDIZED INTRACRATONIC BASINS 153
Unconformity Type U-Au-Pt-Pd Deposits 153
Sediment-Hosted Cu Deposits 154
Jacutinga Au-Pd Deposits 155
NEAR-SURFACE (SUPERGENE) DEPOSITS 155
Listwaenite-hosted 155
Lateritic Deposits 156
DISCUSSION 156
CONCLUSIONS 158

vii
DESCRIPTIVE PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT ORE DEPOSIT MODELS – BASE-METAL-
DOMINANT

8. SUDBURY Cu-(Ni)-PGE SYSTEMS: REFINING THE CLASSIFICATION: USING McCREEDY

WEST MINE, AND PODOLSKY PROJECT CASE STUDIES
C.E.G. Farrow, J.O. Everest, D.M. King, C. Jolette
INTRODUCTION 163
SUDBURY AREA GEOLOGY 163
STYLES OF Ni–Cu–PGE SULFIDE DEPOSITS AT SUDBURY 164
GEOLOGY OF THE Cu–(Ni)–PGE DEPOSITS AT SUDBURY 165
Geological Characteristics 165
‘Sharp-Walled’ Vein Systems: McCreedy West 700 Complex 166
‘Low-Sulfide’ Mineralization: The McCreedy West PM Deposit 167
‘Hybrid’ Systems: Podolsky North & 2000 Zones 169
Geochemical Characteristics 171
DISCUSSION 175
Genetic Interpretation of Cu(–Ni)–PGE Systems: Towards a Unifying Hypothesis 175
CONCLUSIONS 177

9. THE CONDUITS OF MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS

N.T. Arndt
INTRODUCTION 181
MAGMA DYNAMICS: THE PASSAGE OF MAGMA THROUGH THE CRUST 181
NORIL’SK-TALNAKH CU-NI-PGE SULFIDE DEPOSITS 183
Models for the Formation of Noril’sk-Talnakh Deposits 188
Differences between the compositions of lavas and intrusive rocks 189
Phase Equilibria Constraints 192
S Isotope Ratios 192
Differences in Trace Element Ratios and Isotopic Compositions 193
Magmatic Plumbing of the Noril’sk-Talnakh System 193
ORE DEPOSITS OF THE BUSHVELD COMPLEX 195
The Role of Crustal Structure in Ore Formation and a New Classification of Deposits 197
CONCLUSIONS 198

10. PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT POTENTIAL OF PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

M. Economou-Eliopoulos
INTRODUCTION 203
DISTRIBUTION OF PORPHYRY Cu DEPOSITS ALONG CONVERGENT PLATE MARGINS 204
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALINE INTRUSIONS 205
ALTERATION TYPES OF PORPHYRY INTRUSIONS 205
MINERALIZATION OF PORPHYRY Cu SYSTEMS 206
TRANSPORT OF PGE IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS 206
Experimental Data 206
Field Observations 210
Applications to Porphyry Systems 211
PGE MINERALIZATION IN PORPHYRY SYSTEMS 211
Distribution of Au in Cu-minerals, Gold and Electrum 211
Pd–Pt-Minerals 214
Tetrahedrite-tennantite 216
Galena-Clausthalite 216
Linnaeite-siegenite-carrollite 216
SIGNIFICANT Pd AND Pt CONTENTS IN ONLY CERTAIN PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
WORLDWIDE 216

viii
 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PORPHYRY Cu–Au–Pd±Pt DEPOSITS 216
CRITICAL FACTORS FOR THE FORMATION OF PORPHYRY Cu+Au+Pd ±Pt DEPOSITS 217
Sources of Metals and Sulfur in Porphyry Copper Deposits 217
Evolution of Mineralized Systems 221
Importance of Vapor Phase in the Transport of Ore Elements 221
Exploration – Key Characteristics of Cu+Au+Pd ±Pt Deposits 222
EVALUATION OF Pd AND Pt AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR FOR PORPHYRY Cu–Au
SYSTEMS 223
PALLADIUM AND PLATINUM RECOVERY 224
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 224
APPENDIX 235

EXPLORATION METHODS

11. PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS EXPLORATION: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND

GEOLOGICAL CRITERIA
A. Green, D. Peck
INTRODUCTION 247
PGE DEMAND 247
PGE SUPPLY, RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION PROGRESS 249
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXPLORATION 251
PGE DEPOSIT CLASSIFICATION 252
MAGMATIC DEPOSITS – GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 252
Age 252
Size and shape 254
Setting 257
LOW S MAGMATIC DEPOSITS 257
Overview 257
General Geology 257
Stratabound Reefs 257
Non-Stratabound and Contact Types 258
Mineralization 258
Stratabound Reefs 258
Non-Stratabound and Contact Types 258
Exploration Models 258
Stratabound Reefs 258
Exploration Methods 259
HIGH S MAGMATIC DEPOSITS 260
Overview 260
Setting of the Noril’sk-Talnakh Deposits 260
General Geology – Noril’sk-Talnakh Deposits 260
Mineralization 260
Exploration Model 261
Exploration Methods 261
BLACK SHALE-HOSTED PGE DEPOSITS 262
Classification 262
General Geology 262
Mineralization 262
Exploration Models 264
PGE as Bisulfide Complexes 264
PGE as Chloride Complexes 264
Exploration Methods 265
Examples 265

ix
 DISCUSSION: EXPLORATION STRATEGIES FOR PGE 265
Getting Started 265
Source-Transport-Trap Theory 265
Source 266
Transport 268
Trap 268
Recommended Strategies 269
SUMMARY 270

12. THE GEOPHYSICAL SIGNATURES OF PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT DEPOSITS

S. Balch
INTRODUCTION 275
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 275
NI–CU SULFIDE DEPOSITS 277
Ultramafic Flows 281
Large Layered Intrusions 282
Magmatic Intrusions 283
DISCUSSION 283

13. PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENTS IN GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION

E.M. Cameron, K.H. Hattori
INTRODUCTION 287
BEHAVIOR OF PGE IN WEATHERING ENVIRONMENTS 287
MOBILITY OF PGE IN SURFACE ENVIRONMENTS 290
GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION METHODS 291
Based on Clastic Dispersion 291
Stream Sediments 291
Glacial Tills and Derived Soils 292
Based on Hydromorphic Dispersion 293
Organic Trapping of Pd along Drainage Courses 293
Biogeochemistry 294
Palladium and Platinum in Waters 296
Based on both Clastic and Hydromorphic Dispersion 296
Lake Sediments 296
Based on Residual Accumulations 298
Laterite Soils and Gossans 298
Use of Other Indicator Elements for PGE-Bearing Mineralization 301
ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND QUALITY CONTROL 302
CONCLUSIONS 303

14. APPLICATION OF LITHOGEOCHEMISTRY TO EXPLORATION FOR PGE DEPOSITS

W.D. Maier, S.-J. Barnes
INTRODUCTION 309
LITHOGEOCHEMICAL INDICATORS USED IN THE EXPLORATION FOR PGE
REEF-TYPE DEPOSITS 310
Introduction 310
Evaluation of Chalcophile Metal Depletion 310
Methods Applied to Whole Rocks 310
Methods Applied to Minerals 311
Contamination of Magma with Crust 313
Lithophile Incompatible Trace Elements 313
Strontium and Neodymium Isotopes 314
Osmium Isotopes 316

x
 Lead Isotopes 316
Sulfur Isotopes 317
Oxygen Isotopes 318
LITHOGEOCHEMICAL INDICATORS USED IN THE EXPLORATION FOR MASSIVE
Ni–Cu SULFIDE DEPOSITS 319
Introduction 319
Evaluation of Chalcophile Metal Depletion 319
Methods Applied to Whole Rocks 319
Methods Applied to Minerals: Ni Contents of Olivine and Pyroxenes 322
Compatible Elements as Indicators for Prospective Volcanological Environments 325
Contamination of Magma with Crust 326
Lithophile-incompatible Trace Elements 326
Strontium and Neodymium Isotopes 328
Osmium Isotopes 330
Sulfur Isotopes 330
Oxygen Isotopes 331
SUMMARY 332

CASE HISTORIES

15. FEDOROV-PANA LAYERED MAFIC INTRUSION (KOLA PENINSULA, RUSSIA):

APPROACHES, METHODS, AND CRITERIA FOR PROSPECTING PGES
F.P. Mitrofanov, A.U. Korghagin, K.O. Dudkin, T.V. Rundkvist
FEDOROV-PANA INTRUSION: GEOLOGY AND PGE-MINERALIZATION 343
History of PGE prospecting 343
General Description 344
Fedorov Massif 345
West Pana Massif 346
Northern PGE-bearing Reef 347
Southern PGE-bearing Reef 349
East Pana Massif 349
PGE-mineralization 349
PROSPECTING FOR PGE IN THE FEDOROV-PANA LAYERED INTRUSION OF THE
KOLA PENINSULA: APPROACH AND EXPERIENCE 351
Prospecting Methodology 351
Geological Mapping and Prospecting Using Eluvial Boulders 351
Magnetic Survey 352
Electrical IP Survey 354
Inductive EM Survey 354
Geochemical Survey 355
Drilling 356
Key criteria for PGE-localization within the Fedorov-Pana intrusion 356
Criteria for the identification of PGE-bearing layered intrusions in the Kola platinum belt 357
CONCLUSIONS 357

16. THE DISCOVERY AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE NICKEL RIM SOUTH DEPOSIT,
SUDBURY, ONTARIO
S.A. McLean, K.H. Straub, K.M. Stevens
INTRODUCTION 359
General Geology 359
Discovery 360
Nickel Rim South Deposits 362
Contact Mineralization 362

xi
 Transitional Mineralization 364
Footwall Mineralization 364
Metal Zonation and Distribution 367
SUMMARY 367

17. DISCOVERY AND GEOLOGY OF THE LAC DES ILES PALLADIUM DEPOSITS
M.J. Lavigne, M.J. Michaud, J. Rickard
EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT HISTORY 369
REGIONAL GEOLOGY 376
Geology of the Lac des Iles Intrusive Complex (LDI-IC) 377
Geology of the Roby Zone 379
High-Grade Ore 380
North Roby Ore 383
Breccia Ore 383
Geology of the Twilight Zone 386
Baker Zone 387
DISCUSSION 387

18. GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS OF SOIL AND TALUS FINES AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE J-M
REEF, STILLWATER COMPLEX, MONTANA
M.L. Zientek, S.R. Corson, R.D. West
INTRODUCTION 391
Surficial Geology of the Study Area 391
Igneous Stratigraphy of the Stillwater Complex 392
Discovery of the J-M Reef 394
Soil and Talus Fines Sampling Program 395
Johns-Manville Anomalous Samples 395
Population Statistics 395
Interpolated Surfaces 397
Platinum and Palladium Soil and Talus Fines Geochemistry in Relation to the Outcrop Trace of
the J-M Reef 398
East Side of Boulder River Canyon 398
East Boulder Plateau and headwaters of East Boulder River 398
Iron Creek drainage and cliffs along the West Fork of the Stillwater River 398
West Fork Stillwater River to Stillwater River 404
Stillwater River to Black Butte 404
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY 404

19. EXPLORATION AND MINING OF THE MAIN SULPHIDE ZONE OF THE GREAT DYKE,
ZIMBABWE – CASE STUDY OF THE HARTLEY PLATINUM MINE
A.H. Wilson, R.T. Brown
INTRODUCTION 409
EXPLORATION HISTORY 409
GEOLOGICAL SETTING, STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 411
The Host Rocks to the MSZ and the Enclosing Rock Types 411
Distribution of Sulfide in the MSZ 414
PGE and Base Metal Mineralization in the MSZ 414
Platinum Group Mineralogy of the MSZ 416
Nature of the MSZ at Hartley Platinum Mine 416
PGE Distribution in the Ore Zone 417
Stratigraphic PGE Distributions in a Single Borehole 417
Inter-element Variations for the Data Set 417
Regional Controls on PGE distribution in the MSZ 418

xii
 Cumulative PGE Contents 419
MINING GEOLOGY AT HARTLEY PLATINUM MINE 422
Grade Control 422
Marking the BMSZ 423
Chip Sampling 424
Channel Sampling 424
Grade History 424
INTEGRATION OF EXPLORATION DATA, MINE EVALUATION AND GRADE CONTROL 426
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS 427

20. THE PLATINOVA REEF OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

T.F.D. Nielsen, J.C.O. Andersen, C.K. Brooks
INTRODUCTION 431
REGIONAL MAGMATIC AND GEOCHEMICAL CONTEXT 432
Precambrian Basement and Mesozoic to Paleogene Sedimentary Rocks 432
Paleogene Volcanic Rocks 432
THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION 433
Access 433
Geological Introduction 435
Shape of the Intrusion 435
Zone and Sub-zones 437
Internal Structure 438
Line of Liquid Descent 438
EXPLORATION HISTORY 438
Pre-exploration Geochemical and Mineralogical Studies 439
Discovery Stage (1986–1988) 439
Early Exploration Stage (1989–1991) 440
Preliminary Resource Estimates 440
POST-EXPLORATION STUDIES (1991–2004) 441
Structure of the Platinova Reef 441
Stratigraphic Control 442
Mineralogy of the Platinova Reef 442
Sulfides, Magnetite and Ilmenite 442
PGE and Au phases 446
Metallurgic investigations 448
RE-JUVENATED EXPLORATION (2000– 2004) 449
TOWARD A MODEL FOR THE SKAERGAARD-TYPE MINERALIZATION 449
LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE PLATINOVA REEF 450

21. POLYMETALLIC PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT (PGE)-Au MINERALIZATION OF THE

SUKHOI LOG DEPOSIT, RUSSIA
V.V. Distler, M.A. Yudovskaya
INTRODUCTION 457
HISTORY OF EXPLORATION 457
REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING 458
Deposit-scale Geologic Setting 460
Types of Ore 461
Ore Composition 462
Age of Mineralization 463
Carbonaceous Matter in the Ore-hosting Black Shale 465
Carbonaceous Matter and Noble Metals 467
Mineralogy of the Ores 468
Native Gold 468

xiii
 Minerals of the Fe–Ni–S System 468
Minerals of the Ni–Co–Fe–As–S System 471
Minor and Rare Minerals 472
Native metals and alloys 473
PLATINUM MINERALIZATION 474
Analytical Procedures 474
Direct Determination of the Mode of Occurrence of PGE 474
Ultra Heavy Concentrates 475
Carbon-rich Concentrates 475
General Features of PGE Mineralization 476
PGE Mineralogy 477
Some Important Results on Mineral and Concentrate Studies 480
Geochemical Characteristics of Mineralization REE Fractionation 480
Stable Isotopes 481
Thermochemical Characteristics of Ore-forming Fluids 481
Genetic Model 482
Searching Criteria for the Sukhoi Log-type Ore Mineralization 483

22. Ni–Cu–Cr–PGE MINERALIZATION TYPES: DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION

R. Eckstrand
A MAGMATIC DEPOSITS 487
A1 Basal Sulfide Concentrations 487
A1a Sills/chonoliths 487
A1b Impact melt 487
A1c Komatiites 487
A2 Reefs 487
A2a Sulfide Reefs 488
A2b Chromitite Reefs 488
A2c Magnetitite Reefs 488
A3 Internal Zones of Sulfide Dissemination 488
A4 Magmatic Breccia 488
A5 Stock-like Intrusions 488
A6 Sulfides in Ophiolites 488
A7 Tectonically Remobilized Sulfides 488
A8 Podiform Chromite 489
A9 Chromite-arsenide 489
B SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS 489
B1 Placer deposits 489
B2 Black Shale 489
C HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS 489
C1 Polymetallic Veins 489
C2 Hydrothermally Remobilized Sulfide 489
C3 Unconformity U–Au–PGE 489
C4 Clastic sediment-hosted 489
C5 Iron formation 489
C6 Cu Porphyry 489
C7 Kupferschiefer 489
D LATERITE 490

xiv
 MINERALOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF CANADA SHORT COURSE 35
EXPLORATION FOR PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT DEPOSITS
INTRODUCTION
The principal aim of this book and the
short course is to bridge a gap between
exploration geologists and academics. In keeping
with the educational mandate of UNESCO, which
has generously sponsored the activities of IGCP
Project 479, our goal is to disseminate current
knowledge of platinum group element ore genesis
and exploration techniques to as wide an audience
as possible worldwide. To further promote global
dissemination of knowledge, the book will be
available for free download from the MAC on the
Internet after a one-year moratorium.
This book is designed to give a
progression from the general to the specific, while
focussing on factual information and avoiding un-
necessary attention to some of the more
contentious issues surrounding petrogenesis of
PGE deposits. Introductory chapters by J.E.
Mungall and J.J. Hanley provide an overview of
the geochemical controls on the distribution of
PGE in the Earth's crust. An attentive reader
should be able to apply the contents of these first
two chapters to make critical appraisals of the
enormous range of petrogenetic models they will
encounter in the published literature on PGE
deposits.
In the next section, R.G. Cawthorn gives
an overview of the geology, structure, and
geochemistry of stratiform PGE deposits hosted
by layered intrusions. These deposits account for
the lion's share of known PGE reserves globally.
The following article by M.J. Iljina and C.A. Lee
describes PGE mineralization hosted by marginal
facies of several major layered intrusions, which
are increasingly dominating the tally of newly-
discovered deposits worldwide. The fate of
precious metal mineralization in the weathering
environment is discussed next by T. Oberthür and
F. Melcher, who focus on the deeply weathered
profile over the Main Sulfide Zone of the Great
Dike of Zimbabwe. The following article, by
N.D. Tolstykh, E.G. Sidorov, and A.P. Krivenko,
deals with the characteristics of placer deposits of
PGE derived from deeply eroded Ural-Alaskan-
type mafic-ultramafic complexes. Historically
these deposits were the primary source of PGE.
This section of the book concludes with an
xv
overview by A. Wilde of the geology of PGE
deposits formed by hydrothermal or meteoric
fluids, an extremely varied group of deposits that
promises to grow to major importance in future
despite their historical lack of economic
importance.
In the following section of the book,
attention swings from PGE-dominated deposits to
those which are primarily deposits of the base
metals, but which also provide economically-
significant PGE credits. The two largest such
systems worldwide, the Sudbury mining camp
and the Noril'sk-Talnakh deposits, are discussed
first. C.E.G Farrow, J.O. Everest, D.M. King and
C. Jolette provide a revised classification and
petrogenetic scheme for the PGE-rich facies of
the Sudbury ore deposits. N.T. Arndt then
discusses the structure and petrogenesis of the
enormous magmatic sulfide deposits at Noril'sk in
the conduit system that fed the Siberian Traps
volcanic succession, as part of his description of
the importance of magma conduits in the
generation of PGE-rich deposits. The vast and
currently virtually unknown potential for PGE
mineralization associated with Cu and Au-Cu
porphyry deposits is discussed next by M.
Economou-Eliopoulos, who provides a thorough
summary of current knowledge of the distribution
of PGE in these enormous deposits worldwide.
The third section of the book gives the
reader a view of the principles and techniques
presently used to direct and assist in the actual
search for new deposits of the PGE. All of the
articles in this section were written by people
with extensive applied experience in the methods
they describe. A. Green and D. Peck share their
views on the fundamental economic and
geological considerations that must inform the
explorationist in his or her search for a
prospective region in which to explore. An
overview of the geophysical tools available to
help in the detection of PGE deposits is given by
S. Balch. E.M. Cameron and K. Hattori describe
a variety of methods of detection of PGE deposits
based on sampling of surficial materials, after
which W.D. Maier and S.-J. Barnes show how to
use systematic studies of whole rock
geochemistry to infer the presence of invisible or
buried PGE mineralization in large magmatic
systems.
The fourth, and final, section of the book
is a series of case studies outlining how several
major deposits of the PGE were discovered or
brought into a state of feasibility for exploitation.
F.P. Mitrofanov and others describe the discovery
of mineralization in the Fedorov-Pana intrusion in
the Kola Peninsula, giving valuable insights into
the approaches necessary for exploration in areas
of low topographic relief and deep permafrost.
S.A. McLean, K.H. Straub, and K.M. Stevens
then show how a well-conceived exploration
program in the shadow of a head-frame turned up
an important new discovery at the Nickel Rim
deposit, in a mining camp that has already seen
over a century of determined exploration. The
discovery and development of the Lac Des Iles
palladium deposit is described by M.J. Lavigne,
M.J. Michaud and J. Rickard, who give a frank
assessment of the relative utility of the various
exploration methods available in areas of thin but
persistent recent glacial overburden in the boreal
forest. The importance of soil geochemical
surveys in the discovery of the J-M reef of the
mountainous Stillwater intrusion is then discussed
by M.L. Zientek, S.R. Corson, and R.D. West.
One of the eternal problems facing miners of PGE
is grade control, due to the commonly invisible
nature of the ore minerals. This important topic is
addressed in detail by A.H. Wilson and R.T.
Brown, in their account of the development of the
Hartley Platinum Mine in the Main Sulfide Zone
of the Great Dike of Zimbabwe. A fascinating
account of serendipity and perseverance in the
discovery of the extremely well-hidden Platinova
Reef of the Skaergaard intrusion is given by
T.F.D Nielsen, J.C.O Andersen, and C.K. Brooks.
Theirs is a lesson well taken, in the ease with
which major deposits of the PGE can be
xvi
overlooked even in the most-intensively studied
rocks in the world. The concluding case study is
that of the Sukhoi Log orogenic Au-Pt deposit in
central Asia, written by V.V. Distler and M.
Yudovskaya. Their study shows how the
application of unconventional ore deposit models
to apparently conventional deposits can pay off in
the discovery of PGE mineralization.
The book concludes with a PGE ore
deposit classification and accompanying thematic
maps of PGE deposit distribution worldwide,
prepared by R. Eckstrand and L. Chorlton from
data contained in the database of the World
Minerals Project of the Geological Survey of
Canada.
With contributors originating or working
in countries including Canada, the USA, the
United Kingdom, Germany, Greece, Finland,
Denmark, Russia, Japan, South Africa,
Zimbabwe, and Australia, this book is the fruit of
a truly international effort by dozens of people
representing the best of academic and industrial
experts on PGE deposits. As Editor, I am
indebted to them and to a small army of reviewers
who gave generously of their time to keep the
book balanced, accurate, and topical.
This book is published by the
Mineralogical Association of Canada as the
handbook to accompany Short Course "Explor-
ation for Platinum Group Element Deposits". The
course is also sponsored by International
Geological Correlation Project 479 "Sustainable
Use of PGE in the 21st Century: Risks and
Opportunities", the United States Geological
Survey, and The Society of Economic Geologists.
Financial support permitting presentations of
chapters at the short course by employees of
Falconbridge Ltd, FNX Mining Company Inc,
Aeroquest Limited, and Ridge Mining has been
instrumental in the success of the short course.
James E. Mungall
University of Toronto,
20 June 2005