Introdu

tion to innite-dimensional Lie

algebras
NIKOLAOS PREZAS
Center for Theoreti al Physi s
Laboratory of Nu lear S ien e
Department of Physi s
Massa husetts Institute of Te hnology
May 1998

Abstra t
We present here an introdu tion to the subje t of innite-dimensional
Lie algebras. First we give a ompa t a ount on the stru ture of simple
Lie algebras and their lassi ation, introdu ing the basi terminology we
are going to use throughout the paper. Then we study the untwisted aÆne
Lie algebras (also known as untwisted aÆne Ka -Moody algebras) whi h
are a spe ial kind of Ka -Moody algebras. We will dene aÆne Lie alge-
bras in two ways. The rst - more abstra t - uses the notion of generalized
Cartan matri es while the se ond onstru ts them as entral extensions
of loop algebras and it is more intuitive. We will also des ribe the Vi-
rasoro algebra, the innite-dimensional Lie algebra related to onformal
transformations in two dimensions.

1
1 Introdu tion
Innite-dimensional Lie algebras appeared in mathemati s in 1967 when
V. Ka [1℄ and R. Moody [4℄ generalized the notion of Cartan matrix - whi h
des ribes the stru ture of semisimple Lie algebras - and so they onstru ted
Lie algebras with an innite number of generators. At the same time, physi-
ists were studying the so- alled \dual resonan e models" whi h led to what is
known as \string theory". The resear h on string theory showed the parti ular
importan e of the onformal invarian e of the two-dimensional quantum eld
theory that is taking pla e on the two-dimensional string world-sheet. So, on-
formal quantum eld theory in two dimensions be ame of parti ular interest
and it was proved that its symmetries ould be des ribed with ertain lasses
of innite-dimensional algebras.
However, innite-dimensional Lie algebras had already o ured in elemen-
trary parti le physi s in the form of \ urrent algebras". The simplest theory
where su h an algebra an be en ountered is that of free massless fermions in
1+1 dimensions. Later it was found that several two-dimensional -models give
rise to innite-dimensiomal symmetry algebras and now these models are alled
Wess-Zumino-Witten (WZW) theories. Finally, the most ex iting dis overy is
that the models that des ribe the behaviour of statisti al systems near the
riti al temparature of a se ond order phase transition, are also equiped with
innite-dimensional Lie algebras that are related to the symmetry of the riti al
point under lo al s ale tranformations. Sin e there is a general orrespondan e
between statisti al systems and Eu lidean quantum eld theories, it seems nat-
ural that stru tures that hara terize two-dimensional onformal quantum eld
theories will also appear in two-dimensional statisti al models with onformal
symmetry, that is lo al s ale invarian e.
Here, we will fo us on the mathemati al aspe ts of the most ommon
innite-dimensional Lie algebras, the untwisted aÆne Lie algebras and the Vi-
rasoro algebra. First we will review some basi fa ts about simple Lie algebras
with an orientation towards their lassi ation with Cartan matri es. Then
we will present two dierent ways to dene aÆne Lie algebras. The rst -
based on the Cartan matrix approa h - is the same as the one followed by Ka
and Moody and it is a straightforward generalization of the Cartan matrix by
relaxing some of the onditions on its elements. The se ond is onstru tive
and so gives an intuitive pi ture of aÆne Lie algebras and their relation with
the nite-dimensional simple Lie algebras. It is based on the notions of loop
algebras and entral extensions. We will also introdu e the Virasoro algebra.
This is a innite-dimensional Lie algebra that results as entral extension of the

2
Witt algebra. The Witt algebra is related to onformal transformations in two
dimensions be ause the Lie algebra of these transformations is the dire t sum
of two Witt algebras.

2 Simple and semisimple Lie algebras

A simple Lie algebra is a Lie algebra with no proper ideals and whi h is
not abelian. A general Lie algebra an always be written as a semidire t sum of
a dire t sum of several abelian Lie algebras and a dire t sum of several simple
Lie algebras. A dire t sum of simple Lie algebras is alled semisimple while a
dire t sum of several simple and abelian Lie algebras is alled redu tive. Sin e
the stru ture of an abelian Lie algebra is quite trivial, being the dire t sum
of one-dimensional (abelian) Lie algebras, it is obvious that the lassi ation
of Lie algebras rests upon the lassi ation of simple Lie algebras. It is one
of the most important results of twentieth- entury mathemati s that simple
Lie algebras an indeed be lassied, as E. Cartan and H. Weyl showed. The
lassi ation is done in terms of the Cartan matrix, a matrix that onveys all the
information about the stru ture of a simple Lie algebra. This stru ture imposes
several onditions on the elements of this matrix and in order to lassify simple
Lie algebras, one has to nd all the possible Cartan matri es that obey these
onditions. So the problem of lassi ation be omes one of enumeration and
ombinatori s.
Suppose g is a semisimple Lie algebra. We an hoose a maximal number
of independent generators H i so that the following relations are true :

[H i; H j℄ = 0 for i; j = 1; 2; :::; r: (1)

The spa e g0 = spanC fH i j i = 1; 2; :::; rg is a subalgebra of g and is alled the
Cartan subalgebra of g. In other words, the Cartan subalgebra is the maximal
abelian subalgebra of a Lie algebra. The dimension of g0 is alled the rank of g :
rank(g) = dim(g0). In general the Cartan subalgebra is not unique but one an
prove that all the dierent Cartan subalgebras are related with automorhisms
so that the hoi e of a Cartan subalgebra doesn't hange the des ription of a
semisimple Lie algebra. It is obvious that all the dierent Cartan subalgebras
have the same dimension r. Two Lie algebras annot be isomorphi if they have
dierent ranks.
The adjoint map asso iated with x 2 g is a derivation on g dened as :
adx : g ! g; adx (y) := [x; y℄; 8 y 2 g: (2)

3
Sin e the generators fH ig of a Cartan subalgebra ommute among themshelves,
the orresponding adjoint maps are simultaneously diagonalizable. A tually, it
an be seen that this holds for every element of the Cartan subalgebra. We
an now hoose the rest of the generators of g in su h a way that the following
ondition is satised :
[H i; E ℄ = i E  for i = 1; 2; :::; r; (3)
where fE g together with fH ig are a basis of g. The eigenvalue i := (H i)
must be non-zero for at least one i. The r-dimensional ve tor (ai)i=1;2;:::;r is
alled a root ve tor or root of g and we an see that it belongs to the dual
ve tor spa e of g0. The set of all root ve tors is alled the root system and will
be denoted be . It an be proved that for a semisimple Lie algebra the roots
are non-degenerate. That means that there is only one - up to normalization
- generator E  for every label  and so the spa es g := spanC fE g are one-
dimensional. We see that g an be written as :
g = g0 =6 0 g (4)
and this splitting is alled root spa e de omposition relative to g0. The basis
B = fH i j i = 1; 2; :::; rg[ fE  j  2 g is the Cartan-Weyl basis of g. It must
be obvious that this basis is far from being unique. The generators fE  j  2 g
are alled step or ladder operators asso iated with the roots  2 , be ause
the a tion of them on an element of a representation spa e with eigenvalues
i with respe t to the Cartan subalgebra generators, produ es elements with
eigenvalues i + i .
The roots span the dual spa e of the Cartan subalgebra, spanC () = g0,
whi h is alled root spa e, while it an also be proved than if  2  then the
only multiple of  than belongs to  is . Sin e g is an algebra and thus
a ve tor spa e, we an dene inner produ ts on it. There is a natural inner
produ t on g alled the Cartan-Killing form, whi h is dened as :
: gg ! C; (x; y) := tr(adx Æ ady ) 8 x; y 2 g: (5)
With \Æ" we mean the omposition of maps while \tr" is the tra e. Sin e the
adjoint map is linear, the Cartan-Killing form is bilinear while y li invari-
an e of the tra e implies that it is symmetri . Finally the following invarian e
property holds :
([x; y℄; z) = (x; [y; z℄) 8 x; y; z 2 g: (6)
For a simple Lie algebra g these properties dene the Cartan-Killing form up
4
to a normalization onstant.
In order to provide an inner produ t for g,  must be non-degenerate.
Cartan proved that this is true exa tly when g is semisimple. A tually, in
this ase, the restri tion of  to g0 is also non-degenerate and so the Cartan
subalgebra is equiped with an inner produ t an thus we are able to identify it
with its dual spa e, that is the root spa e. For every root  we an asso iate
an element H  of g0 (up to normalization) so that :
(h) = (H ; h) 8h2g ;0 (7)
where  is a normalization onstant that we will hoose later. We an dene
an inner produ t in g0 in the following way :
(; ) :=   (H ; H ) 8 ;  2  (8)
and extend it to all g0  g0 by bilinearity.
In general the number of roots is greater than the rank of g and so they
are linearly dependent. We an always hoose r of them to serve as a basis, with
the following ondition : every other root an be written as an integral linear
onbination of the basis roots with either only positive or negative oeÆ ients.
The orresponding roots are alled positive and negative roots respe tively.
The roots that onsist this basis are alled simple roots and we will denote
them by f(i) j i = 1; 2; :::; rg. It must be obvious that they span the whole
root spa e. However the simple root basis is not orthonormal - in terms of the
indu ed metri on the root spa e by the Cartan-Killing form - and a tually
the stru ture of g is en oded in the inner produ ts of the simple roots among
themshelves. So we dene the Cartan matrix A of g as the r  r matrix with
elements :
((i) ; (j))
Aij := 2 (j) (j) ; i; j = 1; 2; :::; r: (9)
( ;  )
For any root  we dene the oroot ^ as :
2
^ := (10)
(; ) :
In terms of oroots, the Cartan matrix elements are :
Aij := (i ; ^(j)): (11)
If we onsider the root spa e as the real span of the simple roots, its dual spa e
is alled weight spa e and its elements the weights of g. The basis B of the root

5
spa e with elements the simple oroots :
B := f^(i) j i = 1; 2; :::; rg (12)
will be frequently used in the next se tions. We an also onsider the dual basis
of B. Its elements are alled fundamental weights f(i) j i = 1; 2; :::; rg and
their denition is :
(i) (^(j) ) = Æij for i; j = 1; 2; :::; r: (13)
The basis B := f(i) j i = 1; 2; :::; rg is alled the Dynkin basis of the weight
spa e. Sin e the root spa e is endowed with an inner produ t, we an identify
it with its dual spa e, the weight spa e. That means that roots and weights
an be treated in equal footing sin e for every root  we an asso iate a weight
 as follows :
 ( ) = (; ) 8 2 span (): (14)
Sin e every root  an be written as  = Pri=1 bi (i) where bi are either all
R
I

positive or all negative, we an dene the height of  as height() := Pri=1 bi.

It an be shown that the height provides g with a natural ZZ-gradation, alled
root spa e gradation as, follows :
g(0) := g0; g(j) := spanC fE  j height() = j g for j 2 ZZ: (15)
When g is simple there is a unique root  with maximun height alled highest
root. The norm of the highest root with respe t to the metri (8) is larger or
equal to the norm of any other root :
(; )  (; ) 8  2 : (16)
Using the Ja obi identinty and (3) we nd that [H i; [E; E ℄℄ = ( +
)i [E ; E ℄. If  +  6= 0 then, sin e the roots are non-degenerate and (3)
holds, we see that :
[E ; E ℄ = e(; )E + ;  +  2  (17)
and
[E ; E ℄ = 0 ;  +  2=  (18)
where e(; ) 2 C . If  +  = 0 then [E ; E ℄ must be a sum of Cartan

6
subalgebra generators :
[E ; E ℄ =
Xr e H i: (19)
i
i=1
We return now at the denition of the inner produ t on the root spa e and x
the normalization onstant  we left arbitrary in (7). We hoose  = 12 (; )
and if we put h = H  in (7) we get :
(H  ) =  1(; ) (20)
or by using the denition of oroots :
(H  ) = (; ^): (21)
Now, any root an be written as a sum of simple roots or - that is the same -
simple oroots :
Xr
 = i ^(i) : (22)
i=1
Also any weight, element of the dual of the root spa e, an be written in the
basis of fundamental weights :

=
Xr i : (23)
i
i=1

Using the denition of fundamental weights (13) we see that :

(; ) =
Xr  i (24)
i
i=1

be ause we an onsider either  or  as a weight. So, from (7) with h = H 

and  = 21 (; ) we get :
Xr
H  = (^)iH i (25)
i=1
sin e (H i ) = i . Finally we an hoose the onstants ei in (19) as ei = ^i so
that :
[E ; E ℄ = H  (26)
from (25). With all the above, the Lie bra kets in the Cartan-Weyl basis an
be written as :
[H ; H  ℄ = 0; (27)
[H ; E ℄ = (^; )E  ; (28)

7
 [E ; E ℄ = H ; (29)
[E ; E ℄ = e(; )E + for  6= : (30)
Now we see that [E ; E m+ ℄ / E (m+1)+ for every m 2 ZZ. That
means that the subspa e mgm+ is a module of sl(2), where sl(2) is a
sl(2)-subalgebra of g spanned by fH ; E; E g. Sin e g is non-degenerate
this module is irredu ible and so the roots  + m are its weights. We know
however from the representation theory of sl(2) that the string of weights of an
irredu ible sl(2)-module must have the form :
S; = f + m j m = n ; n + 1; :::; n
1 1 2 1; n2g (31)
with n1; n2 non-negative integers. S; is alled an -string through . Also
the lowest weight must be minus the highest and so ( n1)(H ) = ( +
n2)(H ). That gives (; ^) = (H ) = 21 (n1 n2)(H ) = n1 n2 sin e
(H ) = (; ^) = 2. So, we get the important result, that the inner produ t
(; ^) is an integer. Also n1 > n2  0 if (; ) > 0 while n2 > n1  0 if
(; ) < 0. Thus we have :
  2  , (; ) > 0; (32)
+ 2  , (; ) < 0: (33)
Sin e however only the simple roots are enough to des ribe the root sys-
tem, we an keep only the step operators asso iated with them. We write
Ei := E  . Now [E+i ; E j ℄ = 0 if i 6= j sin e the dieren e of simple
(i)

roots a(i) a(j) annot be a root. This is true be ause all roots an be
written as linear ombinations of simple roots wih either all positive or all
negative oeÆ ients. Otherwise we have [E+i ; E i ℄ = H  from (29). From
(i)

(25) we see that H  = Pri=1(^(i) )jH j = H i sin e obviously (^(i) )j = Æji .
(i)

So the generators of the Cartan subalgebra asso iated to the simple roots
are just the original Cartan subalgebra generators. Now from (28) we get
[H  ; E ℄ = (^(i) ; (j))E  or, using the denition of the Cartan ma-
(i) (j) (j)

trix and the previous formulas, [H i; Ej ℄ = Aji Ej . Finally, it an be proved
that the equation (adE ) )1 A Ej = 0 is equivalent to (28). Here (adx )n is a
i
ji

short way to write adx Æadx Æ:::Æadx for n times, where (adx Æadx )(y) = [x; [x; y℄℄.
The set of generators fH i; E j i = 1; 2; :::; rg is alled Chevalley-Serre
i

basis. We an summarize the Lie bra ket relations among these generators as :
[H i; H j℄ = 0; (34)

8
 [H i; Ej ℄ = Aji Ej ; (35)
[E+i ; E j ℄ = Æij H j ; (36)
(adE ) )1 Aji E j
i  = 0: (37)
The Chevalley-Serre basis is an algebrai basis of the Lie algebra. That means
that the Lie algebra is spanned by arbitrary linear ombinations of arbitraty
multiple Lie bra kets of the basi generators, taking into onsideration the
above relations. The onstru tion of a Lie algebra from its Chevalley-Serre
basis is alled Serre onstru tion and it an be proved that for a given Cartan
matrix their is a unique Lie algebra that results from this onstru tion. So the
stru ture of every semisimple Lie algebra is en oded in its Cartan matrix.
The lassi ation of Lie algebras rests now upon the lassi ation of all
the possible Cartan matri es. First it is easy to see that for a semisimple Lie
algebra there is an arrangement of the simple roots so that the Cartan matrix
be omes blo k diagonal. Sin e semisiple Lie algebras are dire t sums of simple
Lie algebras, we an restri t the lassi ation to simple Lie algebras. To a hieve
this we have to onsider inde omposable Cartan matri es, matri es for whi h
no renumbering of the simple roots exists that brings them to blo k diagonal
form.
From the denition (9) of the Cartan matrix we see that Aii = 2. The
symmetry of the inner produ t in root spa e suggests that Aji = 0 if and only
if Aij = 0. We have proved that the inner produ t (; ^) is an integer and so
Aij = ((i) ; ^(j)) 2 ZZ. Furthermore, sin e the dieren e of simple roots is never
a root and (33) holds, it follows that ((i) ; (j))  0 for i 6= j and hen e Aij
must be a non-positive integer.
Now, it an be shown that the symmetrized Cartan matrix :

Gij = (^(i) ; ^(j)) =

2 Aij (38)
i
( )
; (j))
provides a metri in the weight spa e. So detG 6= 0 and thus detA 6= 0. Sin e
the root spa e is a real span of the simple roots, the inner produ t indu ed on it
by the Cartan-Killing form is real. Be ause for simple Lie algebras the Cartan-
Killing form is non-genenerate, we see that this form provides a eu lidean metri
on the root spa e and so on the weight spa e too. Thus the weight spa e is a
eu lidean ve tor spa e (in fa t isomorphi to RI r ) and a ordingly detA > 0.
We an now write the omplete properties that hara terize the Cartan
matrix A for nite-dimensional simple Lie algebras. A is a r  r inde omposable
matrix where :
Aii = 2; (39)
9
 Aij = 0 , Aji = 0; (40)
Aij 2 ZZ n N ; (41)
detA > 0: (42)
We nd now all the possibles values of the elements of a Cartan matrix.
We write (; ) = os()[(; )(; )℄ and so (; ^) = 2 os()[(; )=(; )℄ .
1
2
1
2

Thus (; ^)(^; ) = 4 os2()  4 or in terms of Cartan matrix elements

Aij Aji  4. Sin e (; ^)(^; ) = 4 only if  = , it follows that Aij Aji = 4
only when i = j . So, for i 6= j we have Aij Aji 2 f0; 1; 2; 3g and taking into
a ount the above onstraints on the Cartan matrix we an see that the only
possibilities for its non-diagonal entries are :
Aij = Aji = 0; (43)
Aij = Aji = 1; (44)
Aij = 1 and Aji = 2; (45)
Aij = 1 and Aji = 3: (46)
In order to lassify the simple Lie algebras, it is better to use the so- alled
Dynkin diagrams. These are diagrams asso iated with Cartan matri es in the
following way. A Dynkin diagram onsists of verti es and lines onne ting them.
Ea h vertex represents a simple root, so the number of them equals the rank
of the Lie algebra. For i 6= j the verti es that orrespond to Aij and Aji are
onne ted by max(jAij j; jAjij) lines. An arrow is added to the lines from the
ith to the j th vertex if Aij 6= 0 and jAij j > jAjij.
Using the above pro edure to onstru t all the possible Dynkin diagrams,
we an nd that there are four innite series of simple Lie algebras and ve
ex eptional ones. The four series are denoted by Ar (r  1); Br(r  3); Cr(r 
2); Dr(r  4) while the ex eptionals are E6; E7; E8; G2; F4. The subs ript de-
notes the rank of the algebra. The algebras in the innte series are alled
lassi al Lie algebras and they an be represent by matrix algebras as :
Ar 
= sl(r + 1); (47)
Br 
= so(2r + 1); (48)
Cr 
= sp(r); (49)
Dr 
= so(2r): (50)

10
3 Ka -Moody algebras
If someone relaxes some of the onditions on the Cartan matrix elements,
it is possible to get new and in fa t very interesting lasses of Lie algebras. The
expli it onstru tion of these algebras is done with the Serre onstru tion ap-
plied for the new lass of Cartan matri es. Usually however, one has to enlarge
the Cartan subalgebra with new generators alled derivations, for reasons that
will be explained later.
The notion of general Ka -Moody algebras refers to Lie algebras whose
Cartan matrix satises equations (39),(40),(41) but its determinant is not re-
stri ted to be positive. Su h a matrix will be alled generalized Cartan matrix.
In general if the determinant of the Cartan matrix is not positive, the orre-
sponding Lie algebra is innite-dimensional. Also the number of su h algebras
is extremely large and usually suÆ es to study the so- alled symmetrizable Ka -
Moody algebras. For these, there exist a non-degenerate diagonal matrix D so
that the matrix DA, with A the generalized Cartan matrix, is symmetri . Any
nite-dimensional simple Lie algebra is symmetrizable as it an be easily seen.
Also it an be proved that a symmetrizable Ka -Moody algebra is simple if and
only if the generalized Cartan matrix is inde omposable and its determinant is
non-zero.

4 AÆne Lie algebras I

A generalized Cartan matrix will be alled aÆne Cartan matrix if the
following ondition is satised :
detA(i) > 0 for i = 0; 1; :::; r (51)
where A(i) stands for the matrix obtained by A if we delete its ith row and ith
olumn. A general matrix obeying (51) is alled degenerate positive semidef-
inite. The lass of Lie algebras with aÆne Cartan matri es are alled aÆne
Lie algebras and they are the most important sub lass of (symmetrizable) Ka -
Moody algebras. Besides their formal denition as presented here, aÆne Lie
algebras o ur naturally as entral extensions of loop algebras and this will be
the subje t of the next se tions.
The lassi ation of aÆne Lie algebras up to a given rank r is done in
terms of the simple Lie algebras whose rank is less or equal to r. This is based on
the observation that by deleting the ith row and the ith olumn from an aÆne
Cartan matrix, one gets the Cartan matrix of a dire t sum of nite-dimensional
simple Lie algebras, as it is obvious from ondition (51). The result of this
11
pro edure is that ther are seven innite series of aÆne Lie algebras and also
nine ex eptional ones. The innite series are A(1) r (r  2); Br (r  3); Cr (r 
(1) (1)

2); Dr(1)(r  4); Br(2)(r  3); Cr(2)(r  2); B~r(2)(r  2) and the ex eptionals are
A(1)
1
; E6(1); E7(1); E8(1); F4(1); G(1)
2
; A(2)
1
; F4(2); G(2)
2
. The aÆne Lie algebras are thus
(l)
denoted by Xr where Xr is a simple Lie algebra and l 2 f1; 2; 3g. The algebras
with l = 1 are known as untwisted aÆne Lie algebras while those with l = 2; 3
are alled twisted aÆne Lie algebras.

5 Central extensions
Central extensions are a formal way to handle the normal-ordering diÆ-
uties that are asso iated with the transition from lassi al to quantum theories.
While in the lassi al level the symmetries of a ertain system are des ribed by
a Lie algebra g, in many ases the orresponding Lie bra kets for the quantum
ase annot be re overed ompletely. Usually, in addition to the terms already
present at the lassi al equations, there appear further terms whi h however are
not entirely arbitrary. The onstraint is that these terms must have onstant
eigenvalues on the irredu ible modules of the Lie algebra g. Thus - from S hur'r
lemma - they must have zero Lie bra kets with all the elements of g. The set
of the original generators of g with the additional \ entral" terms is alled a
entral extension g of the Lie algebra g.
From the previous dis ussion we see that in order to onstru t a entral
extension of g, we have to adjoin l additional generators K j ; j = 1; 2; :::; l to a
basis T a of g and impose the following relations :
[K i ; K j℄ = 0; [T a; K j ℄ = 0; i; j = 1; 2; :::; l; a = 1; 2; :::; d = dim(g): (52)
If the Lie bra kets of the original Lie algebra g are :

[T a; T b℄ =
Xd f ab T (53)

=1

then the most general form for the Lie bra ket of generators of g is :

[T a; T b℄ =
Xd f ab T + Xl f ab K i : (54)
i
=1 i=1

The new additional stru ture onstants f abi are not ompletely arbitrary but
are onstrained by the Ja oby identity. The simplest solution would be f abi  0
and then the entral extension is just the dire t sum of the original Lie algebra

12
g and an l-fold of one-dimensional Lie algebras :

g 
= g  (u(1))l: (55)
It must be obvious however that this extension of g is not parti ularly impor-
tant. In fa t there are many other entral extensions whi h an be redu ed to
this form by a redenition of the generators and the stru ture onstants. So the
spa e of the inequivalent non-trivial entral extensions is the spa e of solutions
for f abi that satisfy the onstraint from the Ja obi identity modulo these solu-
tions that give entral extensions of the form (55). It an be proved that the
set of these inequivalent non-trivial entral extensions is a ve tor spa e and it
is alled the se ond Lie algebra ohomology H 2(g; RI ) of g. Finally we mention
here that the entral extension of a redu tive Lie algebra is again redu tive.

6 Loop algebras
Loop algebras are a parti ularly interesting lass of innite-dimensional
Lie algebras be ause their entral extensions an be promoted to aÆne Lie alge-
bras. For every Lie algebra g we an dene its loop algebra gloop as the algebra
of analyti mappings from S 1 to g with pointwise addition and multipli ation.
Suppose now that fT a j a = 1; 2; :::; d = dim(g)g is a basis of g. Then sin e S 1
an be onsidered as the unit ir le in the omplex plane, it an be parametrized
by z = e2it; t 2 [0; 2℄. A basis of gloop is the set :
B = fTna j a = 1; 2; :::; d; n 2 ZZg (56)
with Tna := T a zn. A tually this set is not a ve tor spa e basis but a topologi al
basis of gloop be ause gloop results as the losure of the set of all linear ombina-
tions of elements of B. It is easy to see that the following Lie bra ket relation
is true :
Xd
[Tna; Tmb ℄ = f ab Tn +m (57)
=1
where f ab are the stru ture onstants of g. So gloop inherits from g a Lie algebra
stru ture. We an also see that gloop is a ZZ-graded Lie algebra. The subspa e
of gloop generated by fT0a j a = 1; 2; :::; dg is a Lie subalgebra of gloop alled
zero mode subalgebra of gloop and it is isomorphi to the original Lie algebra g.
If g is the Lie algebra of a Lie group G, then gloop is the Lie algebra of the loop
group Gloop of G, that is the set of analyti mappings from S 1 to G. Finally

13
we an summarize the stru ture of gloop as :
gloop := C [z; z 1℄
C g: (58)

7 AÆne Lie algebras II

We have dened aÆne Lie algebras previously with a pure generalization
pro edure. However it is perhaps surprising that if we ombine the ideas of the
two previous se tions and onsider entral extensions of loop algebras of simple
Lie algebras and adjoin to them a spe ial generator, the resulting obje ts are
aÆne Lie algebras.
Although the loop algebras based on simple Lie algebras are innite-
dimensional they annot be aÆne Lie algebras. The reason is that these loop
algebras have trivial enter while it an be shown that the enter of an aÆne
Lie algebra is a one-dimensional subspa e. This is the motivation for taking
the entral extensions of loop algebras. Using the general form (54) for the Lie
bra kets of a entral extension we see that for the entral extensions of a loop
algebra we have :

[Tma ; Tnb℄ =
Xd f ab T Xl (f ab ) i:
n+m + i mnK (59)
=1 i=1

with [K i; Tna℄ = 0. It is straightforward to prove that for simple g the form of

the entral term in the above relation is spe ied uniquely by the stru ture of
g and the result is :

[Tma ; Tnb℄ =
Xd f ab T a b
n+m + mÆn+m;0 (T0 ; T0 )K (60)
=1

[K; Tna℄ = 0: (61)

In other words, the loop algebras of simple Lie algebras admit a unique non-
trivial entral extension. Here (T0a; T0b) is the Cartan-Killing form of g, sin e
the generators fT0a j a = 1; 2; :::; dg span a Lie subalgebra of gloop isomorphi
with g and so we an identify them with the generators of g. The Lie subalgebra
spanned by fT0a j a = 1; 2; :::; dg is alled the horizontal subalgebra of gloop .
So far we have onstru ted the entral extension gloop of the loop algebra
gloop of a Lie algebra g. However gloop is not yet an aÆne Lie algebra. To this
end we have to add one further generator D with the following onditions :
[D; Tma ℄ = mTma ; [D; K ℄ = 0: (62)

14
It an be proved that the generators fD; K; Tna j a = 1; 2; :::; r; n 2 ZZg span
indeed an aÆne Lie algebra g(1) , whi h stru ture is :
g(1) := C [z; z 1℄
C g  CK  CD: (63)
The reason for the supers ript (1) is that when g = Xr, with X 2 fA; B; C; D; E; F; Gg,
then g(1) is exa tly the aÆne Lie algebra Xr(1) we dened in se tion 4. So, we
see that the pro edure of onstru ting aÆne Lie algebras as entral extensions
of loop algebras yields the untwisted aÆne Lie algebras. However it an be
proved that if we onsider multi-valued maps from S 1 to g as elements of a new
algebra, then the orresponding entral extension will give a twisted aÆne Lie
algebra.
Although the onstru tion of aÆne Lie algebras in terms of entral ex-
tensions of loop algebras shows that they are indeed innite-dimensional, it is
not a trivial task to prove that they are the same with the aÆne Lie algebras
we dened earlier using generalized Cartan matri es. In order to a hieve this,
a arefull and omplete analysis of the root system of the former is required.
We will give a brief introdu tion to this subje t in the next se tion.
Sin e the generator D appears only at the left side of any Lie bra ket we
see that the derived algebra of g(1) , that is the algebra spanned by all the Lie
bra kets of elements of g(1), is the same as gloop :
[g(1); g(1)℄ = gloop (64)
and for this reason D is alled the derivation of g(1). The introdu tion of
D is ne essary for a number of reasons. We see that D measures the mode
number of Tma and thus avoids ertain innite multipli ities that are en ountered
in the root system of gloop , as we will see later. Also D makes the Cartan-
Killing form non-degenerate, sin e the original denition of it as a tra e gives
ill-dened results over innite-dimensional algebras. Usually for su h algebras,
one denes the Cartan-Killing form from its properies, whi h for semisimple
algebras hara terize the Cartan-Killing form up to a normalization onstant.
Using this pro edure, the Cartan-Killing form  for g(1) gives :
(Tma ; Tnb) = (T0a; T0b)Æm+n;0; (65)
(Tma ; K ) = (Tma ; D) = (K; K ) = 0; (66)
(D; D) = 1; (67)
where (T0a; T0b) is the Cartan-Killing form of g.

15
8 Stru ture of aÆne Lie algebras
We an onstru t the generators and the Lie bra kets among them, for
aÆne Lie algebras, dire tly from the orresponding Cartan matri es using Serre's
onstru tion. However this an be proved a very ompli ated pro edure and
it is mu h easier to use their expli it realization as entral extensions of loop
algebras of simple Lie algebras with a derivation.
We hoose rst a Cartan-Weyl basis for the original simple Lie algebra
g. Let fH i j i = 1; 2; :::; rg [ fE  j  2 g su h a basis. In terms of the
orresponding generators for g(1) and given (27),(28),(29),(30), the Lie bra ket
relations (60) an be written as :
[Hmi ; Hnj ℄ = mGij Æn+m;0K; (68)
[Hmi ; En℄ = i En+m; (69)
[En; En ℄ = e(; )Em++n if  +  2 ; (70)
[En; E n℄ =
Xr  H i + nK; (71)
i 0
i=1
where i; j 2 f1; 2; :::; rg and ;  are roots of g. G is the symmetrized Cartan
matrix (38) and we use it here sin e (T0i; T0j) = Gij as it an easily be seen by
its denition.
We want now to determine the Cartan subalgebra g0(1) of g(1). It is obvious
that the Cartan subalgebra of g, spanned by H0i , will be a subspa e of g0(1).
Moreover from the bra ket relations for K and D we see that they must also
belong to g0(1). Sin e [D; Hnj ℄ 6= 0 for n 6= 0, there are no other ommuting
generators. So we an write g0(1) = spanC fK; D; H0i j i = 1; 2; :::; rg. We an
also use the notation H~ for fH0i j i = 1; 2; :::; rg.
A simple inspe tion of (68),(69),(70),(71) shows that the roots, with re-
spe t to the Cartan subalgebra generators (H; ~ K; D), are :

 = (; 0; n);  2 ; n 2 ZZ (72)
and
 = (0; 0; n); n 2 ZZ (73)
where the orresponding step operators are fEn j n 2 ZZg and fHnj j n 2

Z g. We see that the roots (72) are non-degenerate while the roots (73) have
Z

multipli ity r, sin e they don't depend on the label j of fHnj g.

It is obvious now that if we hadn't adjoined the derivation D to gloop,

16
the orresponding roots would be innitely degenerate. So D is ne essary be-
ause it distinguishes between dierent labels n and leaves only a nite (r-fold)
degenera y of the roots (73).
A root  of g(1) will be alled positive if either n > 0 or n = 0 and  is
positive in , while the remaining roots will be negative. With this hoi e, the
simple roots are :
(i) = ((i) ; 0; 0); i = 1; 2; :::; r (74)
and
(0) = ( ; 0; 1) (75)
where  is the highest root of g. Any positive root of g(1) an be written as a
linear ombination of them with positive oeÆ ients while for a negative root
the oeÆ ients will be negative.
Any weight of g(1) an be written in terms of the eigenvalues with respe t
to the generators of the Cartan subalgebra (H; ~ K; D) as  = (; k; n), where
 is the weight with respe t to the generators of g0. The inner produ t of
two weights 1 = (1; k1; n1) and 2 = (2; k2; n2), as an be dened from
(65),(66),(67), is :
(1; 2) = (1; 2) + k1n2 + k2n1 (76)
where (1; 2) the inner produ t of the weights of the original Lie algebra g.
The inner produ t of roots of g(1) is the same as the inner produ t of the
orresponding roots of g :
(1; 2) = (1; 2) (77)
for i = (i ; 0; 0); i = 1; 2. It follows that the inner produ t of the non-
degenerate roots is positive, while that of the degenerate roots is zero. These
roots are alled lightlike sin e the metri in the root spa e, as dened by
(65),(66),(67), has a negative eigenvalue and thus a Lorentzian stru ture.
Finally we an dene the Cartan matrix A as :

Aij := 2
((i) ; (j)) ; i; j = 1; 2; :::; r: (78)
((j); (j))
It an be proved that this is the same as the aÆne Cartan matrix we introdu ed
earlier and that means that the entral extensions of loop algebras of simple
Lie algebras are indeed aÆne Lie algebras in the sense of se tion 4.

17
9 The Virasoro algebra
The Virasoro algebra is the unique entral extension of the Witt algebra,
that is the Lie algebra of onformal tranformations in two dimensions. If we
onsider a two dimensional spa e as a ompa tied omplex plane parametrized
by z and z, the onformal transformations of this spa e are generated by all the
mappings z ! f (z) and z^ ! f^(^z), where f and f are independent meromorphi
fun tions. Writing ea h of these fun tions as a Laurent expansion in z and
z orrespondingly, we see that the operators ln = zn+1 dzd ; n 2 ZZ and the
similar ones with z instead of z, a t as innitesimal generators of the onformal
transformations. We will study now the algebra of the operators ln = zn+1 dzd
sin e the algebra spanned by the similar ones for z is in fa t isomorphi to the
former. The algebra of the onformal transformations is the dire t produ t of
these algebras.
The Lie bra kets among ln, dened as their ommutator, are :
[lm; ln℄ = (m n)ln+m; n 2 ZZ (79)
and they dene the so- alled Witt algebra. It is obvious that this Lie algebra
is innite-dimensional.
For appli ation to physi s, one is again interested in entral extensions of
this algebra. The Lus her-Ma k theorem proves that there is a unique entral
extension, whi h onsists of adding a omplex number term an the right side of
equation (79). The generators of this entral extension are denoted by Ln and
their Lie bra ket is :
[Lm; Ln℄ = (m n)Ln+m + 12 1 n(n2 1)Æ (80)
n+m;0 ;

[Ln; ℄ = 0; n 2 ZZ (81)
where 2 C . The orresponding Lie algebra is alled the Virasoro algebra.
To end this review, we mention that the subje t of representations of both
the aÆne Lie algebras and the Virasoro algebra is very important for appli ation
to physi s. Unfortunately la k of spa e doesn't permit this dis ussion here.

Referen es
[1℄ Ka V. Fun t. Anal. Appl. 1 328 (1967).
[2℄ Ka V. Innite dimensional Lie algebras, Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, 1990.

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[3℄ Ka V. Vertex algebras for beginners, Ameri an Mathemati al So iety, Prov-
iden e, 1997.
[4℄ Moody R. Bull. Amer. Math. So . bf 73 217 (1967).
[5℄ Fu hs J. AÆne Lie algebras and quantum groups : an introdu tion, with
appli ations in onformal eld theory, Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, 1992.
[6℄ Fu hs J., S hweigert C. Symmetries, Lie algebras and representations : a
graduate ourse for physi ists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1997.
[7℄ Fu hs J. Le tures on onformal eld theory and Ka -Moody algebras, Grad-
uate Course on Conformal Field Theory and Integrable Models, Budapest,
1996.
[8℄ Olive D., Goddard P. Ka -Moody and Virasoro algebras : a reprint volume
for physi ists, World S ienti , Teane k, 1988.

[9℄ Di Fran es o P., Mathieu P., Sene hal D. Conformal eld theory, Springer,
New York, 1997.
[10℄ Ketov, S Conformal eld theory, World S ienti , River Edge, 1995.
[11℄ Dolan L. Noti es of the Ameri an Mathemati al So iety De 1995 1489
(1995).

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