Journal of Coastal Research SI 50 731 - 737 ICS2007 (Proceedings) Australia ISSN 0749.

0208

Variability in Sandbank Behaviour at Decadal and Annual Time-Scales and

Implications for Adjacent Beaches

T.J. Dolphin†, C.E. Vincent†, C. Coughlan† and J.M. Rees‡

† School of Environmental Sciences ‡ CEFAS
University of East Anglia, Norwich Lowestoft
NR4 7TJ, UK NR33 OHT, UK
tony.dolphin@uea.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

DOLPHIN, T.J., VINCENT, C.E., COUGHLAN, C. and REES, J.M., 2007. Variability in sandbank behaviour at
decadal and annual time-scales and implications for adjacent beaches. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50
(Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal Symposium), 731 – 737. Gold Coast, Australia, ISSN 0749.0208

Sandbanks are an important coastal resource, both in terms of the activities that occur on them (e.g., dredging,
offshore wind farms) as well as the direct and indirect effects they can have on adjacent beaches. Due to the large
temporal and spatial domains that sandbanks occupy, there have been relatively few investigations that examine
bank behaviour and impacts on other sedimentary bodies (beaches and other banks). Navigation charts near
historical ports can yield long datasets for sandbank analysis; however large time intervals and gaps in the data
make it difficult to distinguish trends from cycles and gradual from episodic behaviour.

In this paper we assemble a new 182-year historical dataset that has significant improvements in data density and
temporal coverage (i.e., fewer gaps and smaller time intervals) and permits a more detailed investigation of
patterns in bank behaviour. The sandbank exhibits 70–80 year cyclical behaviour in its movement, volume and
elevation and holds two distinct and associated morphological states (deltaic and elongate). Annual bathymetry
shows gradual bank migration is common to both morphologies but bank reconfiguration (elongate ↔ deltaic)
occurs rapidly (relative to the cycle period), on a bank-wide scale and may be considered to be episodic. The
switch from deltaic to elongate morphology is hypothesised to result from upstream morphology-tide interactions
induced by changes in the shape or position of other banks.

The cyclical nature of bank elevation, extent, proximity to shore and shape has important implications for
adjacent beaches as variation in sandbank characteristics alters the transmission and alongshore distribution of
wave energy (through refraction and dissipation of wave energy by breaking). The latter controls net longshore
sediment transport and therefore erosion/accretion trends. Bank-beach interactions are shown to be complex;
high bank elevations, which can provide the greatest coastal protection by reducing wave energy incident to the
shoreline, are actually associated with the most severe erosion in the historical record. To further elucidate bank–
beach relations, current field and numerical modelling efforts examine the direct (sediment exchange) and
indirect (refraction, dissipation) linkages between bank and beach behaviour.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: morphology, refraction, wave energy dissipation, cycles, trends, episodic,
gradual, East Anglia

INTRODUCTION
Sandbanks are large bedforms (up to 80 km long and tens of
metres high) found on tidal continental shelves. Near the coastline,
headland-related sandbanks are smaller – just a few kilometres
long. Sandbanks are an important resource (e.g., for dredging,
habitats, siting of offshore wind farms etc.) and are widely
considered to play a central role in adjacent beach dynamics
through modification of the incoming wave field. To date, most
sandbank investigations have been concerned only with genesis
and maintenance processes (see DYER and HUNTLEY, 1999).
Sandbanks are difficult to study in the field because they occupy
large spatial domains and appear to respond to forcing processes
over relatively long time periods. Consequently relatively little is
known about them. Our understanding of bank behaviour to date
rests on analyses of historical navigational charts (e.g.,
ROBINSON, 1966). Whilst useful, in that near historical ports
records can span hundreds of years, trends, cycles and the nature
of bank change can be difficult to establish due to large time
intervals between published charts and gaps in the data
(WHITEHOUSE, 2001; PARK and VINCENT, 2007).
Furthermore, the lack of field datasets that address both the large
spatial and temporal aspects of bank behaviour make it difficult to
validate numerical models and to predict bank behaviour.
This paper is part of a wider study (BLINKS: Beach LINKs to
Sandbanks) that investigates the behaviour of sandbanks and the
links between key bank parameters (e.g., extent, elevation,
position) and erosion/accretion patterns on adjacent beaches. The
project uses new historical data (this paper), new field datasets
(currently being collected) and numerical modelling to investigate
bank behaviour and links to beaches. Here we present the results
of an analysis of sandbank behaviour using 182 years of historical
survey data (1824–2006). These data differ from previous studies
as the temporal coverage and data density are significantly

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007

732 Dolphin et al.

Figure 1. Location maps of Britain, the Norfolk Banks (adapted from KENYON et al., 1981) and Newcombe Sands bank.

Figure 2. Newcombe Sands mean and standard deviation maps

improved. In addition to investigating bank behaviour we discuss
the consequences of our results for adjacent beaches.
Setting
The setting for this study is the East Anglian sandbanks, which
are found at the landward-most section of the Norfolk Banks
complex in the English southern North Sea (Figure 1). The focus
is on the Newcombe Sands bank, which lies just south of
Lowestoft, the eastern-most point of England. Newcombe is
situated between two headlands (locally called nesses); Lowestoft
Ness in the north and Benacre Ness in the south. This bank was
chosen because of its proximity to shore and comparative ease of
measurement; these factors have bearing on other components of
the Blinks project which are not discussed in detail here.
Sediments on the bank are medium sands (0.4 mm). Although
the mean spring tidal range (1.9 m) is micro-tidal, the tidal
currents are strong, exceeding 1.5 m/s on the flanks of the 1-km-
wide Stanford Channel during spring tides. Flood currents
progress toward the south. Storm waves can approach from the
north-east – south sector. Although the largest waves are from the
north, some sheltering from northerly waves is provided by Holm
Sands.
METHOD
Bathymetric data of the Newcombe Sands bank are in three
forms. (1) Historical survey sheets from 1825–1989 were acquired
from the U.K. Hydrographic Office. The survey sheets were
inspected for coverage and registration points for geo-referencing.
Appropriate sheets were then geo-referenced and digitised. Five to
eighteen registration points were used and RMS errors ranged
from 2–11 m. To minimise operator error in the 107859 point
digitisation, we worked in pairs so each entry was double checked.
(2) Recent processed digital bathymetric data (1991–2002) was
purchased direct from the UK Hydrographic Office. (3) As the
area has not been surveyed since 2002, we conducted our own

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007

 Variability in Sandbank Morphology at Decadal and Annual Time-Scales
bathymetric surveys in 2005 and 2006 using RTK-GPS+
(GPS/GLONASS) single beam sounder and a tilt sensor to remove
records where pitch or roll exceeded +/- 5°. Shore-normal survey
tracks were spaced at 50 m and soundings recorded every second
(post-processed median spacing = 3.1 m). All bathymetric data
were converted into eastings and northings and elevations were
reduced to the ODN datum where zero metres is approximately
mean sea level. The resultant dataset consists of ‘decadal’ data
(11-year average interval) and ‘annual’ data (two ~17 year periods
of annual–bi-annual surveys; 1962–1979 and 1989–2006). Annual
datasets on sandbanks are rare and allow us to investigate the
nature of change in finer detail than previously.
Sandbank bathymetry was ascertained using original survey
data rather than the usual practice of digitising contour lines/spot
heights from navigational charts – the latter can be misleading as
the data are sparse (the survey data are 5–20 times more dense
than chart data), contouring methods/personnel vary with time and
charts are almost always amalgams of several surveys conducted
over many years. In particular, some areas can be misinterpreted
as showing no change – this is due to reuse of old survey data on
new chart productions where there are no new data available.
Detailed discussion on error sources for historical surveys/charts
can be found in VAN DER WAL and PYE (2003).
Bathymetric surfaces were constructed using triangulated
irregular networks (TINs) and raster maps in ArcGIS. Statistics
and statistical maps were also produced using ArcGIS tools. All of
the bathymetric maps in this paper are derived from analogue or
digital survey data which is subject to copyright: © Crown
Copyright and/or database rights. Reproduced by permission of
the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office and the UK
Hydrographic Office (www.ukho.gov.uk).
RESULTS
Statistical maps (Figure 2) were created over a common
coverage area of 7.7 km2. The mean map highlights persistent
features of the bathymetry: deeper seaward flanks and a wide
shallow bank separated from the shore by a shallow
trough/channel. The NNE extension on the bank’s seaward margin
is a shallow but intermittent feature (hence the darker colour)
which can connect with the Holm Sands to the north (see Figure
1). Standard deviation and covariance maps highlight the areas
most susceptible to change. The NE flank of the bank exhibits the
largest elevation variability (σ > 4 m), which can be explained by
its exposure to large storm waves (especially when Holm Sands’
elevation is low) and intermittent occupation by the Stanford tidal
channel. The same is true of the landward margin of the bank and
the channel that separates the bank from the adjacent beaches
(σ > 2.5 m). Similar variability in bank margins was also observed
Figure 3. Examples of the ‘deltaic’ (left two panels) and elongate (right two panels) sandbank morphologies.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
733
by ROBINSON (1966) and REEVE, LI, and THURSTON (2001) on
other Norfolk Banks. The central area between these two regions
is usually occupied by some section of the bank and exhibits less
variability (σ ≈ 0.7–1.7 m).
Large variability in the extent, location and shape of Newcombe
Sands explains the standard deviation patterns and magnitudes.
Analysis of maps produced from historical surveys reveals that
Newcombe Sands exists in one of two modes: a ‘deltaic’ form and
a simple elongate form (Figure 3). The deltaic form is
characterised by deep channels (11–14 m) and large terminal and
lateral lobes which can be interconnected. At times there are up to
three such channels and five to six associated lobes. The lobes are
similar in appearance to the deposits of an ebb tidal delta –
although in this case the lobes are not shaped by tidal currents
from an inlet but by tidal currents (flood) that flow southward
between the shore and sandbanks to the north (Corton and Holm
Sands). The channel orientations (SSW – SSE) align with the
flooding tidal current.
When not in the ‘deltaic’ form the bank tends to occur as a
single body roughly aligned with the shoreline. A shallow channel
(5–7 m) separates the bank from the shoreline. On occasion the
bank shape increases in complexity when it becomes partly
dissected by shallow ebb channels (northward flow) in the south.
The channels are always shallow and never develop lobes, unlike
those in the north.
Time-series of ‘decadal’ bank statistics (Figure 4) were
calculated from the common area of 7.7 km2 (Figure 2). The
figure shows that bank volume is increasing, an observation that
was also made by REEVE, LI, and THURSTON (2001) for banks to
the north. There is also an obvious area-volume-elevation
correlation which highlights a 70–80 year cycle in bank elevation
and morphology. Similar long cycles (~ 100 years) have been
identified in decadal data from navigational charts of other banks
in the East Anglian group (REEVE, LI, and THURSTON, 2001),
including Scroby Sands (PARK and VINCENT, 2007) where the
volume cycle lags Newcombe Sands by 25–30 years. Figure 4
suggests that the reconfiguration of bank morphology, which was
also observed elsewhere by ROBINSON (1966) and REEVE, LI, and
THURSTON (2001), is linked to bank volumes and elevations. That
is, the deltaic mode shows lower volumes and mean elevations
than the elongate mode.
Annual datasets provide new insight into rates of change on
sandbanks. Both gradual (slower and continuous migration) and
episodic (rapid bank reconfiguration) trends are observed – the
bank is rarely stationary. For example, during the 1991 – 2002
period the bank migrated shoreward in a gradual and continuous
fashion at x = 24 ± 4.2 m/yr (Figure 5). Between 2002 and 2005,
the migration rate increased to 70 m/yr, reducing to 38 m/yr in the
734 Mean elevation (m) Dolphin et al.

-5

-6

-7

-8
Area (m2), Volume (m3)
2.4E+007

6E+006
1.6E+007

4E+006

Y = 33677 * X - 5E+7
8.0E+006

2E+006

r2 = 0.335317

1840 1880 1920 1960 2000

Figure 4. Time-series of the area and volume above the -8 m Figure 5. Time-series of contour lines (1991–2006) on the
contour, the mean elevation in the 7.7 km2 common area and the landward margin of Newcombe Sands. Arrows indicate the
shape (deltaic or elongate ) of the sandbank. shoreward direction of bank migration.

2005 – 2006 period. During this period there were no significant (WHITEHOUSE, 2001). By acquiring and digitising original survey
alterations to the elongate bank shape. datasets we are able to begin to address the questions of cycles,
Likewise, during the 1962 – 1986 period when the bank was in trends and rates of change; the new data have fewer gaps than the
its deltaic form, changes in the shape and location of the bank (i.e., navigation chart series and the two annual datasets collectively
lateral and terminal lobes) were also gradual and, in this case, span 34 years.
related to adjustments in the angle and length of tidal channels. The 70–80 year cycle in mean elevation and volume data
Bank evolution followed a gradual seaward migration during (Figure 4) is also evident in the time-series of bank morphology
which the largest channel, whose seaward lateral lobe is an and location. That is, Newcombe Sands migrates and changes
extension of Holm Sands, deepened and lengthened. shape over a similar cycle. The changes in shape and direction of
In comparison, radical reconfiguration of the bank occurred bank movements are schematised in Figure 6. During the ‘deltaic’
between the 1986 and 1989 surveys (< 3 years). Reconfiguration phases (Figure 6 A and B) the bank shape is dominated by tidal
followed the seaward veer and eventual Stanford Channel channels and adjacent lobes that tend to migrate offshore until the
breakthrough at the terminal and lateral lobes joining Newcombe seaward channel breaks through the terminal lobe, separating the
and Holm Sands. The bank then reverted to its elongate shape and two lateral lobes (Holm and Newcombe Sands; Figure 6 C). The
began migrating shoreward. The recurrent reconfiguration of the separation implies termination or significant reduction in sediment
two morphological states is observed twice in the 1825 – 2006
period. The annual datasets do not include the switch from
elongate to deltaic morphology.

DISCUSSION
Analysis of long- (decadal) and medium-term (annual)
bathymetric surfaces shows that variability in sea floor elevations
over the past 182 years resulted from both the shifting position of
Newcombe Sands as well as its recurrent reconfiguration between
deltaic and elongate modes. Previous research at decadal time A B C
scales (e.g., THURSTON, BIN, and FLEMING 1999) using
navigational charts suggested that the bank was relatively stable.
The new data presented here show that the bank undergoes
significant changes (i.e., movements of up to 1200 m) and is stable
only in the sense that (1) it is constrained between Benacre and
Lowestoft Nesses (which is expected for headland associated
banks; DYER and HUNTLEY, 1999) and (2), in general, it
evolves/migrates slowly.
?
One of the impediments to understanding how coastal and
offshore sandbanks evolve is the long time intervals (and gaps) in F E D
historical bathymetric data. Consequently, it has been difficult to
establish if observed behaviour in bank movements is cyclical or a
trend, and whether changes are episodic (e.g., 100-year storm) or Figure 6. Cycles in sandbank morphology and location. Dark
gradual (loss or accumulation due to tidal processes) arrows indicate direction of movement.

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007

 Variability in Sandbank Morphology at Decadal and Annual Time-Scales
exchange between the two bodies due to increased water depth
and large channel width (c. 1 km). Once separated, the bank
rapidly returns to its elongate shape (i.e., devoid of central flood-
tidal channels) and begins to gradually migrate shoreward at rates
of 20–70 m/year (Figure 6 D and E).
None of the annual data record the reconfiguration from
elongate to deltaic morphology that presumably occurs as the bank
approaches the shoreline. Based on present bank position (at the
shoreward limit of the historical datasets), bank reconfiguration
could be expected to occur in the coming 10–20 years. However,
if the cycle length is unchanged at least 50 more years of elongate
bank configuration can be expected.
Both gradual and episodic movements in the bank are observed
in the two annual datasets. Gradual movements are those in which
the bank migrates in a set direction at a reasonably constant rate;
for example, the shoreward migration of the elongate bank during
1991–2002 with little change in bank shape ( x = 24 ±4.2 m/year)
and the longitudinal extension of tidal channels on the deltaic bank
(1962–1979). Episodic changes are those in which large-scale
changes occur over comparatively short time scales, such as the
breakthrough of Stanford Channel (Figure 6C) and the subsequent
switch from deltaic to elongate morphology (< 3 years; exact time
interval not known).
Measurements at finer time-scales are required to ascertain the
causes of both the episodic and gradual changes on the bank and
indeed to refine what constitutes an episodic or a gradual change
(e.g., sequences of mild storms vs. tidal action). In order to obtain
such data we have begun collecting hourly high-resolution
photographs from which we detect and measure the storm-by-
storm variability in bank shape and position.
In the absence of bathymetric data at frequent time-scales, we
can make some inferences about key processes that dominate the
bank behaviour and perhaps control movement cycles. In deltaic
mode, the form of the bank is clearly controlled by tidal currents.
In order for the tidal currents to cut channels through the middle of
an originally elongate bank either the bank must move into the
path of the tidal stream or the angle of the flow must be redirected
onto the bank. The former requires an offshore transport
mechanism, possibly related to changes in ebb currents, although
we have no evidence for this. More likely is an upstream
morphology-induced adjustment to the tidal stream that diverts
tidal flows across the centre of the bank. As flood-tidal currents
can exceed 1.5 m/s, they have the entrainment capacity to mobilise
sediments and reshape the sandbank into the deltaic features
observed. Subsequent migration of the channels and lobes could
result from further changes in upstream morphology and/or from
the exposure of the shallow lobes to wave action.
Although sedimentary links between banks have been
demonstrated previously (STRIDE, 1988; COLLINS et al., 1995),
little is known about the indirect interactions between banks. In
their analysis of the southern eight East Anglian Banks, REEVE, LI,
and THURSTON (2001) show that some banks and channels exhibit
the same temporal behaviour whilst others are opposite. In
particular they note that increased definition in Holm Channel
corresponds to an eroded Corton Sands bank – reasons for this
relationship are not discussed. Our data support the idea that
upstream changes in bank morphology (induced by waves or
further upstream interactions) have downstream morphological
consequences; we hypothesise that upstream changes in bank
shape and position alter the tidal hydrodynamics that leads to
downstream morphological change. We are currently exploring
such potential interactions with numerical scenario modelling for a
range of upstream conditions.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
735
Figure 7. Cliff erosion opposite Newcombe Sands in the 1920s
(Photographer: the late Ernest Graystone)
The tendency of the elongate bank morphology to migrate
onshore could be the result of aperiodic (wave) or regular (tide)
processes. As there are no return-flow mechanisms (unlike bars on
beaches), shoaling and breaking waves are more likely to
contribute to onshore sediment transport (e.g., SNEDDEN et al.,
1999). Alternatively, the flows that are postulated to maintain
banks (e.g., secondary flows, transient eddies and bottom friction;
BERTHOT and PATTIARATCHI, (2006) and BASTOS et al., (2004))
may be out of equilibrium with local hydrodynamics, resulting in
lateral migration. To fully understand the processes that lead to
bank migration, detailed spatial measurements under a range of
conditions are required.
As well as being a significant store of nearshore sediments with
potential for extraction, sites of wind farms and so on, sandbanks
are also commonly thought to play an important role in coastal
protection by controlling wave energy incident at the shore
(WHITEHOUSE, 2001; HAYES and NAIRN, 2004). That is, sandbanks
modify the incoming wave field through dissipation (primarily
wave breaking), refraction and diffraction. However, there are
very few published studies that attempt to measure and understand
beach-bank interactions. This paper is part of a wider study that
attempts to make significant progress in this area.
The oscillations in mean bank elevation (-5.2 – -7.7 m range)
associated with the 70–80 year cycle will influence wave energy
to the coast. It is expected that transmission (over the bank) of
wave energy will fall when the bank is shallower; however, it is
evident that the corresponding decrease in net wave energy at the
shoreline does not necessarily translate into decreased shoreline
(beach and cliff) erosion rates. For example, anecdotal evidence in
the form of historical texts, photographs and postcards show that
the most severe erosion experienced along the coast adjacent to
Newcombe Sands occurred in the 1920s and early 1930s (e.g.,
Figure 7). At this time the bank elevation was at its shallowest
(Figure 4) and extended across the width of a severely eroding
coastal section (beach removal and ~10 m/yr of cliff retreat);
under such conditions wave energy dissipation on the bank is
expected. One possible explanation for the severe erosion during
the 1920s is that, for shallower banks, optimal ratios of bank
length to distance from shore lead to refraction and strong
alongshore gradients in wave energy; the latter can lead to a
divergence in sediment flux and localised coastal erosion.
In addition to bank location and extent, it is also useful to
consider the role that changes in bank shape could have on wave
736 Dolphin et al.
energy distribution at the shoreline. The complex lobe
morphology that typifies the deltaic mode can be expected to
produce different patterns in refraction and alongshore wave
energy distribution than would be expected for an elongate bank
of similar volume, elevation and location. Thus, reconfiguration of
the bank is expected to have significant influences on adjacent
beaches. The knowledge that banks can undergo cyclical
reconfiguration is of great importance to coastal managers as
planning decisions need to be able to distinguish between trend
and cyclical patterns in terms of the impact they may have at the
shoreline.
As there are several potential morphological factors at play
(elevation, extent, shape) and the time scales of bank change can
be large (years – decades), investigations into bank movements
and subsequent impacts on beaches require medium to long term
datasets (e.g., coastal observatories) and numerical modelling
techniques. Historical bank and beach datasets can be used but
these are difficult to reconcile as they are asynchronous. We are in
the process of collecting and analysing synchronous data but the
time-spans are so far very short compared to the time-scales of
beach-bank variability. In the meantime our efforts are focussed
on modelling waves under different tidal conditions (COUGHLAN
et al., 2007), morphologies and for changing upstream tide-bank
conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
Digitisation of historical survey sheets, combined with recent
digital and single-beam surveys, has permitted detailed analysis of
sea floor surfaces around the Newcombe Sands bank. These
surfaces reveal that the sandbank undergoes movement, volume,
elevation cycles as well as morphological reconfiguration over
time-scales of 70–80 years (based on a 182 year period). Shorter
survey intervals than the navigational chart series reveals periods
of both gradual (1962–1979; 1991-2006) and episodic (1986–
1989) change. Further detail on bank movements is currently
being investigated using high-resolution digital photography
(hourly).
Combinations of wave and tidal processes influence the bank
shape and position. There are presently no hydrodynamic data of
sufficient duration to investigate bank-modifying processes and
mechanisms in detail. Morphology during the deltaic phase is
suggestive of changes in the approach angle of the flood tidal
stream; we hypothesise that such changes are due to upstream
morphology-tide interactions such as changing sandbank position
or shape.
The data reveal that Newcombe Sands is a mobile bank, within
the confines of the adjacent nesses (headlands). The proximity to
shore, elevation, extent and bank shape are all anticipated to have
significant influence on the alongshore patterns in wave energy
distribution that control sediment transport and shoreline erosion.
The pattern is complex with high banks, expected to afford the
greatest amount of coastal protection, being associated with
periods of severe beach and cliff erosion. Direct (sediment
exchange) and indirect (refraction, dissipation) processes require
closer examination, both in the field (which requires longer spatial
datasets) and with numerical models (which require detailed field
data for calibration and validation). We are currently undertaking
both of these aspects by making regular 3D RTK-GPS surveys,
using digital photography (see www.uea.ac.uk/env/blinks) and
modelling tides, waves and sediment transport using the Telemac
suite (e.g., COUGHLAN et al. this issue).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007
We would like to acknowledge the monumental digitising effort
and GIS assistance provided by Mesdemoiselles Angélique Roubi,
Estelle Dumont and Karen Thurston. Financial and academic
support was provided by Waveney District Council and the Centre
for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science. Members of
the public kindly loaned historical books, postcards and
photographs at the Lowestoft Fish Fayre. This project is funded by
the Natural Environment Research Council, NE/B503917/1.
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Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue 50, 2007