BELGIAN AIR FORCE

1
POLAR NAVIGATION
Bruce

To be done: Contact Gall for contigency, Avx should tell limitations of INS/GPS. + MAKE
THE BRIEFING PPT
Polar Navigation
1 Introduction

In order to fly with an aircraft at the Pole an operator must comply, according to FAA,
with numerous of requirements. Once these are completed, a report must be send to the
office of FAA (cfr."Technische dienst van Het Bestuur der Luchtvaart") and if you have
got the approval, you can start flying the Poles. However flying the Poles brings a lot of
difficulties with it and navigating them is only a small part of them. The intent of this text
is to let you understand those problems and make you able to navigate over there. It
should be noted that you cannot work at the Poles, unless the aircrafts are adapted and
appropriate documents are provided.

2 Problems involved in Polar Operations

2.1 Polar Navigation

For normal navigation all around the world we would use GPS – INS. In some cases we
will use dead reckoning. The problem starts if one would navigate the poles and GPS
and/or INS fails. Since there are but few navaids on the Poles (most of them being NDB)
and dead reckoning is very hard over there, a few strategies should be taken into
consideration for Polar operations.

Once you cross the 75° N and 60° S, going respectively north and south, you must use
“polar grid navigation”, except for intrastate operations within the state of Alaska.
The Russian area of magnetic unreliability is not formally defined. Russian airways
south of 74°N latitude are referenced to magnetic north
Why? To understand the problem clearly we consider an aircraft required to fly from

A (75°N, 140°W) to B (80°N, 20°W).

On route AMB: the required track at A = 008° T

the required track at M = 090° T
the required track at C = 168° T
Furthermore if you pass on the other side of the Pole, the HDG would again be different.
For example on route ANB: the required track at A = 348° T
the required track at N = 270° T
 the required track at B = 197° T

So you can see that in order to fly the great circle AB, by means of rhumb lines, e.g., by
means of true courses, would mean a large number of course alterations. These would not
be easy to calculate and on top of this when you fly DR and course adaptations have to be
made plus influence of the wind would create a very difficult (read: impossible) obstacle
to overcome. Because if you take for example a NE - wind, you start with headwind and
end with tailwind!
In order to provide with a relative simple way to navigate the Poles and not bothering
about the flying left, right or overhead of them, a solutions presents itself in the form of
“Grid Navigation”, because due to the meridian convergence and the erratic magnetic
field normally used magnetic or true north reference becomes difficult to use.
Normally we use the Pole (magnetic or True) as a reference for navigation. Since this is
far from obvious at the Pole a different reference point needs to be used. However if you
superimpose a set of lines on the map that are parallel to the meridian of Greenwich, you
can easily read the track. The direction of Greenwich, along the true meridian of
Greenwich, would be expressed as 000° G (=grid). Directions in all regions would be
read in a clockwise manner from 000° G to 360° G (cfr. directions on a 'normal' map).
A simple formula can be used to covert from grid to true heading:

Direction in °G = Direction in °T + 180 – Long E (+Long W)

 Rmk: change sign if at southern hemisphere ( + and - changes)

In this manner you can determine one course to fly by measuring the HDG in the middle
of the route (most accurate result). Since the wind on Polar Wind Charts is also in ° G
and for the Stereographic projection / Lambert map, used because the Mercator 's scale
expands too rapidly near the Poles, a straight line represents very close a great circle, you
can determine one accurate HDG to fly via the DG.
Also the magnetic compass is replaced by a directional gyro which needs to be updated at
regular intervals. If you take off from outside the Polar region, your compass will be
aligned already via the INS – GPS when entering the Polar area and switching to DG.
If you take off from an airfield above 75° N / 60°S, you can align your DG on the
runway, e.g. the runway HDG is expressed in degrees True.
The problem however begins, if during flight you lose GPS – INS or when you have to
update your DG.
If you plot your planned route on a map ( like as we do for transoceanic flights), one can
determine easily the position of the aircraft and via the formula above a proper course
can be flown as long as you have got attitude stabilization available.
If the GPS fails and all attitude stabilization fails, one can turn south (G) at once - due to
the residutional speed of the gyro still correct - and going at 300 knots ground speed, one
can make e.g. Thule AFB (north Pole) within 2hr15. Knowing their radar has a range of
± 150 NM at FL 350, you will be well safe, even with some drift.
As a contingency procedure occurs if all INS – GPS navigation fails, but at least one
attitude reference is available for stabilization of the gyro ‘s. Then the aircraft should be
turned left 5° every 20 min to compensate for the earth rate rotation. If you still got INS,
but lost all GPS, one should turn 3° left every 20 min for the same reason. However this
procedure has only been confirmed by one source.

2.2 Alternate Airports and recovery of passengers

Operators need to give in advance a sufficient set of alternates to proceed along the Polar
segment of the routing. The alternate airfields must have adequate facilities, such as fire
category and material to get the aircraft of the runway in case the latter blocks it.
Examples of good alternates are: at Polar – 1, there are Novosibirsk and Krasnoyarsk. At
Polar – 2, Irkutsk and at Polar – 3 + 4, you have Yakutsk. Available and suitable for large
jets are: Keflavik, Thule, Kangerlussuaq, Iqaluit.
Facilities to offload the passengers and flight crew during adverse weather conditions in a
safe manner have to be foreseen. Also the airport has to provide the physiological needs
until the evacuation; this is expected to be done within 12 to 48 hours following the
diversion.
The operator has to design a recovery plan which should be initiated in case of diversion.
Furthermore he has to prove that he is able to demonstrate this capability and update its
plan at least annually to check for accuracy and completeness.

2.3 Fuel Freeze Strategy

The operator needs to develop a fuel freeze analysis program in lieu of using the standard
minimum fuel freeze temperatures for the specific fuels used. He should make procedures
to be able to monitor the fuel temperature and to determine the exact freezing point of the
actual fuel load on board the airplane. If different fuel types are mixed, you should take
the most limiting freezing temperature of the last three refuels. The best however is to
develop such a procedure in corporation with the manufacturer of the airplane and the
engines.
An example to make things clear:
 The GE engined 777 is given a fuel freeze figure based on the type of fuel it has
uploaded. To this temperature figure they add 3 and enter it into the Flight Management
Computer so as to provide an alert buffer if the fuel temperature approaches the
minimum. Should that issue arise, then they would likely descend to a lower and warmer
altitude.
Usually there is no problem with fuel as long as your aircraft is equipped with fuel heat
exchanger and your engines are running. On the other hand you can have trouble to start
the engines in extremely cold conditions therefore engines are preheated with warm air.
In some cases your best choice will be to keep the engines running during ground
operations. At very low temperature you may have more trouble with your hydraulic
system than with the fuel.

2.4 Communications

A plan to ensure communication capability for these operations needs to be established. HF

communications are considered to be the prime medium. However SATCOM, in areas with
covering (to be checked with producer of the system), are also acceptable means of
communication. There is for instance a CPDLC gap above 82 degrees North on both sides of
the North Pole. HF must be used in these areas ( lower HF freqs when the sun is low and
during night; vice versa during day). On top of all this the operator (read: aircraft crew)
should be aware of the solar flare activity, as this may effect your communications severely.
Solar flare activity has no impact on the navigational solution. It has huge impact on HF
comms, and you can check this via internet (www.spaceweather.com) to get an idea of solar
flare activity and the impact this might have on the L layer. As for satcom, there might be a
problem. Inmarsat for instance only covers north of approx. 80 N during certain periods of
time - so that needs to be in your test plan if you plan on SATCOM as you HF backup.
The North Pole region is mainly within the MNPS/RVSM areas and is divided into four ATC
Control Areas: Anchorage Arctic FIR / CTA, Arctic CTA / Edmonton FIR, Reykjavik CTA
and Bodo Oceanic FIR.
Emergency VHF/UHF frequencies are 126,7 and 121,5/ 243.

2.5 MEL

The MEL needs to be revised and adapted for Polar Operations. This is to be done by
FAA / JAA in coordination with the operator, maintenance and the manufacturer of the
aircraft. A few concrete examples: Satellite capability, HF, navigation, fuel temp. sensor...

2.6 Training Plan

QFE/QNH and influence of cold temperatures on the altimeters needs to be trained

thoroughly by the crews. Also the issues around meters / feet (Russia - USA) need to be
known. Furthermore crews are to be trained in fuel freeze strategy and monitoring
requirements, recognizing of weather patterns that are specific to the routing and the use of
cold weather anti – exposure suit. Also the crew has to be aware of the different divert issues,
other than normal operation, such as facilities to load / unload passengers, medical provisions
for passengers...
Flight crews should use caution when using automatic direction finders (ADF) or VHF
omnirange navigation equipment (VOR), or both, because the heading reference in use will
affect the display of data. With the heading reference in TRUE, ADF/VOR bearings are true
and hence not magnetic. VOR radials are displayed according to the orientation of the VOR
station, either true, magnetic or grid ( indicated by respectively a "T" or "G" in the identifier
box).

2.7 Radiation Protection

The operator must be aware of AC 120-52 (FAA Advisory circular dealing about radiation
exposure of crews) and provide training as needed. (For reference check AC 120-61). These
talk about the dangers and maximum amount of dose a person can take and precautions that
the operator needs to perform.

2.8 Additional Equipment

Except for “cargo only operations”, an expanded medical kit that includes an automated
external defibrillator needs to be carried. Also a minimum of two cold anti – exposure
suits will be required to be on board of the aircraft. (This requirement can be ignored if
the time of year allows it, but it is encouraged not to do so)
This is needed in case of diversion, where the crew might has to leave the aircraft and
face the arctic cold. An appropriate survival kit is mandatory as soon as you leave
civilized areas. In that kit you need have at least something to start a fire, provide
shelter, provide (or purify) water, visual distress signal, sleeping bags, snowshoes, axe,
saw, handgun…etc. In summer time you also need to have something against flies and
mosquitoes (oil or nets).

2.9 Polar Operation Authorization

As a resume the operator applying for Polar operations should comply with the following
items: - The designation of alternate airports that may be used for
enroute diversions and the requirements the airports must meet
at the time of diversion.
- Recovery plan for passengers and crew.
- Fuel freeze strategy and procedures for monitoring fuel
freezing.
- A plan to ensure communications capability at all times.
- A MEL for these operation
- Adequate training
- A plan to protect crew and passengers against radiation during
solar flare activity.
- Sufficient additional equipment to allow fluent and safe
operations.

___________________________________________________________________________

Sources : Polar navigation by Sqn. Leader K.C. Maclure of the R.C.A.F

FAA AC 120-42B, 91-70, 120-52, 120-61
Opspec/Mspec B055, North Polar Ops
TP 14317, 2009-1, Aeronautical Information Manual
Doc FAA-2002-6717,72FR1883, Jan 16,2007
Didier Van Parijs, Navigator C -130.
Laurent Gall ,Superintendent -Operations, Commercial and Business Aviation
Phone: 514-633-3556  -  Fax: 514-633-3697
Email: laurent.gall@tc.gc.ca
Transport Canada - Quebec Region ,NAXO, Government of Canada
 Steffen Gemsa, Experimental Test Pilot, German Aerospace Center DLR
Postbox 1116
82234 Weßling
Operating Manual of Cargo Lux: JUL 01/07 Page 8.3-55/56 section 8
operations manual operating procedures part A
http://www.tc.gcca/publications/app/en/corral.asp?
itemid=45457&tpnumber=14371&language=us&source=istore
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/navy/nrtc/14308_ch12.pdf

Abbreviations: T= True heading

HDG= Heading
DR = Dead Reckoning
TP = Transport Canada
FAA= Federal Aviation Authority
AC = Advisory Circular
CPDLC = Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (=ACARS)
NCA= Canadian Northern Control Area
JAA= Joint Aviation Authority
MEL= Minimum Equipment List
FAA= Federal Aviation Authority
AC= Air Circular
G= Grid heading
ATC= Air Traffic Control
FIR= Flight Information Region
CTA= Control Terminal Area
INS= Inertial Navigation System
GPS= Global Positioning System
DG= Directional Gyro
NDB= Non Directional Beacon
HF= High Frequency radio
VHF= Very High Frequency (radio)
UHF= Ultra High Frequency (radio)