thello takes place in Venice (in northern Italy) and Cyprus (an island in the

eastern Mediterranean about forty miles south of present-day Turkey). The

time is between 1489 and 1571. It is interesting to note that Venice is the
setting for both major Shakespeare plays dealing in part with racial prejudice,
Othello and The Merchant of Venice.As one of the world’s leading sea powers,
Venice was the center of commercialism and materialism and, therefore,
corruption and conflict arising from avarice, social status, and fierce
competition. Cyprus–as a strategically located island which yielded
substantial harvests of olives, grapes and various grains–was much prized
throughout its history. Assyrians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Byzantines
all fought over and occupied it. England’s King Richard I, the Lion-Hearted,
conquered Cyprus in 1191 but later ceded it to the French. Venice seized the
island in 1489 and in 1571 the Ottoman Turks brought Cyprus under its
control.

Protagonist: Othello

Antagonist: Iago

Foils of Othello: Michael Cassio, Iago

Othello: Black Moor who is the greatest army general in Venice. He is

intelligent, courageous, and honorable. His marriage to beautiful Desdemona,
the daughter of a prominent Venetian, provokes racial slurs against him. But
he carries on with nobility and dignity as he leads an army against Turks on
Cyprus. His dedication to duty is eclipsed only by his dedication to
Desdemona, who follows him to Cyprus. So passionately does he love her
that he cannot endure the thought of another man even looking at her. And
therein lies his Achilles' heel, jealousy.

Iago: Military officer who schemes against Othello because the Moor did not
promote him. He is evil through and through, taking great pleasure in
bringing down the great Othello.

Desdemona: Daughter of Brabantio, wife of Othello, and victim of Iago's

machinations and Othello's jealousy. She is the noblest and most unselfish
character in the play.

Michael Cassio: Othello's lieutenant, who is manipulated by Iago. Cassio is a

hinge on which the play turns. On the one hand, it is his promotion that
arouses Iago's jealously. On the other, it is his alleged (but nonexistent) love
affair with Desdemona that arouses Othello's jealousy.

Duke of Venice: Ruler who finds in favor of Othello when Desdemona's father
attacks Othello's character.

Brabantio: Senator and father of Desdemona. A bigot whose racism is

inflamed by Iago, he despises Othello.

First Senator, Second Senator

Gratiano: Brabantio's brother.

Lodovico: Brabantio's kinsman, who bears a message from the duke recalling
Othello to Venice.

Roderigo: Venetian gentleman and former suitor of Desdemona. He is

manipulated by Iago.

Montano: Othello's predecessor in the government of Cyprus.

Clown: Servant to Othello.

Emilia: Wife of Iago. She is blind to his evil until she discovers that it was he
who plotted against Othello and Desdemona.

Bianca: Cassio's mistress.

Minor Characters: Sailor, messenger, herald, officers, gentlemen, musicians,

attendants.

.Othello, a black Moor, is a general in the service of Venice. Because he has

conquered the Turks, the Venetians esteem him highly as a military leader.
Iago, Othello’s ensign, aspires to rise in the ranks. But when Othello promotes
the Florentine Michael Cassio to the position of personal lieutenant, Iago
smolders with deadly anger for being passed over. Immediately he begins a
campaign to poison Venice against Othello. On a Venetian street, Iago tells
the gullible Roderigo, a gentleman of the city, that Cassio is untested in
battle and that his soldierly abilities consist of “mere prattle, without
practise” (1. 1. 28). In other words, Cassio is all talk, no action. Iago says that
he himself, on the other hand, has proved his military prowess in battles at
Rhodes, Cyprus, and elsewhere against Christian and heathen alike.
Apparently, he says, Othello promotes his men on the merits of their political
and personal connections, not on their soldierly skills. The goal of Iago’s plot
against the highly respected Moor is not only to gain revenge; it is also to do
what he most enjoys: evil.

....... When Othello elopes with Desdemona, daughter of Senator Brabantio,

Iago realizes he has the perfect opening to get back at Othello. He enlists
Roderigo, a former suitor of Desdemona, to awaken Desdemona’s father late
at night. Then Iago, using crude racist metaphors, inflames Brabantio against
Othello:

For shame, put on your gown;

Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul;

Even now, now, very now, an old black ram1

Is tupping2 your white ewe3. Arise, arise;

Awake the snorting citizens with the bell,

Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you:

Outraged, Brabantio complains to the Duke of Venice, claiming Othello used

spells and charms to win Desdemona's favor. How else could a vile black man
have won her favor? When a fleet of Turks threatens Cyprus, the Venetian
Senate decides to send Othello to Cyprus to defend it and become the new
governor. During the senate meeting, the duke listens to Brabantio's charges
against Othello. But after hearing Othello speak of his love for Desdemona,
the duke finds in favor of Othello, and Brabantio relinquishes his daughter to
the Moor. She decides to follow him to Cypress. Unaware that Iago was
behind Brabantio's earlier protests against the elopement, Othello orders Iago
to accompany his wife. Roderigo goes along at the urging of Iago, who tells
Roderigo that Desdemona will eventually tire of Othello. However, Iago also
tells Roderigo they must first act to discredit Cassio to prevent Desdemona
from taking up with him. Meanwhile, a raging storm devastates the Turkish
fleet, upending its attack, although the ships from Venice arrive safely at
Cyprus. A celebration follows. On the evening of the first night in Cyprus,
Iago–implementing his plan to discredit Cassio–gets Cassio drunk, then has
Roderigo start an argument with him. Montano, the outgoing governor of
Cyprus, intervenes, and Cassio wounds him. After Othello arrives at the
scene of the commotion, he asks: “Honest Iago, that look'st dead with
grieving / Speak, who began this?” (2. 3. 135-136). Playing the innocent, Iago
replies: “I had rather have this tongue cut from my mouth / Than it should do
offense to Michael Cassio” (2. 3. 181-182). Having duly established himself as
an unbiased onlooker, he then says, ''Yet, I persuade myself, to speak the
truth. . .” (3. 1. 183). After Iago recounts for Othello what happened during
the fray, implicating Cassio, Othello tells Cassio that he will never more serve
as the Moor’s officer. Lovely Desdemona appears and inquires about the
disturbance. Othello tells her all is well, and they go off to bed. Montano is led
away for treatment of his injury. Cassio, now alone with Iago, says he regrets
his behavior. Iago tells him he can yet regain favor with Othello by having
Desdemona intercede on his behalf. When Cassio presents his case to
Othello’s wife, she agrees to speak with her husband on Cassio’s behalf.
When she does so in an innocent attempt to be helpful, she arouses Othello’s
jealousy. After all, Cassio is far younger than Othello–and terribly handsome.
Is it not reasonable to believe that Desdemona has something going with
Cassio? Meanwhile, Iago’s wife Emilia has found a handkerchief dropped by
Desdemona. Othello had given it to his wife as a gift. When Emilia shows it to
Iago, he sees an opportunity to advance his scheme and snatches it away,
saying he has use for it. Iago then plants the handkerchief in Cassio’s room
and tells Othello that Cassio has come into possession of it. When Othello
asks his wife for the handkerchief and she cannot produce it, he tells her that
it was a valued heirloom given to his mother by an Egyptian woman. He says
his mother, in turn, gave the handkerchief to him as she lay dying, requesting
that he give it to his future wife.“To lose ’t or give ’t away were such
perdition / As nothing else could match” (3. 4. 69-70), Othello says. When he
further presses Desdemona to produce the handkerchief and she cannot, he
becomes convinced that she gave it to Cassio and has been having affair
with him. Othello then tells Iago he plans to poison Desdemona, but Iago
advises him to “strangle her in her bed, even the bed she hath contaminated
(4. 1. 182). As for Cassio, Iago says, “[L]et me be his undertaker” (4. 1. 184).
Letters from the Duke of Venice arrive with Lodovico, recalling Othello to
Venice and naming Cassio the new governor of Cyprus. Kind-hearted
Desdemona praises Cassio. For this seemingly untoward gesture, Othello
strikes and berates her. To further his plan, Iago again uses the hapless
Roderigo, persuading him to kill Cassio for him. On a dark street Roderigo
thrusts at Cassio but fails to kill him. Cassio in turn wounds Roderigo. Iago,
darting by unseen, wounds Cassio in the leg.Othello arrives to observe from a
distance. Believing Iago has been good to his word, that he has killed Cassio,
the Moor goes back to the castle for the awful task of executing his wife. As
others are drawn to the scene of the fray between Roderigo and Cassio, Iago
returns with a lantern as if he is just discovering the melee. At an opportune
moment he steals aside and finishes off Roderigo with a dagger thrust. Cassio
is taken away for treatment. Othello, still in love with his wife, kisses her
awake, asks her to prepare her soul for death, and–after an exchange of
accusations and denials–smothers her with a pillow. As Desdemona lies
dying, Emilia arrives to report the death of Roderigo. Desdemona cries out,
“A guiltless death I die” (5. 2. 149), then breathes her last. Othello reveals
that he killed his wife because she was having an affair with Cassio. Iago, he
says, can verify her infidelity. Emilia, shocked, says Desdemona was always
“heavenly true” (5. 2. 165) to Othello. If Iago reported otherwise, she says, he
is a liar. Emilia calls for help, and Montano, Iago, and others respond. Emilia
immediately impugns Iago: “You told a lie, an odious damned lie; / Upon my
soul, a lie, a wicked lie” (5. 2. 215-216). Othello, still convinced of
Desdemona’s guilt, brings up the matter of the handkerchief, saying
Desdemona gave it to Cassio, as Iago can attest. Emilia then discloses that
she found the handkerchief and gave it to her husband at his insistence. At
long last, Iago’s whole sordid plot unravels. When Othello lunges at him, Iago
stabs his wife and runs off. Montano and others pursue him. Emilia dies and
Montano returns. With him are Lodovico, Cassio (carried on a chair), and Iago
(held as a prisoner). Othello strikes at Iago with a sword and wounds him.
When Cassio declares that he never wronged Othello, the Moor says he
believes him and asks his pardon. Lodovico presents letters found in
Roderigo’s pocket that disclose further details of Iago’s nefarious plot.

.......Despondent with self-recrimination, Othello stabs himself, falls on the

bed, and dies. Iago is held for punishment. “The time, the place, the torture”
(5. 2. 427), Lodovico says, are up to the new governor of Cyprus, Cassio.

Themes

Jealousy has the power to destroy. It destroys both Iago (jealous that Michael
Cassio has received an appointment over him) and Othello (jealous that his
wife may love Cassio).

Hatred is often skin deep. Racial prejudice is a crucial issue in the play, for it
isolates Othello, making him feel like a defective and an outcast. As such, he
wonders whether he is worthy of Desdemona–and whether she has turned
her attentions toward a handsome white man, Cassio, as Iago maintains.
Brabantio and Iago are the most bigoted characters. Brabantio is horrified
that his daughter has eloped with a Moor who will give him dark-skinned
children; Iago cannot brook the fact that he must take orders from a black.

As in Macbeth, all things are not what they seem. At the beginning, Othello
appears strong and self-disciplined, and Iago presents himself as loyal and
trustworthy. Later, Othello is revealed as a victim of his emotions, and Iago
as a disloyal and evil man.

True love sometimes requires courage. Desdemona marries Othello knowing

well that his color, his cultural background, and his advanced age will arouse
controversy. But she never wavers in her love for him, even when her own
father–a prominent Venetian–speaks out against the Moor; she never allows
the bigotry of others to affect her.

Bad things happen to good people. Desdemona is pure and innocent, the
ideal wife. Othello is noble, loving, and accomplished, the ideal husband. But
he murders Desdemona, then kills himself. In the real world, bad things
happen to good people. Chance, character flaws, and the presence of evil–in
this case, Iago–often militate against happy endings.

.......Among the vilest characters in all of Shakespeare is Iago. Audiences

attending Othello begin learning the extent of his villainy in the opening
scene of the play, when Iago uses racism as a spark to inflame Desdemona’s
father, Senator Brabantio, against Othello. Here is the scene:

.......After Iago and Roderigo raise a clamor outside Brabantio’s house late
one evening, the senator awakens and comes to a window. Iago then uses
vulgar animal imagery to slur Othello, telling Brabantio that the black Moor
has seized his greatest treasure, his daughter, and at that very moment is
defiling her.

’Zounds!4 sir, you’re robb’d; for shame, put on your gown;

Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul;

Even now, now, very now, an old black ram

Is tupping5 your white ewe6. Arise, arise!

Awake the snorting citizens with the bell,

Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you. (1. 1. 92-97)

When Brabantio reacts with incredulity, Iago replies with a metaphor that this
time compares Othello to a horse:

’Zounds! sir, you are one of those that will not serve God if the devil bid you.
Because we come to do you service and you think we are ruffians, you’ll have
your daughter covered with a Barbary horse; you’ll have your nephews7
neigh to you; you’ll have coursers for cousins and gennets8 for germans.9 (1.
1. 119)

.......Roderigo, whom Iago uses as a cat’s-paw, supports Iago’s story. Iago

then says, “I am one, sir, that comes to tell you, your daughter and the Moor
are now making the beast with two backs” (1. 1. 121). Roderigo adds that
Desdemona is indeed in the “gross clasps of a lascivious Moor” (1. 1. 131).
Brabantio, now convinced of the truth of the story, tells Roderigo to summon
help.

.......Afterward, on a street in another location, Iago meets with Othello to

inflame him against Brabantio. The latter had denounced Othello, Iago says,
with “scurvy and provoking terms” (1. 2. 10) after hearing of his and
Desdemona’s elopement. Iago also says that

he will divorce you,

Or put upon you what restraint and grievance

The law–with all his might to enforce it on–

Will give him cable. (1. 2. 17-20)

.......By and by, Brabantio and others appear. The senator, after denouncing
Othello for taking Desdemona to his “sooty bosom” (1. 2. 87), accuses the
Moor of having used “foul charms” (1. 2. 90) and “drugs or minerals” to
weaken Desdemona’s will.

.......The matter becomes an issue in the Venetian council chamber, where

the Duke and other senators are preparing for war against the Turks. After
Othello speaks eloquently of his love for Desdemona and she speaks on his
behalf, the Duke exonerates Othello. But in doing so, the Duke obliquely
denigrates Othello because of his race–apparently unintentionally, in a
Freudian slip–telling Brabantio, “Your son-in-law is more fair than black” (1. 3.
311), implying that fairness is superior to blackness. Brabantio reluctantly
accepts the ruling.

.......Having lost a battle, Iago continues to plot to win the war, still using
racism as one of his weapons. Consider that in referring to Othello, he
sometimes inserts the word black to remind listeners that the Moor is
different, a man apart, a man to be isolated. For example, after referring to
Othello in Act 1 as a “black ram,” he tells Michael Cassio in Act 2, Scene 2,
“Come, lieutenant, I have a stoup of wine, and here without are a brace of
Cyprus gallants that would fain have a measure to the health of black
Othello” (25).

Imagery

.......Othello is rich in memorable figures of speech, several of which have

become part of our language. Although the characters speak in prose as well
as verse, the imagery remains vivid throughout the play. Among the most
frequently quoted passages are the following:

But I will wear my heart upon my sleeve

For daws to peck at. (1. 1. 67-68)

In a metaphor comparing his heart to bird food, Iago comments on what he

would do if he were like other men who make no attempt to hide their true
feelings. Iago, of course, prides himself on his ability to give false
impressions.

I will a round unvarnish’d tale deliver. (1. 3. 104)

Othello defends himself against accusations that he abducted Desdmona,

saying he will tell the whole truth (round unvarnish’d tale).

To mourn a mischief that is past and gone

Is the next way to draw new mischief on. (1. 3. 226-227)

Using alliteration (mourn a mischief), the Duke of Venice advises Brabantio

not to fret over a lost cause.

The robb’d that smiles steals something from the thief. (1. 3. 230)

After the Duke of Venice exonerates Othello before the council of Venice, he
advises Brabantio in this paradox to accept the verdict in good humor rather
to protest it with petty grumbling.

Virtue! a fig! (1. 3. 331)

In this metaphor, Iago belittles virtue.

The food that to him now is as luscious as locusts, shall be to him shortly as
bitter as coloquintida. (1. 3. 333)

In a metaphor, Iago compares current events to food; in a simile, he

compares the taste of the food to the delicious taste of locusts. He predicts
that the sweetness of Othello’s life will soon turn bitter. (Coloquintida is an
alternate name for colocynth, a vine that bears a tart fruit resembling a
lemon.)

Reputation is an idle and most false imposition; oft got without merit, and lost
without deserving. (2. 3. 226)

Iago tells Cassio that reputation is not as important as the latter thinks it.

How poor are they that have not patience!

What wound did ever heal but by degrees? (2. 3. 274-275)

In a metaphor comparing emotional anguish to an injury to the body, Iago

scolds Roderigo for complaining when his plans go awry.

O! beware, my lord, of jealousy;

It is the green-ey’d monster which doth mock

The meat it feeds on. (3. 3. 191-193)

In this metaphor, Iago tells Othello that jealousy is monstrous. Iago’s

observation is also an example of irony, in that Iago is attempting to inflame
Othello with jealousy and in that Iago himself suffers from jealousy aimed at
Michael Cassio.

Poor and content is rich, and rich enough. (3. 3. 198)

Iago consoles (falsely) Othello with a paradox after the latter’s suspicions
against Desdemona are aroused.

Speak of me as I am; nothing extenuate,

Nor set down aught in malice: then, must you speak

Of one that lov’d not wisely but too well. (5. 2. 398-400)

Before stabbing himself, Othello explains that he loved Desdemona deeply–

but not wisely. Alliteration (wisely, well) helps make Line 400 memorable.

Use of Irony

Othello’s Prejudice, the Ultimate Irony

.......Centuries of analysis and criticism of this play have focused on Othello as

the victim of prejudice. Ironically, though, it is Othello who commits the most
heinous act of prejudice in the play–forejudging his innocent wife as, in his
own words, a “cunning whore” (4. 2. 105) who must pay for her transgression
with her life. His mulish refusal to consider confuting evidence and his
summary execution of his wife demonstrate that prejudice is an equal-
opportunity affliction.

Iago's "Good Name"

.......Irony plays an important role in Othello. For example, Othello, a good

man, commits a heinous crime. Iago, an evil man, masquerades as an
honorable man. In fact, in one of the better known passages in the play, Iago
extols honor, saying:

................Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,

................Is the immediate jewel of their souls:

................Who steals my purse steals trash . . .

................But he that filches from me my good name

................Robs me of that which not enriches him

................And makes me poor indeed. (3. 3. 180-185)

Iago’s Ironic Warning

.......Ironically, it is the deceitful Iago who, in a pretense to make himself
seem a friend to Othello, speaks of the danger of jealousy:

O, beware, my lord, of jealousy;

It is the green-ey’d monster which doth mock

The meat it feeds on. . . . . (3. 3. 191-193)

Planted Evidence

.......Writers often use "planted evidence" as a ploy to impugn an innocent

character and thereby thicken the plot. Knives, guns, caches of jewels,
umbrellas, and cigarette lighters have all been used by writers to suggest
that an innocent character is guilty. The 19th Century playwright Oscar Wilde
often resorted to such ploys to complicate his plots. One of his plays, Lady
Windermere's Fan, relies heavily on seemingly incriminating evidence--a fan
and a handwritten letter--to implicate an innocent woman. What was the
planted evidence in Othello that implicated Desdemona? Describe this
evidence and explain its role in convincing Othello that his wife was
unfaithful.

.Climax

.......The climax of a play or another literary work, such as a short story or a

novel, can be defined as (1) the turning point at which the conflict begins to
resolve itself for better or worse, or as (2) the final and most exciting event in
a series of events. The climax of Othello, according to the first definition,
occurs in the third scene of Act III, when Othello becomes convinced that
Desdemona has been unfaithful and resolves to retaliate against her.
According to the second definition, the climax occurs when Othello kills
Desdemona and discovers the horrible mistake he has made.

Hinge Character.......Michael Cassio is a hinge on which the play turns. On the

one hand, it was his promotion that aroused Iago's jealousy. On the other, it
was his alleged (but nonexistent) love affair with Desdemona that aroused
Othello's jealousy.

Murder Methods

.......In this play, Othello apparently strangles Desdemona or smothers her

with a pillow. (The stage directions say he "stifles" Desdemona.) Murder by
pillow or strangulation was only one of a remarkable variety of killing tools
and methods Shakespeare used to send his characters to the beyond. In
Antony and Cleopatra, Cleopatra commits suicide via the bite of an asp. In
Richard III, Clarence is drowned in a barrel of wine. In Macbeth, hired
assassins inflict "twenty trenched gashes" upon Banquo's head. In Cymbeline,
Guiderius decapitates Clotan. In Titus Andronicus, throats are slit and Aaron
the Moor is buried up to his chest, then starved. In Hamlet, Claudius murders
his predecessor by pouring poison into his ear. In King John, a monk poisons
the monarch in the conventional, oral way. The latter murder method has
been a favorite of assassins since ancient times. It is said that the custom of
garnishing food with parsley originated in the time of the Caesars. Parsley
was a secret sign from a friend in the kitchen that food was uncontaminated.

Othello as Hero

.......Hellen Gardner observes, "Othello is like a hero of the ancient world in

that he is not a man like us, but a man recognized as extraordinary. He
seems born to do great deeds and live in legend. He has the obvious heroic
qualities of courage and strength, and no actor can attempt the role who is
not physically impressive. He has the heroic capacity for passion. But the
thing which most sets him apart is his solitariness. He is a stranger, a man of
alien race, without ties of nature or natural duties. His value is not in what the
world thinks of him, although the world rates him highly, and does not derive
in any way from his station. It is inherent. He is, in a sense, a self-made man,
the product of a certain kind of life which he has chosen to lead...."--Gardner,
Hellen. Quoted in Bender, David, publisher. Readings on the Tragedies of
William Shakespeare. San Diego: Greenhaven, 1996 (Page 140).

Did Shakespeare Visit Italy?

.......Shakespeare's works suggest that he might have visited? Consider that

more than a dozen of his plays--includingThe Merchant of Venice, Romeo and
Juliet, All's Well That Ends Well, Othello, Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, The Two
Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing,
and The Winter's Tale all have some or all of their scenes set in Italy.
Consider, too, that plays not set in Italy are often well populated with people
having Italian names. For example, although The Comedy of Errors takes
place in Ephesus, Turkey, the names of many of the characters end with the
Italian ''o'' or ''a'':--Angelo, Dromio, Adriana, Luciana. In Hamlet's Denmark,
we find characters named Marcellus, Bernardo and Francisco. Practically all of
the characters in Timon of Athens bear the names of ancient Romans--
Lucullus, Flavius, Flaminius, Lucius, Sempronius, Servillius, Titus, Hortensius.
Of course, it is quite possible that Shakespeare visited Italy only in his
imagination..

What Was a Moor?

.......A Moor was a Muslim of mixed Arab and Berber descent. Berbers were
North African natives who eventually accepted Arab customs and Islam after
Arabs invaded North Africa in the Seventh Century A.D. The term has been
used to refer in general to Muslims of North Africa and to Muslim conquerors
of Spain. The word Moor derives from a Latin word, Mauri, used to name the
residents of the ancient Roman province of Mauritania in North Africa. To
refer to Othello as a "black Moor" is not to commit a redundancy, for there
are white Moors as well as black Moors, the latter mostly of Sudanese origin.

Moors in Other Shakespeare Plays

.......In Titus Andronicus Shakespeare introduces an evil Moor named Aaron

who displays goodness near the end when he pleads for his child's life.
Othello introduces an upright and righteous Moor who displays evil near the
end when he suspects his wife of infidelity and kills her.

.......A Moor also appears in The Merchant of Venice. He is the Prince of

Morocco, a suitor for the hand of Portia. Even before he arrives to make his
bid for her, Portia, a racist snob, says, "[I]f he have . . . the complexion of a
devil, I had rather he should shrive me than wive me."

Study Questions and Essay Topics

Brabantio protests the marriage of his daughter, Desdemona, to Othello,

claiming Othello used "spells and medicines" to dull her senses so that she
would marry "against all rules of nature." Do you think the real reason for
Brabantio's protest is the color of Othello's skin? Use passages from the play
to support your answer.

What was the attitude of Europeans toward blacks during Shakespeare's

time?

In what ways are Othello and Desdemona similar to Romeo and Juliet? In
what ways are they dissimilar?

Do you believe Iago despises Othello because Othello is black? (4) Would you
marry a person of opposite color? Explain your answer.

What do you believe was Shakespeare's attitude toward blacks?

Did any blacks live in London during Shakespeare's time?

If Othello was such a great general, a man who could read the mind of his
enemy, why was he so easily deceived by Iago?

Write an essay explaining why Othello promoted Michael Cassio as his

personal lieutenant instead of Iago. The play does not address this question,
and most scholars ignore it because there is virtually no evidence (prior to
the appointment) to support a viewpoint. Using your imagination and what
you know about Cassio and Iago from your reading of the play, venture an
opinion, then support it with passages from the play.

Many of us tend to root for villains--bank robbers on the lam, prison inmates
after an escape, mad scientists coaxing a monster to life, and miscreants like
Iago. Write an essay explaining why we root for villains, an essay that probes
the dark side of the human psyche to find sparks from a primeval fire that
has enkindled malevolent voyeurism in all of us.

Freely using your imagination, write an essay that tells what Iago was like as
a child.