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PAPER-IV
Plant physiology and metabolism
UNIT-III
Block II
BLOCK – II
UNIT – III
PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION AND LIPID METABOLISM
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3.5.5. Let us sum
3.6.6 Assignments
3.6.7 References
3.0. INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about plant physiology related to photosynthesis, respiration
and lipid metabolism. As you know plants are the most significant living being on earth
which produce O2 and harvest solar energy for others. You can’t imagine life on earth
without plants. When we say plant synthesize, their own food it is carbohydrate.
And thus, in the anabolic step of metabolism,a carbohydrate compound glucose is
produced and stored as starch.The word photos means light and synthesis means putting
together. Because of the production of energy rich substances in the presence of light by
chlorophyll, this process is called photosynthesis.Thus, the formation of carbohydrates
from CO2 and water by illuminated green cells is called as photosynthesis.
As you know it is during this process 686 K.cal of energy is stored in chemical form.
3.1.1.OBJECTIVES:
After learning this unit you should be able to understand the
Mechanism of conversion of solar energy into chemical energy.
Basic structure and functional organization of chloroplast, & quantasome.
Why photosynthesis process is studied as dark reaction and light reaction, when
process occurs in nature in a continues manner.
You will know about important, intermediate compounds and enzymes involved
in the process.
How does electron transport chain works.
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Role of water as reducing agent.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS TO MANKIND
1. It maintains the equilibrium of O2 and CO2 in the atmosphere.
2. It provides food either directly as vegetable or indirectly as meat or milk of
animals which in turn are fed on plants.
3. Life on earth is possible because of photosynthesis.
4. All useful plant products are derived from the process of photosynthesis e.g.
timber, rubber, resins, oils, fiber, etc.
5. Photosynthesis decreases the concentration of CO2 which is being added to the
atmosphere by the process of respiration of living beings and burning of organic
fuels.
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Chloroplast
Functions of chloroplast:
1. Photosynthesis: The main function of chloroplast is to synthesize organic
food materials by the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place in grana.
(i) Light reaction: Takes place in grana.
(ii) Dark reaction: Takes place in stroma.
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2. During photosynthesis chloroplast absorb CO2 from atmosphere and photolyse
H2O to release O2. This O2 is utilized by living beings during respiration. Thus,
chloroplast controls the concentration of O2 and CO2 in the atmosphere.
3. During light reaction of photosynthesis, phosphorylation of ADP takes place,
which results ATP generation. This ATP and NADPH2 are required for the reduction of
CO2 during dark reaction of photosynthesis.
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Structure of chlorophyll: Will Statter, Stoll and Fischer (1912) described the structure
of chlorophyll molecule for the first time. According to him chlorophyll is made up of
two parts like that of a tadpole larva.
(i) Head: It is made up of pyrrole group.
(ii) Tail: It is made up of phytol group.
(iii) Pyrrole head: chlorophyll is a magnesium porphyrin compound.Porphyrin ring
consists of four pyrrole rings. (Tetrapyrrole). Joined together by methane
bridge (-CH3 bridge). It is hydrophilic in nature. The centre of tertapyrrole is
occupied by bivalent magnesium (Mg++) which is complexed with nitrogen
atoms of four pyrrole rings.
(iv) Phytol tail: It is hydrophobic in nature and made up of alcohol phytol
(C20H39OH). The phytol chain is responsible for lipoidal solubility of the
chlorophyll.
*Chl-a and b differ because in Chl-b there is a–CHO group instead of a-CH3
group at third carbon atom in II pyrrole ring.
2. Carotenoids: It is yellow or orange colored pigment usually found in close association
with chlorophylls. They occur in thylakoids and act as accessory pigment of
photosynthesis. It absorbs light energy in the mid region of visible spectrum and transfer
their absorbed energy to chlorophyll molecules. They pick up nascent O2 released during
photo oxidation of water and change them into molecular state. Thus, they protect the
chlorophyll molecules from photo-oxidation.
3. Phycobilins:- are red or blue coloured pigments bound in BGA. viz, phycocyanin,
Phycoerythrin.
3.1.5MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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2. Then absorbed light energy is converted into chemical energy.
3. Finally synthesis of carbohydrates takes place.
Of the above three processes, first two takes place in the presence of light hence it is
called as light reaction, whereas third one is very complex process which does not
require light hence called as dark reaction. Thus photosynthesis consists of two
successive series of reactions:
1. Light or Hill reaction
2. Dark reaction or Blackmann’s reaction.
LIGHT REACTION
Light reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast and it requires light hence it is
called light reaction. In this reaction light energy is utilized and formation of ATP and
reducing power (NADPH + H+) takes place. This NADPH + H+ is the reduced part of
redox system NADP+/NADPH. The electrons required for the conversion of NADP+ into
NADPH comes from water. Thus, in this process water functions as electron donor.
Light reaction was discovered by Robert Hill (1937) hence it is also known to be as
Hill reaction.
Steps of Light Reaction
1. Absorption of light energy by chloroplast : During photosynthesis first
of all different kinds of chlorophyll molecules of leaves absorb light of different
wavelengths of visible part (between 360nm to 810nm) of the spectrum and transfer it
towards reaction centre of the pigment systems.
2. Transfer of light energy from accessory pigment to chlorophyll-a:
All the photosynthetic pigments other than Chl-a are called as antenna or accessory
pigments.These antenna chlorophyll absorb light energy and transfer them into
photoreaction centre or energy trapping centre. In PS-I energy trapping centre is P700
whereas in PS-II it is P 680.
3. Activation of chlorophyll-a molecules by photons of light energy: Normally
chlorophyll molecule exists in ground state (or low energy state), but when these
chlorophyll molecules (photoreaction centre) – P 700 or P 680 absorb a photon
(quantum) of light, then they were going to higher energy state (excited or
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singlet state). At this state they release electrons (e). These electrons jumps from
their normal orbit to high energy orbit. Due to undergoing excited state energy
is also comes in the outer orbit hence these are in the excited or high energy
state. Chlorophyll molecule is unstable during this state. These excited electrons
are then trapped by different electron acceptors due to which chlorophyll
molecule become positively charged.
Light
Chlorophyll – a Chlorophyll – a
(Ground State) (Excited State)
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of ATP molecule s at different place during its transport. It is called as photosynthetic
phosphorylation.
Photophosphorylation
According to Arnon and associates, photophosphorylation or E.T.C..
involves the following two processes :
i. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation,
ii. Cyclic Photophosphorylation.
In cyclic photophosphorylation the electrons lost by PS-I is cycled
back to it, whereas in non-cyclic photophosphorylation, one electron is lost it doesn’t
enter into PS-II, thus it involves both PS-I and PS-II.
(i) Non-cyclic photophosphorylation : Hill and Bendal (1960) and
Robinowitch and Govindjee (1965) have proposed Z- scheme to explain the process of
photophosphorylation. According to him during light reaction, both the photochemical
processes (PS-I and PS-II) takes place in a series and the product of one reaction is used
in the second reaction. Robert Hill have been first time stated that just like that of
mitochondria, chloroplast also utilize cytochrome. When a quantum of light of
wavelength above 680nm is received by a molecule of PS-I the energy is transferred to a
chain of other chlorophyll molecules by induction resonance, until finally it is transferred
to a molecule of P 700, which becomes excited and releases an electron. These electrons
are accepted by ‘X’(OX))oxidised due to which it become reduced (Xred). The electron is then
transferred to ferredoxin reducing substance (FRS). FRS further reduces an iron
containing protein called ferredoxin. The electron from reduced ferrredoxin then reduces
NADP to NADPH with the help of H+ released from H2O. When a quantum of
wavelengthof light of lower wavelength is received by PS-II its reaction canter P 680
loses electron to a substance which is probably a quinine. The electrons then travel
downhill and fall back to +4eV in a dark reaction through a series of PS-I. The carriers
are cytochrome-b (Cyt-b), plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome-f.(Cyt-f) and
plastocyanin (PC). The electron thus does not complete the cycle as it starts from PS-II
and is drained off in the carbohydrates produced by CO2 reduction. The energy released
in the transfer of electron from PQ to Cytochrome-f is utilized to convert ADP and
inorganic phosphate into ATP. The ATP synthesis resulting from this type of non-cyclic
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electron transport chain is known as non-cyclic photophosphorylation. Water molecule is
utilized as a source of electron (H2 donor) in this system at the same time water
molecules become dissociated into H+ and OH- ions.
OH- ions transfer their electrons (e-) to ‘Z’ (an unknown substance) and OH radical is
formed. These electrons are then transferred to PS-II and OH radical become dissociated
form H2O and O2
4OH 2H2O + O2
H+ ions originated from hydrolysis of water reduces NADP+ into NADPH +H+. This
NADP + H+ functions as reducing agent. Thus, we observe that the electrons released
from PS-II does not again enter to PS-II hence, it is called non-cyclic
photophosphorylation.
In this process, two molecules of ATP are formed per two molecules of NADP reduced
or one more molecule of oxygen evolved or two molecules of water oxidized.
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Z
*Thus, from the above description it is clear that photochemical reaction takes palce
during light reaction results:
(i) Photolysis of water and release of O2
(ii) Formation of 3 ATP
(iii) Formation of 2NADPH2
ATP and NADPH are used in the reduction of CO 2 during dark reaction. Similarly ATP
and NADPH2 function as carrier of energy of sunlight and transfer it up to dark reaction.
ATP together with NADPH2, called as assimilatory power and NADPH2 is called as
reducing power.
DARK REACTION
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It is also known as Blackmann’s reaction or thermochemical reaction. In this
phase, the NADPH + H+ and ATP produced during light phase are used in the reduction
or fixation of CO2 into carbohydrates. This reaction takes place in stroma of chloroplast
3.1.6.CALVIN CYCLE OR C3-CYCLE
This method of CO2 fixation is described by Calvin, Benson and Bassham (1957).
As first stable product of this reaction is phosphoglycericacid (PGA), which is a three
carbon compound, this cycle is known to be as C3-cycle and the plants exhibit this cycle
are called as C3 plants.
Calvin has used unicellular algae Chlorella and Scenedesmus to study the C3 cycle.
To identify intermediate compound he used radio tracer technique.
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Summary of Calvin Cycle
Carboxydismutase
(i) 6RuDP + 6CO2 12PGA
(RuDP-C)
Kinase
(ii) 12PGA + 12ATP 12 1,3-DPGA + 12ADP
Dehydrogenase
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Isomerase
(iv) 5PGAld 5DHAP
Aldolase Phosphate
(v) 3PGA + 3DHAP 3F-1,6-DP 3F-6-P+3Pi
Transketolase
(vi) 1F-6-P 1Hexose
Transketolase
(vii) 2F-6-P + 2,3 –PGAld 2E-4-P + 2Xy-5-P
Aldolase Phosphatase
(viii)2E-4 –P + 2DHAP 2S-1,7-DP + 2H2O
2S-7-P + 2H3P04
Transketolase
(ix) 2S-7-P + 2PGAld 2Ribose-5-P+ 2Xy-5-P
Isomerase
(x) 2 Ribose-5-P 2Ribusole-5-P
Epimerase
(xi) 4 Xy-5-P 4 Ribulose – 5 – P
Epimerase
(xii) 2Ribose 2 Ribose – 5 – P
Phosphatase
(xiii) 6 Ribusole – 5 – P + 6 ATP 6 Ribusole-1,6-DP
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3.1.7PHOTORESPIRATION
It has been observed that light affects respiration and the rate of respiration in light may
be three to five times higher than the respiration in darkness. Such type of respiration is
called photorespiration.In photorespiration, temperature plays a very vital role, its rate
being very high in between 25-35˚C. It also depends upon the concentration of oxygen
and increases with increasing oxygen concentration. Even up to 100%.In normal
respiration the respiratory substrate is sucrose which in photorespration glycolic acid (2
carbon compound) serve as a substrate.
Main features of P.R. are
1. It takes place in the presence of light.
2. glycolate serves as substrate for photorespiration.
3.Photorespiration takes place in peroxisomes. Chloroplast and mitochondria are also
involved in this process.
4. It occurs in some plants like Beet, Rice, Bean, etc.
5. Photorespiration increases with the availability of O2
6. It is pronounced in C3 plants and negligible in C4 plants.
7. Toxic H2O2 is formed during oxidation of the substrate
8. End-products are CO2.
9.It is wasteful method and does not produce energy.
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3.1.8HATCH AND SLACK CYCLE OR C4 – CYCLE
Initially it was believed that CO2 fixation takes place only by Calvin cycle. But in 1954,
in addition to Calvin cycle, an alternate pathway to CO2 fixation in photosynthesis was
discovered by Kortschak et al. who reported the formation of C4 dicarboxylic acid as
primary product of photosynthesis in sugarcane. M.D Hatch and C.R.Slack (1966)
proposed an alternative pathway of CO2 fixation which is now known as Hatch and
Slack pathway or C4-dicarboxylic acid pathway or C4-cycle or ß-carboxylation cycle.
*This cycle is known as C4 cycle because first stable product of this cycle is a four
carbon compound known as oxaloacetic acid (OAA).
Occurrence : C4-cycle is found in the members of the family gramineae e.g. sugarcane,
maize, etc. it is also found in the members of the family Cyperaceae, Azoaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Nyctaginaceae.
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Mechanism of C4-cycle:
There are two carboxylation reaction takes place in C4-cycle. First
carboxylation reaction takes place in mesophyll chloroplast and second carboxylation
takes place in bundle sheath cells in the following step wise reaction:
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3. PEP-C enzyme have high affinity with CO2 than RuDP-C enzyme, hence plants
can even fix CO2 during short day conditions when very least concentration of
CO2 is available.
4. The rate of photorespiration in C4 plants is very low (negligible) hence the rate of
photosynthesis will be higher in these plants.
It occurs mostly in succulent plants which grow under semi-arid conditions. This mode
of CO2 fixation takes place during night (dark) because the stomata of leaves of these
plants remain open only during night. These plants absorb CO2 during night and convert
it into malic acid which is then stored in vacuoles. During day time (light)
decarboxylation of malic acid takes place and CO2 is released. This CO2 is utilized by C3-
cycle. Since the cycle was first observed in the plants belonging to family Crassulaceae
e.g. Bryophyllum, Sedum and Kalanchoe, etc. It was named as Crassulacean Acid
Metabolism (CAM). Similar metabolism has been reported in the plants belonging
to following families:
1. Dicot Families: Crassulaceae e.g. (sedum, Opuntia) Azoaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodium, compositae, convolvulaceae, Euphoebiaceae,
Vitaceae, etc.
2. Monocot Families: Liliaceae, Orchidaceae.
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3. Pteridophytes: Polypodiaceae.
Characteristic Features of CAM plants
1. The stomata remain closed during day (light) and open at night (dark).
2. CO2 fixation takes place in chlorophyll containing cells of leaves and stem during
night (dark) and malic acid synthesis takes place.
3. Malic acid formed during dark (night) is stored in large vacuoles.
4. During day time decarboxylation of malic acid takes place and CO2 gas is
released. This CO2 is converted into sucrose and storage glucans (e.g. Starch) by
C3-cycle.
Thus, CAM plants show diurnal cycle of organic acid formation i.e. they fix atmospheric
CO2 during night by CAM and fix internally borne CO2 by C3-cycle during day time.
PEP- carboxylase
PEP + HCO3- OAA + H3PO4
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(iii) The oxaloacetic acid (OAA) is not reduced into MALIC ACID in the
presence of malic dehydrogenase enzymes.This reaction is facilitated in
presence of reduced NADP+ ( =NADPH + H+) formed during glycolysis.
Malate dehydrogenace
OAA +NADPH2 Malic acid + NADP
This malic acid, thus produced in dark as a result of acidification is stored in the
vacuoles. The oxaloacetic acid (OAA) may also be interconverted into aspartic
acid
4. Deacidification: The decarboxylation of malic acid into pyruvicacid and CO2 in
presence of light is called deacidification. During day (light) time malic acid
stored in vacuoles is diffused out into the cytoplasm and become decarboxylated
to produce pyruvic acid and CO2 in the presense of NADP malic
enzymes(NADP-ME). In certain plants, this reaction is catalysed by PEP-
carboxykinase. One molecule of NADP is also reduced in this reaction.
TC Co2
PA or
C3 PGA
CO2 liberated is fixed by C3 cycle on coming next night this starch is converted into
PEP, and is thus ready to accept atmospheric CO2.
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Often required components include:
Catalysts, usually enzymes
Reduction equivalents (in the form of NADH, NADPH, and others).
Biosynthesis of sucrose
The enzymes that catalyze sucrose biosynthesis and cleavage in higher plants were first
reported by Cardini et al. and Leloir and Cardini in 1955. Sucrose-phosphate synthase
(SPS, UDP-glucose: d-fructose-6-phosphate glucosyltransferase, EC 2.4.1.14), its
specific phosphatase (SPP, sucrose-6-phosphate phos phohydrolase, EC 3.1.3.00), and
sucrose synthase (SS, UDP-glucose: d-fructose-2-glucosyltransferase, EC 2.4.2.13) were
isolated and partially purified from wheat germ. The knowledge of sucrose metabolism in
unicellular organisms is limited.
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An outline of sucrose biosynthesis is as follows:
Fructose 1,2-biphosphate is hydrolysed to fructose-6-phosphate. This splits into fructose
and glucose,6-hosphate. Glucose-6-phosphate ultimately gives rise to UDP-D-glucose.
This ultimately produces sucrose.
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Starch Biosynthesis
Starch is the most significant form of carbon reserve in plants in terms of the amount
made, the universality of its distribution among different plant species, and its
commercial importance. It consists of different glucose polymers arranged into a
threedimensional, semicrystalline structure-the starch granule. The biosynthesis of starch
involves not only the production of the composite glucans but also their arrangement into
an organized form within the starch granule. The formation of the starch granule can be
viewed as a simple model for the formation of ordered three-dimensional polysaccharide
structures in plants. Understanding the biochemical basis for the assembly of the granule
could provide a conceptual basis for understanding other higher order biosynthetic
systems such as cellulose biosynthesis (see Delmer and Amor, 1995, this issue). For
example, one emerging concept is that structure within the granule itself may determine
or influence the way in which starch polymers are synthesized.
Starch is synthesized in leaves during the day from photosynthetically fixed carbon and is
mobilized at night. It is also synthesized transiently in other organs, such as meristems
and root cap cells, but its major site of accumulation is in storage organs, including seeds,
fruits, tubers, and storage roots. Starch is synthesized in plastids, which in storage organs
committed primarily to starch production are called amyloplasts.
Starch can be chemically fractionated into two types of glucans polymer: amylose and
amylopectin.
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glucans chains, makes up -70% of starch. Chains of roughly 20 a(l4)-linked glucose
residues are joined by a(1-6) linkages to other branches. The branches themselves form
an organized structure (Figure 1A). Some are not substituted on the six positions and are
called A chains. These chains are a(1-6) linked to inner branches (B chains), which may
be branched at one or severa1 points. A single chain per amylopectin molecule has a free
reducing end (the C chain). The branches are not randomly arranged but are clustered at
7- to 10-nm intervals (Figure 1). An average amylopectin molecule is 200 to 400 nm long
(20 to 40 clusters) and -15 nm wide (for review, see Kainuma, 1988; Smith and Martin,
1993). After extraction, amylopectin has more limited hydrogen bonding than amylase in
solution and is more stable, remaining fluid and giving high viscosity and elasticity to
pastes and thickeners. Some starch, most notably that from potato tuber, is also
phosphorylated.
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Figure 1. Amylopectin Structure, Starch Granule Form, and Starch Biosynthesis.
(A) Diagrammatic representation of an amylopectin molecule. a(M)-Linked glucans are
attached by a(1-6) linkages to form a highly branched
structure. Short glucan chains (A chains) are unbranched but linked to multiple branched
B chains. There is a single reducing end to the C
chain glucan. The branches are arranged in clusters 4 0 nm long, with a few longer chains
linking more highly branched areas.
(B) Diagrammatic representation of a starch granule from storage tissue showing
alternating semicrystalline and amorphous growth rings. The
semicrystalline regions are thought to consist of alternating crystalline and amorphous
lamellae.
(C) Steps of starch biosynthesis. ADPGPPase catalyzes the formation of ADPglucose and
inorganic pyrophosphate from glucose-I-phosphate
and ATP (step 1). Starch synthases (SS) add glucose units from ADPglucose to the
nonreducing end of a growing a(l+linked glucan chain
by an a(l-4) linkage and release ADP (step 2). Starch-branching enzymes (SBE) cut an
a(l-4)-linked glucan chain and form an a(1-6) linkage
between the reducing end of the cut chain and the C6 of another glucose residue in an a(l-
r()-linked chain, thus creating a branch (step 3).
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glucose-1-phosphate can be supplied by the reductive pentose phosphate pathway in
chloroplasts via phosphoglucoisomerase and phosphoglucomutase (Smith and Martin,
1993). In nonphotosynthetic tissues, it may be imported directly from the cytosol (Tyson
and ap Rees, 1988) or synthesized in the plastid from glucose- 6-phosphate via the action
of a plastidial phosphoglucomutase (Hill and Smith, 1991).
The pyrophosphate produced by ADPGPPase is removed by inorganic alkaline
pyrophosphatase, which is probably confined to plastids in both photosynthetic and
nonphotosynthetic tissues. The removal of this plastidial pyrophosphate effectively
displaces the equilibrium of the ADPGPPase reaction in favor of ADPglucose synthesis
(weiner et al., 1987). In the next step of starch synthesis, SS catalyzes the synthesis of an
a(1-4) linkage between the nonreducing end of a preexisting glucan chain and the
glucosyl moiety of ADPglucose, causing the release of ADP. SSs can use both amylase
and amylopectin as substrates in vitro.
The a(1-6) branches in starch polymers are made by SBE, which hydrolyzes an a(l-4)
linkage within a chain and then catalyzes the formation of an a(1-6) linkage between the
reducing end of the “cut” glucan chain and another glucose residue, probably one from
the hydrolyzed chain. Branches are not created randomly, as discussed previously, but
show an average periodicity of 20 glucan residues. SBEs show some specificity for the
length of the a(1-4)glucan chain that they will use as a substrate. Part of this selectivity
may reside in the fact that these enzymes cleave only those glucan chains that are in a
stable double helical conformation, a structure that requires a minimum glucan chain
length.
The relative simplicity of the starch biosynthetic pathway does not explain the enormous
variability in starch composition among different plant species, varieties, and tissues. Nor
does it explain the complexity of starch in terms of its component glucan chains and their
organized arrangement in starch granules. We are only just beginning to understand how
these layers of complexity are determined, but already it is clear that central to their
organization is diversification in the activities of the participating enzymes and
modulation of the extent of their activities. In all species that have been investigated,
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there are isoforms for each of the committed steps of starch biosynthesis. These may
differ in their products, their kinetic properties, their time of expression during starch
granule formation, and the organs in which they are active. The existence of isoforms
clearly provides flexibility for specialization and control in starch biosynthesis. One
problem in characterizing isoforms for each step has been that their identification has
been based predominantly on activities in biochemically fractionated extracts. This
approach has allowed many proteins with either SS or SBE activity to be characterized
from different species. However, it is unlikely that these are all the products of different
genes, because protein degradation is a common feature of purification of SSs and SBEs
(see, for example, Blennow and Johansson, 1991; Baba et al., 1993; Mu et al., 1994) and
could indeed be of significance in vivo. The understanding of the roles of different
isoforms is therefore being greatly facilitated by molecular analysis, which has begun to
allow the assignment of isoforms to particular families with related primary structures
and apparently related functions. These assignments allow not only the comparison of the
roles of particular isoforms from different species but also a clearer view of how starch
biosynthetic gene expression is controlled and the contribution this control makes to the
overall regulation of starch biosynthesis.
Some modulation of starch biosynthesis can also be achieved through metabolic control
of flux through the pathway. In leaves, starch synthesis occurs at higher rates when
carbon assimilation is high relative to the demand for carbon export and at lower rates
when assimilation is low relative to demand from the rest of the plant. There is strong
evidence that changes in rate are achieved through allosteric regulation of ADPGPPase
by the activator 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) and the inhibitor inorganic phosphate (Pi).
Changes in the levels of 3-PGA and Pi in leaves are modulated primarily by the rate of
photosynthetic carbon fixation, thus giving rise to significant modulation of ADPGPPase
activity (Preiss, 1991). It is possible that the contribution of metabolic regulation to starch
biosynthesis may vary across the plant. Starch biosynthesis in many storage organs does
not have an obvious requirement for short-term metabolite-mediated regulation, and
several reports indicate that the potential for allosteric regulation of ADPGPPase from
some storage organs is relatively insignificant in comparison with that in leaves (Hylton
and Smith, 1992; Kleczkowski et al., 1993; Weber et al., 1995). Consequently, control of
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starch biosynthesis may also involve modulation of the extent of allosteric regulation of
ADPGPPase. Of course, the activity of ADPGPPase may exercise significant control in
starch biosynthesis, even in tissues in which allosteric regulation is not important;
however, this needs to be tested,empirically in different tissues and under different
conditions.
The different proteins involved in starch biosynthesis may also vary in their physical
characteristics, which can have a profound effect on the products made within the starch
granule. This is most clearly seen for SSs, which are located both bound to the starch
granule and in the soluble phase of the amyloplast. Following biochemical analysis of
waxy (wx) mutants from several species, a functional distinction was predicted, namely,
that granule-bound SSs (GBSSs) would synthesize amylose, whereas soluble SSs would
synthesize amylopectin. More recent analysis of SSs has shown that the biochemical
distinctions are not absolute; SSs found in the soluble phase may also be bound to the
granule (Denyer et al., 1993, 1995). However, "noncatalytic" characteristics are probably
still of functional significance because they could dictate how active a particular isoform
may be when bound to the granule. To date, most assays of starch biosynthetic enzymes
have been made on soluble or solubilized extracts, which may not reflect precisely the
conditions within the granule.
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partly to the timing of production of the amylose-specific GBSS, which is synthesized
later than some other SSs (Nelson et al., 1978; Dry et al., 1992).
There may also be developmental gradients in starch biosynthesis within a storage organ
(Shannon and Garwood, 1984). For example, waves of gene expression have been
reported across developing seed from more advanced to less advanced cells (Shannon and
Garwood, 1984; Perez-Grau and Goldberg, 1989; Hauxwell et al., 1990). Whereas some
species show significant differences in expression of starch biosynthetic genes at
different developmental stages (Dry et al., 1992; Nakamura and Yuki, 1992; Burton et al.,
1995), others show few differences (Kossmann et al., 1991; Mizuno et al., Starch
Biosynthesis 975 1993). This apparent lack of developmental change could be an artifact
of the way gene expression is assayed; storage organs with strong interna1 developmental
gradients tend to "flatten out" developmental differences in assays based on total extracts.
In fact, it may be that developmental regulation of isoform gene expression is more
important than is appreciated at present.
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From physiological and ecological view point, in order to understand how photosynthesis
responds to environmental factors like light, carbondioxide concentration and
temperature have following considerations to be studied.
Three light properties are especially important when working with light: amount,
direction, and spectral quality. The first two parameters, amount and direction, are
important with respect to the geometry of the part of the plant that intercepts the light. Is
the plant part flat or cylindrical? For a flat leaf, a planar light sensor is the most
appropriate, and the amount of energy that falls on a flat sensor of known area per unit
time is quantified as irradiance. Units can be expressed in terms of energy, such as watts
per square meter (W m-2). Time (seconds) is contained within the term watt: 1 W = 1
joule (J)s-1. The energy of a photon depends on its frequency, as expressed by Planck's
law.
Amount of light. when considered as a wave, light has a wavelength and a frequency.
Light can also be thought of as a stream of particles, photons, or quanta. In this case,
units can be expressed in moles per square meter per second (mol m–2 s–1), where
"moles" refers to the number of photons (1 mol of light = 6.02 × 1023 photons,
Avogadro's number). This measure is called photon irradiance.
Quanta and energy units can be interconverted, provided that the wavelength of the light
is known. The energy of a photon is related to its wavelength as follows:
35
where c is the speed of light (3 × 108 m s–1), h is Planck's constant (6.63 × 10–34 J s),
and λ is the wavelength of light, usually expressed in nm (1 nm = 10–9 m). We can solve
for the hλ part of the equation, and we obtain 1,988 × 10-16, and write this equation as:
where λ is expressed in nanometers. From this equation we can see that a photon at 400
nm, which is in the blue region of the spectrum, has twice the energy of a photon at 800
nm, from the infrared region of the spectrum. A photon of 400 nm light contains 4.97 ×
10–19 J. On the other hand, the 800 nm photon contains 2.48 × 10-19 J. Stated
differently, the higher the wavelength of a photon, the lower its energy, as indicated by
the larger denominator in the equation.
Direction of light. Turning our attention to the direction of light, light can strike a flat
surface directly from above or it can strike the surface obliquely. When light deviates
from perpendicular, irradiance is proportional to the cosine of the angle at which the light
rays hit the sensor. Thus, irradiance is maximal when light strikes a surface directly from
above, and it decreases as light becomes more oblique—similar to the situation with a
typical leaf. Sensors that correct for the angle of incidence of light are said to be cosine
corrected.
36
Figure. Irradiance and fluence rate. Equivalent amounts of collimated light strike a flat
irradiance-type sensor (A) and a spherical sensor (B) that measure fluence rate. With
collimated light, A and B will give the same light readings. When the light direction is
changed 45°, the spherical sensor (D) will measure the same quantity as in B. In contrast,
the flat irradiance sensor (C) will measure an amount equivalent to the irradiance in A
multiplied by cosine of the angle α in C. (After Björn and Vogelmann 1994.)
There are many examples in nature in which the light-intercepting object is not flat (e.g.,
complex shoots, whole plants, chloroplasts). In addition, in some situations light can
come from many directions simultaneously (e.g., direct light from the sun plus the light
that is reflected upward from sand, soil, or snow). In these situations it makes more sense
to measure light with a spherical sensor that measures light omnidirectionally (from all
directions).
When the amount of light is measured by this omnidirectional measurement, the type of
measurement is called fluence rate (Rupert and Letarjet 1978), and the measured amount
of light can be expressed in watts per square meter (W m–2) or moles per square meter
37
per second (mol m–2 s–1). It is clear from the units whether light is being measured as
energy (W) or as photons (mol).
In contrast to a flat sensor, a spherical sensor is equally sensitive to light from all
directions. Depending on whether the light is collimated (rays are parallel) or diffuse
(rays travel in random directions), values for fluence rate versus irradiance can be quite
different from one another. They are equivalent only under special conditions (for a
detailed discussion, see Björn and Vogelmann 1994 and Kirk 1994).
The flat sensor measurement of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400 to 700 nm)
may also be expressed on the basis of energy (W m–2) or quanta (mol m–2 s–1) (McCree
1981). It is important to note that PAR is an irradiance-type measurement. In research on
photosynthesis, when PAR is expressed on a quantum basis, it is often given the special
term photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). However, it has been suggested that the
term "density" be discontinued (Holmes et al. 1985) because within the International
System of Units (Système Internationale d'Unités, or SI units) "density" can mean area or
volume. Moreover, area is contained within the term flux. PPFD has in some cases been
shortened to PPF, but it is not clear whether this abbreviation represents an irradiance-
type or a spherical measurement.
How much light is there on a sunny day and what is the relationship between PAR
irradiance and PAR fluence rate? Under direct sunlight, PAR irradiance and fluence rate
are both about 2000 µmol m–2 s–1, though higher values can be measured at high
altitudes. The corresponding value in energy units is about 400 W m–2. When light is
completely diffuse, irradiance is only 0.25 times the fluence rate.
38
Heat Dissipation from Leaves: The Bowen Ratio
The heat load on a leaf exposed to full sunlight is very high. In fact, a leaf with an
effective thickness of water of 300 µm would warm up by 100°C every minute if all
available solar energy were absorbed and no heat was lost. However, this enormous heat
load is dissipated by the emission of long-wave radiation, by sensible (or perceptible)
heat loss, and by evaporative (or latent) heat loss.
Sensible heat loss and evaporative heat loss are the most important processes in the
regulation of leaf temperature, and the ratio of the two is called the Bowen ratio
(Campbell 1977):
In well-watered crops, transpiration (and hence water evaporation from the leaf, is high,
so the Bowen ratio is low. On the other hand, in some cacti, stomata closure prevents
evaporative cooling; all the heat is dissipated by sensible heat loss, and the Bowen ratio is
infinite. Plants with very high Bowen ratios conserve water but have to endure very high
leaf temperatures in order to maintain a sufficient temperature gradient between the leaf
and the air. Slow growth is usually correlated with these adaptations.
One can calculate the evapotranspiration rate for an entire canopy using measurements of
the Bowen ratio, net incident radiation, the heat loss from the soil, and the gradients in
temperature and water vapor concentration above the canopy (Ibanez and Castellvi 2000).
39
The Geographic Distributions of C3 and C4 Plants
Among the 15,000+ species with C4 photosynthesis, it is most common in grasses and
sedges, less common in herbs and shrubs, and not found in trees (with a single Hawaiian
tree exception, Euphorbia forbesii). Climate is a major factor influencing the natural
distributions of C3 plants and C4 grasses. Here, we talk about the two most important
climate parameters influencing plant growth: water and temperature. Clearly plants will
not grow in the absence of water, so the important factor influencing photosynthetic
pathway distribution becomes the temperature during the growing period. Based on many
systematic surveys of the natural vegetation across the globe that have been accumulating
over time, a clear picture is emerging.
C4 taxa are found in warm to temperate environments and are uncommon in cool to cold
climates. Below we construct a global map that describes the general abundances of C3
and C4 taxa on different continents.
40
Figure. A map of the geographical abundances of C3 and C4 grasses in the savannas and
grasslands of the world. Courtesy of Ehleringer, Cerling, and Dearing (2005).
Notice that C4 taxa are not very common in tropical regions (0–20° latitude), because
dense tropical forests tend to shade out C4 grasses. The C4 taxa are most common away
from the tropics in the savanna and steppe regions; their abundances tends to diminish
south of the desert zones (generally 30–40° latitude).
Human activities and disturbances by animals will influence the distribution of C3 and
C4 taxa within savannas and grasslands. This reflects the role of disturbances, such as
grazing and fires, on the importance of trees on the landscape.
Figure. A three-axis, triangular presentation of the different gradients influencing the
abundances of different C4 photosynthesis subtypes. Courtesy of Ehleringer, Cerling, and
Dearing (2005).
Across the grasslands and savannas, the two dominant C4-photosynthesis subtypes do not
share identical distributions. The C4 NADP-me grasses tend to occur in drier regions,
such as the shortgrass prairie of the Great Plains. On the eastern, wetter edge of the Great
41
Plains, the shortgrass prairie is replaced by tallgrass prairie, dominated by C4 NAD-me
grasses.
Human use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) continues to increase as growing
human populations demand more energy for transportation, heating, and manufacturing.
We measure atmospheric CO2 in units of ppm or parts per million. The rate of
atmospheric increase in CO2 is about 3 ppm per year
Figure. A high precision record of the atmospheric carbon dioxide levels measured on
Manua Loa, Hawaii. Courtesy of NOAA, Earth System Research Laboratory:
Note the cyclic nature of the atmospheric CO2 data, in which one oscillation cycle is
exactly one year. This annual pattern reflects changes in the balance of photosynthesis
(decreases atmospheric CO2) and respiration (increases atmospheric CO2) at a location
over the course of the year. Atmospheric CO2 tends to decrease in the spring and
42
summer, when photosynthesis rates within an ecosystem exceed respiration rates. In
contrast, atmospheric CO2 tends to increase in the fall and winter when respiration rates
exceed photosynthesis. In 2007 atmospheric CO2 reached an average value of 384 ppm
and is expected to reach 400 ppm before 2015.
Economists have good estimates of the rate of CO2 emission globally. The U.S.,
European countries, China, Japan, and India are the largest sources of fossil fuel
emissions.
One surprising fact is that the observed rate of atmospheric CO2 increase is actually less
than the observed rate of atmospheric CO2 increase. This is because plants on land and
algae in the ocean are currently able to take up about one-half of fossil fuel emissions
through enhanced photosynthesis. Scientists study how plants and ecosystems respond to
elevated CO2 using an experimental field approach called a Free Air CO2 Enrichment
(FACE) Experiment. In a FACE experiment, pipes inject CO2 into the interior of a ringed
area containing a complete ecosystem as shown below.
These FACE research facilities give scientists an opportunity to understand how different
plant biochemical, physiological, and growth processes within the ecosystem will
respond as a result of long-term exposure to elevated CO2 levels. Since biomass
production involves so much more than simply increased photosynthesis (i.e., mineral
nutrients are required as well), it is doubtful that plant growth can be sustained in a linear,
proportional fashion as atmospheric CO2 levels continue to increase. The FACE studies
are designed to address the question of how ecosystems will respond to future
atmospheric CO2 environments and whether the growth response level off at some future
CO2 level.
Global warming and changes in climate are anticipated effects of a rapidly increasing
CO2 levels. These are, of course, but two of the many reasons why scientists and others
are concerned about the consequences of elevated atmospheric CO2. Just how much the
atmospheric CO2 will increase is unknown. Below are estimates of the ranges, based on
two plausible scenarios.
43
In one scenario, titled “business as usual” atmospheric CO2 levels are projected to reach
700 ppm by the end of this century. On the other hand, an aggressive global effort to curb
CO2 emission might result in an atmospheric CO2 stabilization of 550 ppm.
The rate of photorespiration in a leaf increases because RuBP carboxylase is more likely
to react with O2 instead of CO2 as temperature increases and/or CO2 decreases. The
result of an increase in photorespiration is a decrease in photosynthetic quantum
efficiency. This leads to environmental conditions where C4 plants are favored over C3
and vice versa.
Reconstruction of the expansion of C4 plants over the past 10–15 million years can be a
challenge, because individual plants are not well recorded in the fossil record in many
locations. Most plant fossils are thought to have formed as a result of submersion into an
anaerobic, aquatic environment. The vast majority of plants do not become fossils under
these conditions, but instead are decomposed by microbial activities leading to
diminished numbers of fossils that we can use to reconstruct the expansion of C4 plants
over time. However, there are good proxies.
Carbon isotope ratios (δ13C) of animal tissues reflect the foods that they ate. For modern
animals, it is possible to choose from among, hair, muscle, bone collagen, and tooth
enamel for isotope analyses in order to determine the proportions of C3 and C4 food
sources in their diets. Hair provides a sequential record of the animal’s diet during the
time of hair production.
44
The δ1313C of animal teeth faithfully record the carbon isotope ratios of food sources
during the period of tooth development. The carbon in tooth enamel is actually carbonate
that has condensed from CO2 that was produced as a byproduct of metabolizing food.
After an animal has died and decomposition has occurred, about the only remaining
tissue that remains and preserves the C3/C4 dietary signals is the enamel in the animal’s
teeth.
For many herbivores, such as cows and horses, tooth growth is continuous and provides a
longer-term dietary record than for animals with a fixed tooth growth period (such as
humans). As teeth are preserved for millions of years, δ13 of tooth enamel can be used to
reconstruct the abundances of C3 and C4 plants eaten by mammalian grazers over
extended time periods.Note that there is an “ε” offset of 14.1‰. This is the isotope
enrichment associated with CO2 condensing to form carbonate. Now we have a tool—the
carbon isotope ratio of animal tooth enamel will record the abundance of C3 versus C4
food sources.
Thure Cerling and his colleagues at the University of Utah have applied the “tooth
enamel” tool to reconstruct the historical abundances of C3/C4 plants.
Until 8 million years ago, C4 plants were not an important part of ecosystems. Then,
between 6 and 9 million years ago, C4 plants became important parts of many
ecosystems, particularly at tropical and semi-tropical latitudes. These results are
consistent with model predictions above. C4 photosynthesis is predicted not to occur on
Earth until the atmospheric CO2 level falls below a critical threshold value. Even then it
should appear first in those locations with the warmest temperatures during the growing
season.
There is also extensive evidence presently to show that fluctuations in the atmospheric
CO2 concentration values between glacial (180 ppm) and interglacial (280 ppm) periods
were large to influence the local abundances of C3/C4 plants. Shown below are the time
series analyses of carbon in bog in tropical Africa. At about 10,0000 to 12,000 years ago,
the vegetation surrounding these bogs switched from being dominated by C4 plants to
being dominated by C3 plants. This shift is evident by the dramatic change is carbon
45
isotope ratios of materials feeding into the bog, especially at the time that the glacial
period ended and we entered our current inter-glacial period.
46
Check your progress- Key I
Answers.
1. Maize 2. C4 plants 3. RuDP 4. cytochrome 5. PSI 6. PEP
3.3RESPIRATION__________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION:
In this unit you will learn about the process of respiration in plants. The process of
respiration is basically an oxidation- reduction process, where electrons are withdrawn
from substrate (glucose) are accepted by various components of etc( electron transport
chain] and reducing powers, and leads to generation of precursor metabolites reducing
power.
+
NADPH+H +ATP. To recall, all living organisms respire to produce energy needed to
perform all vital activities. The energy required for biological activities is obtained from
organic compounds available in food. Plants synthesize their own food through
photosynthesis.
47
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 673Kcal energy
Objective:
The main aim of this unit is to develop an understanding of the process of respiration.
After learning this unit you will be able to
• Differentiate between various types of (respiration, fermentation) fueling reaction.
• Understand the significance of respiration in
a) Generation of precursors
b) Generation of reducing power
c) Generation of ATP
• Realize the role and significance of various enzymes involved in the process.
• Understand the existence of alternative oxidation pathways
• The applications of fermentation and the basic difference between the process of
aerobic respiration , anaerobic respiration & fermentation.
48
c) The overall reaction is as follows:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 38Adp +38iP 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is a complicated process which is completed in many steps. for every
step, a particular enzyme is required which works in a sequential manner one after the
another.
it is completed in 3 steps:
a) Glycolysis / EMP pathway
b) Oxidation of pyruvic acid
c) ETC & oxidative phosphorylation
49
Reasons to support my statement are:
a) It does not involves O2 intake
b) ATP generated is through substrate level phosphorylation.
c) Organic compound donates electrons and organic compound accepts it.
This process was discovered by three German scientists Embden, meyerhof and Parnas.
On their name the pathway is also called EMP pathway.
All the reactions of glycolysis take place in the cytoplasm and
through the glycolysis glucose is oxidized into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes
present in the cytoplasm. Thus the process of sequential oxidation of glucose into
pyruvic acid is known as glycolysis.
50
Energy production during glycolysis:
During glycolysis process two molecules of ATP are utilized to convert glucose into
glucose-6-PO4 & fructose -1, 6 diphosphate where as 4 molecules of ATP and 2
molecules of NADH2 are produced during following steps.
(One molecule of NADH2 gives three molecules of ATP by ETC)
Total production of ATP in glycolysis cycle
Reaction number No. of ATP molecule produced
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLYCOLYSIS:
a) Generate ATP
b) Precursor metabolic generation
c) Generates reducing power
Main enzymes are:
1) phosphofructokinase
2) pyruvate kinase
3) pyruvate enol carboxylase
51
Compound cause action in Priosyn.of:
GTP Protein(ribosome function)
CTP Phospholipids
UTP Peptidoglycan layer of bacterial wall
Dcoxythymidine~ P~P~P lipopolysaccarid layer of bacterial wall
dTTTP
Acyl~SCoA Fatty acids
52
Pyruvic acid + Coenzyme A + NAD Acetyl-CoA +NADH2
C) Fate of pyruvic acid to alanine during amino acid synthesis pyruvic acid react with
glutamic acid alanine.
Pyruvic acid + Glutamic acid Alanine +α-Keto glutaric acid
53
\
Diagram of mitochondria
All the chemical reaction of Kreb’s cycle can be summarized in following steps:
These protons and electrons are accepted by various hydrogen acceptors like
NAD,NADP, FAD etc. After accepting hydrogen atoms these acceptors get reduced to
produce NADH2, NADPH2 and FADH2. The pairs of hydrogen atoms released a series of
coenzymes and cytochromes which form electron transport system, before reacting with
O2 to form H2O.
55
2NADH + O2 + 2H+ 2NAD++ 2H2O
As you know that H ions and electrons removed from the respiratory substrate
during oxidation do not directly react with oxygen. Instead they reduce acceptor
molecules NAD and FAD to NADH2 and FADH2. These molecules then transfertheir
electron to a system of electron acceptors and transfer molecules. The proteins of the
inner mitochondrial membrane act as electron transporting enzymes. They are arranged in
an ordered manner in the membrane and function in a specific sequence. This assembly
of electron transport enzymes is known as mitochondrial respiratory chain or the electron
transport chain. Specific enzymes of this chain receive electrons from reduced prosthetic
groups, NADH2 or FADH2 produced by glycolysis and the TCA cycle. The electrons are
then transported successively from enzyme to enzyme, down a descending ‘stairway’ of
energy yielding reactions. This process takes place in mitochondrial cristae which contain
all the components of E,T.S.
56
Due to this reason only two molecules of ATP are formed in the formation of fumaric
acid from succinic acid whereas in case of other compounds 3 ATP molecules are
produced because these cases the electrons are first picked up by NAD.
57
The reduction of various cytochromes requires only electrons and no protons.
Each cytochromes possesses an iron elements in the centre which functions for accepting
(Fe3+ Fe2+) or donating (Fe2+ Fe3+) When a cytochrome accepts electrons, it is reduced and
if it donates electrons, it is oxidized.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
In all living beings ATP generated during oxidative breakdown of complex food
products. This process of synthesis of ATP molecules from ADP and inorganic phosphate
by electron transport system of aerobic respiration called as oxidative phosphorylation.
O
ADP + iP 2 ATP
E.T. Chain
The process of oxidative phosphorylation takes place in mitochondrial crests through
electron transport chain.
Due to high proton concentration outside the inner membrane, protons return to
the matrix down the proton gradient. Just as a flow of water from a higher to lower level
can be utilized to turn a water-wheel or a hydroelectric turbine, the energy released by the
flow of protons down the gradient is utilized in synthesizing ATP. The return of proton
occurs through the inner membrane particles. In the F0-F1 complex the F1 head piece
functions as ATP synthetase. The latter synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate using the energy from the proton gradient. Transport of two electrons from
NADH2 by the electron transport chain simultaneously transfers three pairs of protons to
the outer compartment. One high energy ATP bond is produced per pair of protons
returning to the matrix through the inner membrane particles. Therefore, oxidative
phosphorylation produces three ATP molecules per molecules of NADH2 oxidized. Since
FADH2 donates its electrons further down the chain. Its oxidation can only produce two
ATP molecules.
During oxidative phosphorylation ATP molecules are produced during following steps:
I. When NADH2 is oxidized to NAD by reacting with FAD.
II. When the electron transfer from cytochrome-b to cytochrome-c1.
III. When the electron transfer from cytochrome-a to cytochrome-a3.
Now it is clear that oxidation of one molecule of reduced NADH2 or NADPH2 results in
the formation of 3 molecules of ATP while oxidation of FADH 2 leads to the formation of
2 molecules of ATP.
58
3.3.5PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY : AN ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY
FOR GLUCOSE BREAKDOWN.
59
Significance of P.P.P.
1. It is substitute for glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle.
2. 5-carbon compounds produced are used in the synthesis of nucleic acids.
3. This pathway can supply required quantity of the energy to the cell, when
glycolysis & Kreb’s cycle do not occur due to some reason.
CHECK YOUR PROGESS (3)
Note:
1. Write your answer in the space given.
2. Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit
60
(b) TCA ----------------------------------
(c) PPP----------------------------------
(d) EMP --------------------------------
6. Value of R.Q for fatty germinating seeds is ----------------------
Kreb’s cycle
Acetyl CoA
Glyoxylate cycle
Like COOH
CH3 CH2
COOH COOH
Pyruvate O.A.A
Or
CH2 COOH
61
COOH C=O
COOH
PEP O.A.A
• In aerobic microorganisms there is no mechanism for synthesis of pyruvate from
acetate. The oxidation of pyruvate by pyruvate OH complex is completely
irreversible.
supply of O.A.A required for oxidation of acelate is replenished by the oxidation of
succinate and malate which are produced through sequence of two reaction.
• Glyoxylate cycle acts as anapleurotic cycle allowing normal TCA cycle to function.
• In combination , the twonreactions (succinate & malate formation) consitute a bypass
where by two carbon atoms lost from TCA cycle are preserved as glycoxylate which
than combines with acetyl CoA to form malate, precursor of OAA.
• CO2 evolving steps of kreb cycle are bypassed
• Glucose or fattyacids can serve as source of acetate.
COOH
OH – C – n CH2
COOH COOH
62
• Enzyme catalyses the reaction in which O.A.A is formed from carboxylation of
pyruvate
P.Carboxylase
Pyruvate O.A.A
CO2 & ATP
In all plants and many fungi, a cyanide-resistant, alternative respiratory pathway branches
from the cytochrome pathway at the ubiquinone pool in mitochondria. Electron flow
through this alternative pathway is not coupled to ATP synthesis at two of the three
proton translocation sites. In specific thermogenic floral tissues of some plants, a high
rate of electron flow through the alternative pathway generates heat and volatilizes
compounds that attract insect pollinators. In non-thermogenic plant tissues, the alternative
pathway may allow continued turnover of carbon skeletons through glycolysis and the
tricarboxylic acid cycle when the ATP concentration is high and inhibits ATP synthase
activity so that the pathway can function as an energy overflow mechanism. However,
because the alternative pathway can be active even when the cytochrome pathway is not
saturated, it is likely that the two pathways are regulated in concert to balance ubiquinone
63
pool oxidation/reduction and carbon skeleton turnover in response to cytosolic ATP
levels.
Based on homology alignment of amino acid sequences deduced from cDNA sequences,
the alternative oxidases of higher plants contain only two conserved Cys residues. Both
occur in the NH2-terminal domain of the protein, which is believed to be located within
the mitochondrial matrix before the first putative membrane-spanning helix. These
conserved Cys residues are the likely candidates for formation of the intersubunit
disulfide bond and the site of -keto acid activation, and correspond to Cys-78 and Cys-
128 in the deduced sequence of the Arabidopsis thaliana alternative oxidase used in this
study. Based on assumptions about the enzyme's structure, it was predicted that the more
NH2-terminal Cys-78, which may be exposed to the mitochondrial matrix, was involved
in the sulfhydryl/disulfide system, and Cys-128, which may lie closer to the postulated
catalytic site near the membrane, was the site of -keto acid action. In the present study,
we have used site-directed mutagenesis, heterologous expression in Escherichia coli cells,
and subsequent cross-linking and activity assays to determine that the cysteine residues
involved in regulatory disulfide bond formation and -keto acid stimulation are identical.
64
the presence in the respiratory chain of an additional terminal oxidase — alternative
oxidase (AOX).
65
e. Nicotinamide adenosine diphosphate, Tricarboxylic acid cycle, Adenosine di
phosphate, pentose phosphate pathway,
f. Embeden Mayernoff, Parnas pathway,less than one.
3.4.LIPID METABOLISM_______________________________________________
INTRODUCTION :
In this unit you will learn about structurally distinct organic compounds called
lipids. LIPIDS are esters of fatty acids and alocohol which form emulsions with water
but are soluble in organic solvents.
Fats and their derivatives are collectively called lipids. Greek – lipose – Fat; this
term lipid was for the first time used by Blour, 1943.
You are familiar with a no. of substance like cooking oil, butter, waxes, natural
rubber and cholesterol; these are all lipids or rich in lipids. Plants pigments like carotene
of carrots and lypocene in tomatoes, Vit A, E & K , menthol and Eucalyptus oil are also
fats. Lipids are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol and ether and insoluble in water.
It includes fats, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols.
The main component of most of the lipids is fatty acid. In plants, lipids are found
in their seeds and fruits. It is stored in special plastids known as elacoplastids.
OBJECTIVE :
66
After studying this unit you will be able to:
1. Understand the basic component of lipids.
2. Structure and functions of lipids.
3. Various types of lipids that occur in nature.
4. Role played by lipids in living beings specially in plants
5. An understanding of the biosynthesis process of important lipids in plants.
6. And how lipids are broken down to liberate vast amount of energy.
STRUCTURE
Chemically, lipids are the esters or glycerides of fatty acids and glycerol.
During the formation of Lipids, the carboxylic group (-COOH) of each fatty acid
react with alcoholic group (-OH) of glycerols to form a esterlinkage.
When lipid is made of three molecules of FA and one molecule of glycerol it is called as
esterlinkage.
67
When all the fatty acid acyl group or R1, R2, & R3 group are identical then this product is
called as simple glyceride.
When it contains different kinds of FA acyl group it is called mixed triglycerides.
Thus the nature and structure of lipids depends upon the nature and structure of their FA.
All the FA have a long chain of hydrocarbon.
68
General classification of lipids.
Fatty acids
Fats and oils
e.g.,
Waxes e.g.,
Triglycerides Aclohols
Bee wax
Terpenes
69
FATTY ACIDS
Essential FA: Mammals can synthesize saturated and monosaturated F.A. from other
precursors but are unable to make linoleic acid & γ- linoleic acid. There bore
: obtain them from plant source. E.F.A. are required for synthesis of prostaglandins –
which are hormone like component and are required in trace amounts in many
physiological conditions.
Saturated
Unsaturated
70
a) Saturated F.A.: Do not have double bonds, have higher melting point and are
liquid at normal temperature.
b) Unsaturated F.A.: in most monounsaturated acids double bond occurs between
carbon no. 9 & 10. in poly unsaturated F.A. first double occurs between carbon
9&10 and others between 9.10 double bond and methyl terminal end.
Also in most poly unsaturated F.A. the double bonds are separated by one
methylene group.
The double group in all naturally occurring saturated F.A. are CIS geometrical
configuration only a few are trans.
NOTE:
1. Bacteria contain fewer types and simpler F.A. than higher organisms (obviously).
2. Viz C12 to C18 saturated F.A C16 & C18 monosaturated F.A.
3. F.A. with more than one double bonds have not been found in bacteria.
4. Terrestrial animals have only trace amounts of odd carbon no. F.A.
5. Marine animals have odd carbon F.A in abundance. Unsaturated F.A.
predominate over saturated ones.
6. In higher plants and animals living at lower temperature
Unsaturation α fluidity α 1/ temperature
At lower temperature fluidity increases, to keep organism working no. of
saturated fats increases.
Nomenclature of F.A.
• The systematic name for a fatty acid is derived from the name of its parent
hydrocarbon by the substitution of oic for the final e. e.g. C18 sautrated F.A is
called as octadecanoic acid because parent is octadecane
• A C18 F.A. with one double bond is called as octadecenoic
• With two bond – octadecadienoic acid
• With three bond - octadecatrienoic acid.
• F.A. carbon atoms are numbered starting at carboxy terminus.
71
ω β α O
H3C (CH2)n CH2 CH2 C
3 2 1 n
• Carbon atom 2 & 3 are often referred as α and β respectively
• Methyl carbon at distal end is known as ωcarbon
• The position of double bond is represented by symbol followed by a subscript no.
Some naturally occurring F.A :
Saturated F.A.
12:0 CH3(CH2)10COOH N-dodecanoic Laurica
14:0 CH3(CH2)12COOH N-tetradecanoic Myristic
16:0 CH3(CH2)14COOH N-hexadecanoic Palmitic
Unsaturated F.A.
16:0 CH3(CH2)6CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Palmitoleic
18: CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Oleic acid
72
2) Structural Constituents: lipids are involved in building of cellular
components like cell membrane, nuclear membranes and membrane of cell
organelles
3) As solvent: lipid acts as solvent for the fat fat soluble vitamins like A,D& E.
4) Harmone synthesis: cholesterol is most important sterol in animals.
5) Fat transport: phospholipids place an important role in absorption and
transport of F.A.
LIPID METABOLISM
3.4.2. FATTY ACID BIOSYNTHESIS
As you know metabolism involves both anabolism and catabolism, here we will learn
anabolism/biosynthesis of fatty acid.
Since, two types of fatty acids Viz , saturated and unsaturated fatty acid occurs in nature
different pathways are followed for synthesis of different F.A.
1) Biosynthesis of saturated F.A. (malonyl CoA pathway)
2) Enzymatic biosynthesis of unsaturated F.A.
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Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids
(i) Biosynthesis of saturated Fatty Acids: Naturally occurring fatty acids
may be saturated and main pathway of biosynthesis of fatty acid in plants, animals
and bacteria is common and takes through malonyl CoA pathway. In fatty
acids(participating in fat synthesis) the number of carbon atoms varies form 16 to
18.Complete biosynthesis of fatty acid takes place in cytosol. Overall reaction is
catalysed by the complex of 7 proteins-the fatty acid synthetase complex. Ultimate
source of carbon atoms of fatty acid is acetyl-CoA which is produced from
carbohydrates and aminoacids. Acetyl-CoA is regenerated with the help of citrate
cleaving enzymes as follows:
Citrate Cleaving
Citric Acid + CoA +ATP Acetyl-CoA + ADP+Pi + OAA
Enzymes
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H O
| ||
H__ C__ C__ S.CoA+ADP+iP
|
O == C__ OH
Malonyl-CoA(3C)
H O
| ||
H__ C__ C__ S.CoA+CH3___CO___ S.CoA
|
O==C__ OH
Malonyl-CoA(3C) Acetyl-Coa(2C)
HO H O
| || | ||
H__C__C__C__C__S.CoA
| |
H O=C_ OH
Acetomalonyl-CoA(5C)
In presence of specific enzyme and coenzyme NADPH, acetomalonyl-CoA is
con verted into 4 carbon compound butyryl-CoA. CO2 is released during this
reaction and water (H2O) and NADP are formed.
H O H O
| || | ||
H__ C __ C __ C __ C __ S.CoA+ 4NADPH
| |
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H O==C__ OH
Acetomalony-CoA(5C)
H H H O
| || | ||
H__ C __ C __ C __ C __ S.CoA+CO2 +4NADP=H2O
| | |
H H H
Butyryl-cOa(4C)
The butyryl-CoA then reacts with another molecule of malonyl-CoA and cycle is
repeated and 6-carbon compounds is produced. This will again react with still
another molecule of malonyl-CoA to produce 8-carbon compounds. When the
chain length reaches 16 or 18-carbons, the fatty acid is released.
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organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called membrane-bound organelles.
Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively-
permeable structure. This means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of
the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed to do
so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from
its surroundings. Biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic
properties. If a particle is too large or otherwise unable to cross the membrane by itself,
but is still needed by a cell, it could either go through one of the protein channels or be
taken in by means of endocytosis.
The three major classes of membrane lipids are phospholipids, glycolipids, and
cholesterol.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids and glycolipids consist of two long, nonpolar (hydrophobic) hydrocarbon
chains linked to a hydrophilic head group.
The heads of phospholipids are phosphorylated and they consist of either:
Glycerol (and hence the name phosphoglycerides given to this group of lipids).
Sphingosine (with only one member - sphingomyelin).
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Glycolipids
The heads of glycolipids contain a sphingosine with one or several sugar units attached to
it. The hydrophobic chains belong either to:
two fatty acids - in the case of the phosphoglycerides.
one FA and the hydrocarbon tail of sphingosine - in the case of sphingomyelin and the
glycolipids.
Fatty acids
The fatty acids in phospho- and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon
atoms, typically between 14 and 24. The 16- and 18-carbon FAs are the most common
ones. FAs may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds
nearly always cis. The length and the degree of unsaturation of FAs chains have a
profound effect on membranes' fluidity.
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Flow chart for the biosynthesis of fatty acids, triglycerides and cholesterol are as
follows:
FATTY ACID BIOSYNTHESIS
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TRIACYGLYCEROL BIOSYNTHESIS
80
CHOLESTEROL BIOSYNTHESIS
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• Lecithins: Lecithins are widely distributed in nature and on hydrolysis they yield
glycerol, fatty acid, phosphoric acid, choline. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linolinic and
arachidonic acids are commonly found in lecithins. Lecithins and other
phospholipids are yellowish-grey solids soluble in ether and alcohol but insoluble
in acetone. On exposure to air, they rapidly darken in color and absorb water
forming dark greasy mass. Lecithins are broken down by the enzyme lecithinase
to lysolecithin, lecithinaseis present in venom of bee and cobra.
• Cephalins: Cephalins are found in animals tissues in close association with
lecithin. They are also found in soyabean oil. The difference between the lecithins
and cephalins is in the nature of nitrogenous base. Cephalins contains choline and
sometimes serine in place of choline. The fatty acid components of cephalins are
usually stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidonic acids
• Plasmalogens : Plasmalogens are abundant in brains and muscles. They are found
in the seeds of higher plants. In this group of phospholipids a complex aldehyde is
attached to the α-carbons atom of glycerol. Ethanolamine or choline is attached
with phosphoric acid. These lipids are soluble in all lipids solvent. Their structural
formula is as follows.
Choline Phosphate
Polar head group
Glycerol
Fatty acid 1
Fatty acid 2
Phospholipid
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O
|| Saturated
O __H2C__O__C__R1 fatty acid
|| |
R2 __C__O__C__H O
Unsaturated |
Fatty acid H2C__O__P__OCH2__CH2_N CH3
| CH3
(H2OH)O CH3
Lecithin
2) Glycolipids: these lipids contain nitrogen and carbohydrates beside fatty acids. It
is genrally found in white matter of nervous system, spleen and yolk of an egg
e.g.serocine, frenocine.
3) Chromolipids : It includes pigmented lipids eg carotene
4) Aminolipids: It is also known as sulpholipids. It contains sulphur and amino
acids besides fatty acids and glycerol.
DERIVED LIPIDS
Lipids obtained by the hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids are called as derived
lipids. Derived lipids include hydrolytic product of lipids and in addition other lipid like
compounds such as sterols, carotenoids, essential oils, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols,
hydrocarbons, etc.
The sterols are composed of fused hydrocarbon rings and a long hydrocarbon side chain.
These are solid wax like substances. Chemically they are alcohols and occur ether as such
or as ester of fatty acid. They are highly soluble in fat solvent. Sterols are widely
distributed in plants, animals ans micro-organisms. They are found in cell membranes
and other cellular components containing lipids. They are essential for plant growth and
flowering. The best known animal sterol is cholesterol which is present high
concentration in nervous tissue and in bile. Cholesterol is also the precursor of
hormones.like progesterone,testosterone ,estrabiol and cortisol and vitamin D.
Cholesterol is a crystalline solid with rhombic crystals. It is insoluble in water.so it gets
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deposited in the arteries and veins and hence , blood cholesterol rises.this may lead to
high blood pressure and heart diseases.
Ergosterol is present in food in small quantity. It is found in argot and mould like yeast.
It is precursor of another form of vitamin D, ergocalciferol (D2).
Coprosterol is found in faeces. It is found as a result of reduction by bacteria in the
intesting from the couble bond of cholesterol between C5 & C6.
Essential oils are also grouped under lipids because of their solubility and natural
occurrence. Most essential oils are either terpenes related to isoprene or isopantene or
benzene derivatives. Some are straight chain carbon compounds without and side
branches. Essential oils are usually obtained from plants such as pine, pipermint,
rose,lemon,eucalyptus,etc.
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(1)
O
CH2O – C – R1 CH2OH
O O
(2)
αCH2OH αCH2OH
O O O
βCH.O.C – R” H2O βCH.O.C – R” + R”’ – C -
OH
O Ca++, Lipase
Step (1) and (2) are reversible and step (3) is irreversible.
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2) Metabolism of Glycerol :
Glycerol is produced during hydrolysis of triglycerides, enters the carbohydrates
metabolism and metabolized into CO2 and H2O through various steps. According to
Stumpf (1955) and Beevers (1956), the metabolism of glycerol takes place according to
following diagram(Figure 13.9). After complete metabolism, glycerol is converted into
acetyl-CoA, which may be oxidized into Krebs cycle to CO2 and H2O
Sugar
Dihydroxyacetone Glycolysis
Glycerol Dihydroxyacetone - P
Pi
α- glycerophoshate Glycolysis
Pyruvic Acid
TCA cycle
CO2 + H2O
Metabolism of glycerol
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS (6)
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process fatty acids react with hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) to yield an
aldehyde (one carbon atom shorter than fatty acid) CO2 and H2O.
Peroxidase
R-CH2- CH2-COOH + H2O2 R-CH2-CHO + CO2 + H2O
α-carbon fatty acids Hydrogen Peroxide Aldehyde
*The fatty acids formed after dehydrogenation may also be oxidized through β-oxidation.
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˚ * +
R.CH2CH2COOH
H2O2
˚ * H2O2 (1)
R.CH2COOH (1)
H2O
NADP ˚ H2O
+ R.COOH
H+
NAD+ ˚ etc. CO2
R.CHO CO2
(2)
˚
R.CH2CHO
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a) A fatty acid
b) An energy source- ATP
c) Coenzyme-A
d) A carrier molecule – carnitine
e) five enzymes:
1) Acetyl-CoA synthetase
2) Acetyl-CoA dehydrogenase
3) Enoyl-CoA hydrase
4) β-hyrdoxy acyl CoA dehydrogenase
5) Thiolase
Mechanism of β-oxidation :
Fatty acids are formed in cytosol. Now the question is, how fatty acids enter
mitochondria for their degradation:
These are the following steps by which fatty acid enters mitochondria:
a. Activation and entry of fatty acid into mitochondria
i. Activation of fatty acids into mitochondria.
ii. Transfer to carnitine.
iii. Transfer to intramitochondrial membrane.
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b. OXIDATION OR DEGRADATION OF FATTY ACID
1) Activation and entry of fatty acids into mitochondria: It is completed in following
three steps:
(a) Activation of fatty acids: the first step involves the activation of fatty
acid in the presence of ATP and enzyme thiokinase. CoASH is consumed and CoA
derivative of fatty acid is produced. In this reaction esterification of fatty acid takes
place.
Thiokinase,Mn++
R.CH2.CH2COOH+CoASH+ATP ==============
RCH2CH2C.SCoA
|| + AMP+PPi
O
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Fatty acyl-CoA Pyrophosphate
(b) transfer to carnitine: the acyl group of fatty acid CoA is transferred to carnitine.
Carnitine s a carrier protein which is found in inner mitochondrial membrane
which transport fatty acyl CoA through inner mitochondrial membrane to the actual site
of degradation.
CH3
R__ CH2.CH2 C SCoA+H O__ CH__CH2__N+ CH3
|| | CH3
O CH2COO_
Fatty acyl-CoA Carnitine
Acyl-CoAcarnitine transferase
CH3
R__ CH2.CH2 C__O__ CH__CH2__N+ CH3 + COASH
|| | CH3
O CH2COO_
Fatty acyl-CoA Carnitine
CH3
R__ CH2.CH2 C__O__ CH__CH2__N+ CH3 + COASH
|| | CH3
O CH2COO_
Fatty acyl-CoA Carnitine
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Acyl-CoAcarnitine transferase
CH3
R__ CH2.CH2 C__S__ CoA+OH__CH__ CH2__ N+ CH3
|| | CH3
O CH2__COO_
Fatty acyl S.CoA Carnitine
2) Oxidation or degradation of fatty acid : The oxidation of fatty acid involves in the
following four steps:
(a) First dehydrogenation : During oxidation, first of all two hydrogen
atoms are reomoved from α- and β-carbon atoms of fatty acyl-CoA and
trans – α, β-unsaturated fatty acyl-CoA is formed. This reaction is
catalysed by FAD containing enzyme acyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
Enoyl Hydrase
R-CH=CH-CO-S-CoA +HOH
R-CH(OH)-CH2-CO-S-CoA
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β -Hydroxy fatty acyl- CoA
β- hydorxy acyl-CoA
R-CH(OH)-CH2-CO-S-CoA + NAD+
Dehydrogenase
Energetics of β-oxidation
For complete oxidation of palmitic acid, it is passed through β-oxidation pathway
seven times and get completely oxidized to form CO2 and H2O.
C16H32O2 + 23O2 16CO2 + 16H2O
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Palmitic acid
*Each turn of β-oxidation pathway produces 5ATP molecules, however the first turn
shows a net gain of only 4 ATP, one ATP molecule is utilized in activating the fatty acid
molecule.
* Each acetyl CoA molecule after complete oxidation through TCA cycle produces
12 ATP molecules. Thus , the total number of ATP molecules produced by a fatty acid
depends upon the number of carbon atoms present in that fatty acid molecule.
For e.g.: one molecule of palmitic acid (C16) after complete oxidation to CO2 and H2O
produces 130 molecules of ATP as follows:
Net 34 ATP
Step 2 : Now Acetyl-CoA enters the T.C.A cycle and oxidized. As we
know that 3 ATP molecules are formed from each O2 atom during oxidative
phosphorylation. Here 32 atoms of O2 are used, hence,
T.C.A. cycle
8 Acetyl-CoA + 16 O2 16 CO2 + 8H2O + 8CoA
Therfore 32*3 = 96 ATP formed.
Thus total ATP formed will be 34 + 96 = 130 ATP molecules gained. The efficiency can
be calculated 130*8000*100
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= = 49%
2340,000
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
→ Photosynthesis is the most significant process on earth for survival of life forms.
It is the unique ness of this process to convert solar energy into chemical form.
This conversion occurs in specialized structures in specialized structures in plants
called as chloroplast T
→ The light reaction occurs in two ways
a) Cyclic photophosphorylation
b) Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
RESPIRATION
→ The process of respiration is an oxidation-reduction process.
→ The process of respiration is significant for plant because
1. It leads to generation of precursors.
2. It leads to generation of reduction power.
3. ATP is generated through it.
→ Cytoplasm & Mitochondria are sites of respiration.
→ Plants perform aerobic reaction.
→ Process is completed in three steps.
a. Glycolysis/EMP pathway.
b. Oxidation of pyruvic acid
c. ETC & oxidative phosphorylation
→ Glycolysis is a fermentative pathway.
→ 8 ATP are generated during oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid.
→ Phosphofructokinase enzyme is the pacemaker of pathway.
→ Kreb’s cycle occur in mitochondria
→ All the enzymes of TCA cycle are located in inner mitochondrial matrix.
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→ All together 38 ATP are generated through glycolysis through glycolysis and
TCA cycle.
→ ETC is located in inner membrane of mitochondria.
→ Pentose phosphate pathway leads mainly to generation of reducing power
(12NADPH2) and carbon required for nucleic acid synthesis.
→ Glyoxlated cycle is a special modification of TCA cycle & is an anapleurotic
cycle.
LIPID METOBOLISM
→ Lipids are esters of fatty acid and glycerol/ alcohols
→ They are broadly classified as simple lipid, compound lipids and derived lipids.
→ Fatty Acids are saturated or unsaturated type.
→ For synthesis of F-A different pathways are followed
a. Saturated F-A is synthesized through tmalonye COA pathway.
b. Unsaturated F-A is synthesized through enzymatic pathway.
→ Oxidation of Fatty Acids occurs though α & β - oxidation in stepwise enzyme
mediated process.
→ Oxidation occurs in cotyledons, young leaves, mitochondria, glyoxysomes.
3.4.7. ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain oxygenic photosynthesis?
2. Draw well-labelled Flow Charts of?
a. Calvin Cycle.
b. CAM Pathway
c. Photorespiration
d. Electron Transport Chain.
3. What is the significance of light reaction in photosynthesis?
4. Draw and Explain Glycolysis is a fermentative pathway?
5. Draw and Explain
(a) Glycolysis (b) TCA (c) PPP
6. What are lipids? Give general classification?
7. Write a detail note on lipid metabolism.
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3.4.8. REFERENCE
1. Salisbury & Ross, Plant physiology DBS publishers and Distributers.
2. S.N. Pandey & B.K. Sinha, Vikas Publication
3. Devlin & Witham CBS Publishers & Distributers.
4. A.C. Dutta, Botany.
5. Stryer, Biochemistry.
6. Lehninger, Biochemistry, Kalyani Publication
7. Berry, J.A., C.B, Osmund & G.H. Lorimer Plant Physiology.
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