Evaluation of Quality Management Systems and Technical

Standardization Fundamental to the Solar Photovoltaic Industry

Agatha Christy Sonma Okoro
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Jacobs University Bremen
College Ring 6
28759 Bremen, Germany

Type: Guided Research Thesis

Submitted to the School of Engineering and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering
Date: May 9, 2010
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Werner Bergholz

Executive Summary
As an important renewable energy resource, photovoltaic (PV) solar is rapidly gaining worldwide attention
with increased growth and global expansion. At this stage the industry needs to develop and adopt its own
quality and technical standards. Major industry players have already obtained the ISO 9001 certification for
fulfilling requirements of a quality management system developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) [1]. However certification alone is not sufficient. Manufacturers need perform a period
audit of their suppliers’ processes and quality management system, rather than just inspecting incoming
material. In addition to this, carrying out inline-process control will help ensure quality of the final product.
Furthermore, standardization is very critical for the industry as it will facilitate significant improvements
along the whole value chain including important areas such as material qualifications, test methods, process
automation and information technology interfaces. The PV industry hardly uses any standards except those
of the semiconductor industry which is not always suitable. Although the two industries have similar
processes, in some cases the standards for semiconductor manufacturing are beyond what is required for
PV, which contributes to unnecessary costs for manufacturers. This research investigates how quality
management systems (QMS) and standards will help to effectively control quality and manage processes in
the industry. It goes without saying that a global standard for PV companies will help reduce costs,
improve product quality and enhance further market expansion. Moreover, it will foster fair and transparent
competition and increase satisfaction for customers and other stakeholders of the industry.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Statement of Motivation and Research ......................................................................................... 3
3. Process Management and Operation Procedures ........................................................................... 4
4. Supplier Quality Management ....................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Material Suppliers and Procurement Specification ......................................................................... 7
5. Production Processes in Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Technology .............................................. 7
5.1 Production of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells..................................................................................... 8
5.2 Module Production and Assembly ................................................................................................. 10
6. Optimizing and Controlling Processes through Statistical Process Control ..................................... 11
6.1 Control of Variation ....................................................................................................................... 11
6.2 Continual Improvement ................................................................................................................. 12
6.3 Elimination of Waste...................................................................................................................... 13
6.4 Predictability of Processes ............................................................................................................. 13
6.5 Product Inspection ......................................................................................................................... 14
7. Process Automation and Information Technology (IT) Interfaces .................................................. 14
8. Quality Issues / Defects in Solar Photovoltaic Cells and Modules .................................................. 15
8.1 Tests and Measurements to Characterize Cell and Module Performance .................................... 17
8.2 Quality Data and Reporting ........................................................................................................... 17
9. Analysis of Quality Management Systems and Processes of PV Companies ................................... 18
9.1 Overview of Processes and Certifications...................................................................................... 18
9.2 Comparison of Electrical Conversion Efficiencies .......................................................................... 20
9.3 Reliability of PV Modules in the Market ........................................................................................ 23
10. Conclusion and Recommendations .............................................................................................. 23
11. References.................................................................................................................................. 25
12. Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 28
1 Introduction
A photovoltaic system is typically a system that converts sunlight to electricity using cells made of
semiconductor material. The materials currently being used in photovoltaic technology include crystalline
silicon (c-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium selenide (CIS), and
copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) [2]. These materials are used to manufacture photovoltaic cells
and modules but they have different levels of energy conversion efficiency. This research will focus on the
crystalline silicon technology which is currently the most widely used compared to the thin film and hybrid
technologies.
There are three main types of crystalline silicon – monocrystalline, polycrystalline (or multicrystalline), and
ribbon sheets [2]. The essential generic manufacturing process steps are:
 Silicon crystal growing or casting, and wafering
 Solar cell manufacture
 Module assembly
 Solar system assembly and installation
Each of these generic steps constitutes several process sequences. The first step involves growing crystals for
monocrystalline silicon or ingot casting for multicrystalline silicon. These processes are relatively energy
intensive and the resulting products are called wafers. In the second step, the wafers are taken through a
high technology semiconductor processing sequence of etching, diffusion and screen printing, to produce
solar cells. This part of the manufacturing chain is highly capital intensive due to the complexity and scale
of solar cell plants. Afterwards, the cells are tested and graded for assembly into modules. This usually
involves soldering the cells together and laminating. Finally in the last step using the modules, the solar
system is assembled and then installed [3].
Some PV companies specialize in parts of the manufacturing chain while a few others have an integrated
supply chain. In any case, the processes require quality assurance which ensures that products are
manufactured and tested according to a specific standard, and that the manufacturing processes includes
continuous verification, auditing and improvement. However, quality assurance is not limited to the
production processes; rather it encompasses all organizational functions. Hence the need for PV companies
to adopt a Quality Management System (QMS) along with technical standards which should be tailor-made
for the industry. A QMS provides an organization with important tools to assist in improving its internal
systems for manufacturing products or providing services.
The project looks into the current status of QM and standardization in the PV industry with the objective of
identifying the gaps and recommending possible improvements.
2 Statement of Motivation and Research
Today’s companies are faced with higher quality expectations than they were a few decades ago, and this
expectation is particularly going to increase for the PV industry. This project seeks to address some
problems in the industry such as:
 Insufficient or non-existing process and quality management
 Insufficient standardization
 Lack of uniform guidelines for manufacturers on how to produce reliable systems or
components and how to install or service them [7]
 Lack of accreditation laboratories, which especially affects small and medium sized companies [7]
 Sometimes tested and accredited product samples are not a true representation of the rest of the
products which the manufacturers label as same type [7].
This will be accomplished through the application of ISO 9001:2008 requirements for a QMS. For an
organization it implies the provision of products that meet customer and applicable statutory and regulatory
requirements, enhancement of customer satisfaction, and including processes for continual improvement of
the system [1]. In addition, other important tools of total quality management (TQM) such as the Six-Sigma
concept, Deming’s Cycle, Statistical Process Control (SPC) and Benchmarking will also be applied [4].

Establishing a QM system can be a challenging task, especially for smaller companies, but the investment is
well worth it in the long run. The Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP) has developed a
training manual to help PV companies install a QM system easily, and inexpensively [7]. International
organizations such as the European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), SEMI PV Group, and the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), have been working to develop existing standards and
establish new ones for the industry [5][6]. Quality Management extends to environment, health and safety
(EHS) practices for which standards are also available. However this research will mostly look into the
technical aspects of QM in PV manufacturing.

Many experts have commented that PV manufacturing is highly synergistic to the semiconductor industry.
This synergy has the negative effect of high cost in PV production due to the lack of industry-specific
standards [8]. Hence, the thesis will also analyze the degree of standardization currently in the industry and
how further progress will be an essential part of the very much needed cost-reduction in manufacturing.
Existing quality issues in the industry will be investigated and quality management tools applied as a
solution to these and other potential problems a PV company may encounter. Reference will be made to
efforts by SEMI PV, EPIA and other organizations to establish global standards for the PV industry. The
focus as mentioned earlier will be on the technical standards for crystalline silicon technology production
operations.
3 Process Management and Operation Procedures
The ISO 9001 standard promotes the process approach of a Quality Management System. The process
approach involves planning, controlling and monitoring the performance of input processes, including the
interactions between these processes, in order to obtain the desired output. The goal is to make
improvements in manufacturing processes in order to reduce costs, increase throughput and satisfy
customer requirements. The customers may also be internal customers at the next stage of the production
process.

Figure 1: Model of a Process-Based Quality Management System [9]

A process-based QMS provides input for management review, assesses the system effectiveness and
efficiency, and provides insight to process owners [9]. Aside from a QMS, there are other tools and
techniques which can be applied with the unifying aim of attaining a company’s strategic goals. The SIPOC
diagram below is a tool used to identify all relevant elements of process improvement starting from the
suppliers, through the processes and then to the customers. It helps in defining a complex project that may
otherwise not be well scoped [10]. An organization must first understand its processes before it can sustain
continuous improvement.
 Supplier Input Process Output Customer

Figure 2: SIPOC - A Six-Sigma Model for Assessing Work Processes

4 Supplier Quality Management

The general increase in average efficiency of solar cells over the years can be attributed partly to a better
understanding of the interaction between the production processes and material quality. For example, it was
discovered that a well-chosen diffusion process enhances the material quality due to strong gettering effects
for impurities. Similarly, the introduction of a suitable silicon nitride (SiN) film as antireflection coating is
an improvement which also enhances material quality [11]. Due to this correlation between quality of input
materials and the final product, any issues with material supply can lead to major problems at the end of the
value chain. The cell or module manufacturer is responsible for making sure that incoming materials
conform to required quality and specifications. Hence, it should be incorporated into a company’s supply
chain management objectives.
Equally important is the mode of operation of the industry’s supply chain which affects its efficiency. The
PV industry mainly functions in a static supply chain mode for controlling material cost and securing the
material supply with mid-to long-term contracts (Krause & Kleemann, 2009). Other industries, such as the
automotive, electronics and semiconductor industries have moved to a dynamic and responsive on demand
supply chain. In this dynamic mode, technical as well as quality responsibilities are transferred into the
supply chain [12]. The PV industry needs to adopt this in order to achieve better improvement potentials in
terms of technology, quality, yield and cost. Efficient management of the PV industry supply chain can be a
useful step towards cost reduction, inventory optimization and quality improvement throughout the value
chain. Following innovative solutions such as IBM’s ‘smart supply chain’, the complexity of today’s
marketplace can be managed through integrated transactions (integrating ERPS 1 to ERPS of manufacturers
to suppliers and then to customers). The smart supply chain is intelligent and enables the optimization of
the ‘Four Flows’: product flow, information flow, people/process or work flow and the cash or financial flow
[12]
.
Effective feedstock management is critical to any facility’s operational plans. Improper feedstock
management can negatively affect the quality of the finished product. At the interface between finished
products (wafer – cell – module), incoming materials required for production have to be procured, except
in the case of integrated manufacturers with an internal supply.

1
ERPS – Enterprise Resource Planning Systems, an integrated computer-based system used to manage internal and
external resources including tangible assets, financial resources, materials, and human resources
[Bidgoli, Hossein, (2004). The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 707.]
 4.1. Material Suppliers and Procurement Specification
The PV silicon which wafer manufacturers use in production comes in a variety of geometries and purities
obtainable from myriad sources - virgin suppliers, recycle houses, brokers, IC crystal manufacturers and
internally recycled re-melt [13]. Whereas the cell manufacturer purchases materials from suppliers of silicon
wafers, chemicals, gases, silver and aluminium pastes, etc. The quality requirements of these materials are
usually laid down by the manufacturer in a technical purchase specification. The specifications are contained
in a controlled document, with version number and revision history, and signed off between the customer
and supplier [14]. Such specifications may include requirements such as wafer properties (diameter,
thickness, resistivity, etc.), dopant concentration and chemical purity among others. Changes in material
properties may necessitate an adjustment in the production process; hence this can have a negative effect on
the stability of the process. To maintain a stable process, manufacturers are recommended to have only one
or two suppliers, with more or less constant material properties [14].
Many PV module manufacturers depend on third party solar cell manufacturers for their supply of silicon
solar cells. Currently there exists no common, detailed, baseline cell procurement (or supply-chain)
specification for the industry. The standards that exist cover only performance measurement issues but not
issues faced by module manufacturers in the cell procurement stage (TamizhMani, 2009). Arizona State
University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory (ASU-PTL) conducted a failure-rate analysis which indicated
that a large portion of the accelerated module qualification failures are related to the failure of the cell itself 2
[15]
. This emphasizes a need for standards in supply chain procurement, since reliability of the cells is a core
factor affecting module reliability and performance. A study report prepared by Govindasamy TamizhMani
of ASU-PTL gives guidelines for PV c-Si supply chain procurement specification, including parking, labeling
and storage requirements, and recommends their adaptation to other standards as in IEC and SEMI [15].
Another necessary action toward ensuring the right quality of materials is for manufacturers to perform a
periodic audit of the supplier’s production process and quality management system. A supplier which
implements an effective quality management system is better positioned to supply high quality materials
and products according to specifications, cost and timing. This can be accomplished through appropriate
supplier development and integration program which will increase confidence in quality of supplier’s
products. Moreover, manufacturers need to be aware of any significant modifications in suppliers’ materials
or processes in order to make an appropriate procurement decision.

5 Production Processes in Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Technology

The value chain of a manufacturing industry consists of value-adding processes from raw material to
finished product for the end customer. In the case of the PV industry, the value chain ranges from raw

2
Quantitative information on the correlation of module failures to failure of cells could not be found from the reference
silicon up to the final installed module at the customer’s site, including after-sales activities such as
maintenance, upgrades, grid management, etc. [12]. The solar industry had been known to use material
rejected by the semiconductor industry. This includes seed and end cones of the crystals, and part of the
crystals that does not meet specification. However, this scrap is now in short supply since the PV industry is
growing rapidly. The required starting material is a solar grade polysilicon feedstock produced by the
Siemens process. Afterwards the polysilicon is processed through slightly different methods to obtain
monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon.
a. Monocrystalline silicon – The main technique for producing monocrystalline silicon for solar cells
is the Czochralski (CZ) method. High-purity polycrystalline is melted in a quartz crucible and
single-crystal silicon seed is dipped into this molten mass of polycrystalline. As the seed is pulled
slowly from the melt, a single-crystal ingot is formed. The ingots are then sawed into thin wafers
with 150 micrometers (mm) diameter and about 200 - 400 mm thick [16].

b. Multicrystalline silicon – The common method of producing multicrystalline silicon is to slice thin
wafers from blocks of cast polycrystalline silicon. This material is stronger and can be cut in to one
third of the thickness of monocrystalline wafers. Hence, multicrystalline cells have lower wafer cost
and less strict growth requirements [16].
The final wafers are sorted according to thickness and surface quality suitable for manufacturing solar cells,
and damaged wafers discarded or reworked to meet specifications.
5.1. Production of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
The first stage in the manufacture of crystalline silicon solar cells is wafer processing. Wafers can be
processed either in batches (vertical) or inline (horizontal). In batch processing, substrates are loaded in
carriers and transported into a process station. On the other hand for inline processing, wafers are processed
in a continuous way in all process stations [17]. Inline processing is one of the fastest-growing production
processes for crystalline silicon solar cells. The advantages is has over the traditional batch processing is that
it achieves higher overall throughput and an improved manufacturing yield through reduced breakage of
wafers [18]. This is due to the fact that it eliminates several handling steps unique to batch processing
techniques. The following are unit process steps for solar cell manufacturing:

Wafer Etching and Cleaning: Etching is a process of removing any crystal damage on the wafers. Wet
etching uses chemical reagents like hydrogen fluoride/water solution while dry etching makes use of gases.
Wafers are etched and cleaned to remove all particles, organic and metal impurities adsorbed on the surface
of the silicon. Wet chemical texturing is applied to roughen the surface for higher currents and thus, higher
efficiencies [17].
Diffusion: In this process a P-N junction is created through doping with ions such as phosphorus, boron
and arsenic although the most commonly used is phosphorus. A layer of oxide material is grown or
deposited onto the wafer in a furnace with a flow of gas running over the wafers. Phosphorus is then
diffused into the surface of p-type silicon wafers, forming a P-N junction. Subsequently, the phosphorus
silicate glass that is formed as a by-product of the diffusion process is removed in an etch bath [19].
Silicon Nitride Deposition (Passivation): Silicon nitride layer is deposited to protect the wafers from
contamination during assembly. This is done through Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) or Plasma
Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) process. This layer serves as an antireflection coating and
reduces the losses in the bulk of the silicon and at front surface (bulk and surface passivation) [17].
The above processes cause some damages (recombination sites) to the wafers, therefore an additional
heating (annealing) is performed so that the crystal lattice structure of the wafer will repair itself.
Screen Printing and Back Metallization: Metallization is a process usually integrated into automatic
manufacturing lines near the end of the cell fabrication process. Typical solar cells require three screen
printed layers, the grid on the front side and the aluminum plane and silver busbars on the back. The layer
is dried before the next print process begins [20]. After each layer is printed, the wafer is dried to remove
solvents and fired in a tunnel furnace at high temperatures of about 900 degrees to sinter metal contacts to
the cell wafer. This is followed by a laser edge isolation procedure which should be done correctly to avoid a
linear shunt edge.
Testing and Sorting: In order to increase productivity in the next process step, the solar cells are usually
tested and sorted according to efficiency, short circuit current (ISC), open circuit voltage (VOC), and fill
factor (FF). A solar simulator is used to test each cell under standard testing conditions (STC). The
manufacturer can identify process-induced defects and defect trends, and utilize this data for yield control,
process management and improvement of the preceding steps [21].

Process Step Parameters

Crystal growth (Ingot quality) Minority carrier lifetime (τ)
Wire sawing Surface roughness / residue
Incoming wafer quality Diffusion length (L) / τ, defect density
Wafer etching and cleaning Etch rate, impurity concentration
Texturing Texture height
Junction depth Sheet resistance
Anti-reflective coating Thickness, refractive index
Metallization Line width
Table 1: Summary of Major Process Steps and Corresponding Quality Parameters [22]
 5.2. Module Production and Assembly
Solar cells are usually categorized into different performance bins in order to reduce mismatch power losses
in silicon-wafer based photovoltaic modules. This is a common industrial practice and the method is known
as cell binning. Assembly of the cells into a module involves the following steps: - cell layup, stringing,
mounting and electrical connection of the cells circuit in the module. Afterwards the module is encapsulated
usually with encapsulant sheet of transparent polyvinyl butyrol (PVB) or ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and
glass. Back-contact configuration of c-Si PV cells enables assembly using a ‘monolithic module assembly’
(MMA) method where all the PV cells can be electrically connected in a module and encapsulated in a
single step.

Figure 3: Illustration of Monolithic Module Assembly [23]

Developing cells which have all contacts at the rear and so can be easily interconnected reduces the cost of
module manufacturing because it makes automation more straightforward. The next step involves framing
of the modules, usually with aluminium frames. This is followed by standard module qualification tests and
certification. Finally with the modules and balance of system (BOS)3 components, the photovoltaic solar
system is assembled and then installed at the consumer end.
As mass production in the PV industry grows rapidly, it becomes more and more crucial to implement
process control and monitoring for better productivity and quality. One means of achieving this is through
the use of Statistical Process Control.

3
In a photovoltaic system, the term 'balance of system' refers to all of the system components except the PV modules.
The components consist of structures, enclosures, wiring, switch gear, fuses, ground fault detectors, charge controllers,
batteries, and inverters. [Source: http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/BOS.htm]
6 Optimizing and Controlling Processes through Statistical Process Control
Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a statistical method of separating variation resulting from special causes
from variation resulting from natural causes, to eliminate the special causes and to establish and maintain
consistency in a process, enabling process improvement (Goetsch & Davis, 2006). A broad view of SPC
includes statistical tools such as Pareto charts, control charts, cause-and-effect diagrams, stratification, check
sheets, histograms, scatter diagrams, and run charts [4]. Control charts, being at the heart of SPC, are used
by both companies and their suppliers for processes where they offer real benefit.

Figure 4: Examples of Processes Without and With SPC (from Infineon training manual) [14]
The left graph in the figure above shows a process that, without continuous control, continues to get worse.
On the other hand, the right hand side shows the graph of a process under control, with constant variations
only due to the natural causes.
Five key areas where SPC comes into play are: control of variation, continual improvement, elimination of
waste, predictability of processes, and product inspection [4].
6.1. Control of Variation
Process variation is an enemy of quality. SPC uses statistical tools and techniques to control variation in any
process. Special causes of variation may originate for example from the environment and the five M’s -
Machines employed, Materials used, Methods (work instructions) provided, Measurements taken, and
Manpower (people) who operate the process. Natural variation is inherent in any process and is expected to
account for 2,700 out-of-limits parts per million in a 3-sigma process, 63 out-of-limits parts per million in a
4-sigma process and 3.4 out-of-limits parts per million in a 6-sigma process [4]. Hence, more companies are
moving to a 6-sigma process (see appendix) to achieve better performance.
 USL = Upper Specification Limit
LSL = Lower Specification Limit
σ = Standard Deviation
µ = Mean

Figure 5: Sigma Levels and Equivalent Conformance Rates [24]

In figure 5 above, the target value is at the center of the bell-shaped frequency distribution curve and any
variation is to the left or right of the center. A 3-sigma quality level (±3σ limits) translates to a yield of
99.73% while a 6-sigma quality level (±6σ) implies a success rate of 99.99999998% [4]. The process
parameters for which variation must be controlled around the target value are the Key Control
Characteristics (KCCs). They include parameters such as temperature, humidity, particle density, etc. The
method of ‘Key Characteristics’ helps companies focus on those features that have a significant impact on
product conformity [25].
6.2. Continual Improvement
This is a major element of total quality through which the improvement of processes can lead to an
improvement of products and services. Improving a process requires understanding the process, identifying
external factors that may generate special causes of variation and eliminating them. However, care must be
taken to avoid tampering with the process and making changes that could yield worse results.

Plan

Act Do

Check

Figure 6: PDCA/Deming’s Cycle: The Wheel of Continual Improvement

 6.3. Elimination of Waste
During production, defective products or products that do not meet specification are discarded as scrap.
Therefore, production performance indicators such as rework rate and scrap rate 4 have to be monitored and
kept at bare minimum. SPC is a key to eliminating such waste so that a company can reduce cost and
increase the overall quality of process output.

6.4. Predictability of Processes

SPC facilitates the predictability of processes since they will be under control. Companies that implement
SPC will be better able to know whether or not their process is capable of meeting customer’s requirements.
The process capability parameters are described below:
Process Capability, Cp: a straightforward indicator of process capability

Figure 7: Natural Distribution Fit within Defined Specification Limits [26]

In figure 7 above, processes (a) and (b) have Cp greater than 1, (c) is equal to 1 and (d) is less than 1 [26].
Process Capability Index, Cpk: an adjustment of Cp for the effect of non-centered distribution.

A Cpk value less than 1 indicates that the process is incapable, between 1 and 3 indicates a capable process,
whereas values greater than 3 show that the process is very capable [26].

4
Rework rate is the percentage of defective products re-processed to meet requirements while scrap rate is the
percentage of defective products that are discarded.
 6.5. Product Inspection
Inspection is performed on products during manufacturing (in-process inspection) and as finished goods
(final inspection). Inspection costs money, time, equipment and labor. It will be unrealistic to have a 100%
inspection of all products in a large scale manufacturing firm such as in the PV where millions of wafers
and solar cells are produced per year. Therefore products are usually sampled for inspection. The ISO 2859
standard gives detailed sampling procedures for tests and inspections [1]. But for sampling to be accepted,
the process must be under control. If a supplier’s process is under control and capable of meeting customer
requirements, then the manufacturer can confidently reduce inspection, and focus more on periodic audit of
the process [4]. This also applies to the company’s internal operations where the internal quality assurance
organization can reduce its inspection and process surveillance, relying more on a planned process audit
program [4].
SPC is applicable to all process stages in the PV industry, ranging from purity of materials and processes, to
product data analysis and quality reporting. An example is in Siemens Solar Industries where SPC is
implemented in their diffusion and cell printing lines to improve capability and electrical yields [27]. Software
interface solutions enable implementation of SPC in manufacturing equipment and automation, to provide
real-time data.

7 Process Automation and Information Technology (IT) Interfaces

Process automation involves using computer technology and software engineering to help factories operate
more efficiently and safely. Without process automation, plant operators will have to physically monitor
performance values and the quality of outputs to determine the best settings on which to run the
production equipment [28]. In PV manufacturing, existing and developing areas of automation include:
 Process stages in solar cell manufacturing
 Automated material handling and transport
 Automated tests, inspection
 Cell interconnection
 Integrated module-edge processing system combining automated edge trimming, edge sealing
and framing processes
 Automated junction-box installation system
 Automated buffer storage system
The SEMI PV Transport Carrier Task Force, led by Q-Cells, is looking at standards needed for PV wafer
and cell carriers, equipment load ports and transport systems within PV production lines. A new SEMI PV
Automation Standards Committee will be formed as well in Europe and Japan to focus on both mechanical
and software automation issues [5]. Moreover, implementing advanced methods of in-line process control
(in-process quality control and feedback systems) is necessary for PV facilities to meet quality standards but
cannot be accomplished without suitable IT interfaces. Awareness of the necessity for standardized IT
interfaces in the PV industry resulted in the formation of a PV Equipment Interface Specification (PV-EIS)
Task Force in September 2007 by SEMI PV Group. The task force developed the ‚Guide for PV equipment
communication interfaces (PVECI)‛ that describes how to integrate process, automation and metrology
equipment in the PV manufacturing environment. This was created through assessment of requirements of
PV industry and review of existing IT equipment integration standards and best practices from other
industries such as the standard framework in semiconductor industry (SECS/GEM – Semiconductor
Equipment Communication Standard/Generic Equipment Model) [29].
IT systems are not only required for data exchange within ECIs, but are also essential for the industry
supply chain. The supply chain IT structure should typically provide a means through which all necessary
data from the incoming supply will be used to secure optimum quality and material availability, in real-time.
Real time data availability places the facilities in preventive mode of operation, rather than reactive mode.
The benefit is that it ensures there is little or no damage in the production line caused by failed or
unavailable material (Krause & Kleemann, 2009). The PV-EIS task force also initiated a set of activities to
extend the capabilities of the PVECI guide in terms of material tracking [29].

8 Quality Issues / Defects in Solar Photovoltaic Cells and Modules

A high quality PV product is expected to perform according to specifications and meet customer
requirements. The customers, both internal and external, are regarded to be of central importance because
their requirements determine the input properties. On the other hand their satisfaction is a reflection of the
success of the process and product quality. The diagram below summarizes the idea behind total quality.

Figure 8: Three Legged Tool of Total Quality [4]

In Total Quality Management (TQM), quality is to be ‘expected not inspected’, which means that quality
should be built into the product right from the beginning of the manufacturing process. A company which
implements a proper quality management system is better equipped to produce very reliable solar cells and
modules with minimum efficiency losses. Examples of quality and reliability problems that have been
known to occur in PV products include:
 Physical defects such as bubbles, metallic inclusions, chips or cracks on a cell
 Misaligned cell connection string, hotspots in cells or interconnections
 Non-uniform sealant in module frame, delamination, glass fracture
 Incorrect electrical isolation between module current conductor parts and the frame
 Slow degradation of the short circuit current
 Light-Induced degradation (LID) associated with p-type CZ-Si solar cells
 Failure of BOS components
 Modules performing below labeled power output
These defects contribute to failures in PV systems and can be avoided from the beginning of the
manufacturing chain through process management and sophisticated quality assurance programs.
Understanding how these problems arise during production is essential to controlling and improving the
process in order to get the desired results. The following are some important quality detractors which need
to be monitored during production.

Detractor
Crystal defects
Impurities in chemicals, materials
Particle density
Particles in equipment
Impurities introduced by processes
Improper handling
Poorly carried-out processes
Rough processing
Flaws in wafer dimensions
Failed mechanical and electrical properties
Wrong setup in production line
Defective laminating processes
Faulty frame assemblies
Table 2: Causes of Poor Quality in PV Cells and Modules
Outcome
These determine the material quality, and thus the
solar cell conversion efficiency
Contaminants are one of the major causes of
defects; therefore standard level of cleanliness has
to be maintained in all process steps
These can affect electrical properties, e.g. low
shunt resistance leading to decrease in conversion
efficiency
These have to be checked to minimize risk of
breakage and deficiencies in cell parameters
Such problems lead to production of modules
with poor quality and reliability
Conversion efficiencies of commercial modules are typically 2% lower than bare cell efficiencies. This has
been attributed to factors such as area-related losses from cell packing density and the module frame,
absorption of the glass, cell mismatch losses and losses in the cell interconnect ribbon. Nevertheless,
developments in module technology are closing this gap [30].
8.1. Tests and Measurements to Characterize Cell and Module Performance
Efficient tests and measurements have to be carried out on all solar cells during production to avoid
assembling defective solar cells in a module. In order to identify the magnitude and sources of defects, the
following parameters are most commonly measured [31]:
- Resistivity - Charge carrier characteristics
- Current/Voltage (I-V) curves - Free charge recombination lifetime
- Capacitance/Current (C-V) curves - Bulk material lifetime
- Optical properties - Effective lifetime

Several varying test and measurement methods exist, but the three broad areas of test technology are [31]:
 Spectroscopy
 Electrical (contact) measurements
 Infrared (IR) imaging
SEMI, ISO and IEC have developed standards including guidelines for tests and measurements. ISO/IEC
17025:2005 specifies the general requirements for the competence to carry out tests and/or calibrations;
including sampling using standard, non-standard or laboratory-developed methods [1]. The certification IEC
61215:2005 of PV modules includes 17 tests which determine the thermal and electrical characteristics of the
module. These qualification tests are not expected to identify all possible module reliability issues in the
actual field. However, they cover the major design quality issues and are thus regarded as minimum
requirements for reliability testing [32].
8.2. Quality Data and Reporting
Data records provide a source of information for management to assess the performance of a system and for
quality control. Data can be stored and properly documented either digitally or in written form. For
business operations, typical records contain such things as contracts, purchase orders received, special
requirements for products, deliveries, and meeting notes. On the other hand manufacturing records contain
data of the quality process, including tests performed to check product operating parameters, records of the
results of these tests, preventive and corrective actions, stock records, shipping, and the disposition of non-
compliant products [7]. However, it is important to avoid unnecessary data that are not significant to the
quality of the product. The PV GAP Quality Control Training Manual provides a detailed description of
how companies can manage and utilize reports and documentations for quality control [7].
9 Analysis of Quality Management Systems and Processes of PV Companies
There are three important aspects which can be regarded as the key performance indicators of quality in
organizations:
1. Structure quality – how well a company’s organizational structure influences its mode of operation
for high performance.
2. Process quality - how the company’s business and manufacturing processes are optimized for high
performance and productivity.
3. Product quality – how well a company’s product satisfies the customers and gains market share.
These aspects can be perceived and measured differently, depending on the type of company. In this
section, some PV companies will be analyzed based on information obtained from their websites,
publications and PV news magazines. The aim is to have an idea of what goes on in the PV industry in
terms of quality assurance measures, process stability, automation, efficiency and reliability of cells/modules.
9.1. Overview of Processes and Certifications
Table 1 below shows information gathered from company websites and technical data sheets classified into
different categories (columns A - G):
A. Process steps stated as automated according to description of company’s production processes. Some
companies have fully automated processes while others mentioned specific processes which are
automated.
B. Information on how companies manage their incoming material supply and quality. Companies which
operate along the whole value chain are vertically integrated and therefore do not rely on external
suppliers for silicon materials. This implies that the quality of those materials depend on their internal
operations and is not affected by damages due to transportation. Other companies indicate type of
relationship or activities with their suppliers.
C. Indicates which companies have a quality management system certified according to ISO 9001
standards.
D. Indicates which companies have certification for an environmental management system according to
ISO 14001 standards.
E. Indicates which companies have the IEC 61215 certification for crystalline silicon terrestrial
photovoltaic (PV) modules: Design qualification and type approval.
F. Judges from the goals, mission statements, etc. found on the company website which companies seem to
emphasize commitment to quality.
G. Based on description of the company’s processes with regard to quality control, inspection, tests and
measurements. (Refer to appendix for abbreviations).
 A B C D E F Company G
Company/ Process Supplier Quality goals show
Products A
automation Management
ISO 9001 ISO 14001 IEC 61215
commitment
Other quality measures

to quality
Developing supplier
Team of 700 quality control
SUNTECH/ relationship, virtual
? Yes Yes YES Yes professionals who work
cells, modules integration with upstream and
closely with UL, IEC, CE, TÜV
downstream partners
Fully automated Detailed documentation of test
Handling all product flow
Q-CELLS/ (warehousing to criteria, objective and benefit,
logistics through to working Yes Yes Yes
cells final quality quality pre-checks on
on technology with suppliers
control) incoming wafers
Implements at least 39
YINGLI/ separate quality inspection
polysilicon to Automated soldering Vertically integrated Yes Yes Yes Yes steps from start to finish,
modules stricter accelerated aging tests
than IEC and UL
Daily SPC, visual and
JA SOLAR/ performance inspections,
Automated soldering ? Yes ? Yes Yes
cells, modules cross linking and stripping
tests
KYOCERA/
Fully automated ? Yes Yes Yes Yes ?
modules
Incoming inspections, in-
TRINASOLAR/ process quality control, output
Long-term partnerships with
ignots to ? Yes Yes Yes Yes inspection and test, offers
leading equipment suppliers
modules after-sales technical service
support
SUNPOWER/ Use preventive processes and
? ? Yes
?
Yes Yes
modules testing
Preventive quality assurance,
BOSCH/
Automation in all Suppliers subjected to the packaging: suitable for digital
wafer, cell, Yes Yes Yes Yes
production lines same high quality standards recording of incoming goods
module
using barcode system
100% inspection for shunt
Forming strategic alliances
GINTECH/ Automated resistance and reverse current,
with upstream polysilicon and Yes Yes ? Somewhat
cells, modules Inspection in-line optical inspection on
wafer makers
all products
Routine use of specialized
BP SOLAR/
? ? Yes Yes Yes Somewhat accelerated tests to predict
cells, modules
product lifetime
Frequent internal monitoring
MOTECH/ of LID, color uniformity within
? ? Yes Yes Yes Yes
cells, modules cells are closely monitored
and controlled
MITSUBISHI Integrated facilities,
All modules are 100%
ELECTRIC/ automated ? Yes Yes Yes Somewhat
inspected
cells, modules processes
Automated wafer
transport system,
DELSOLAR/ Vertical integration with Delta
automation Yes Yes Yes Yes ?
cells Electroincs
equipment
developed in-house
SUNWAYS/ Meticulous tolerance and
? ? Yes Underway Yes Somewhat
modules quality checks
Cell position measured and
SOLARWORLD/ Automated wafer aligned before screen printing,
raw silicon to testing and sorting, quality check on arrival of
complete solar highly automated Fully integrated Yes Yes Yes Yes pure silicon, continuous batch
electric cell and module tracking, digital data
systems production collection of incoming goods,
internal recycling

PHOTOWATT/
Quality and reliability
ignot to ? Vertically integrated Yes ? Yes Yes
validated at each stage
modules
Work closely with producers Every cell individually tested
of solar modules and and sorted, visual inspection
SOLLAND/ Automated
suppliers (producers of Underway ? Yes ? on every single cell for
cells production
wafers, ancillary materials mechanical and aesthetic
and equipment) faults
Fully automated
SCHOTT SOLAR/ Strict 100% incoming goods
wafer inspection, Qualify and test suppliers
wafers to Yes Yes Yes Yes inspection, optimum control
highly automated regularly
modules and monitoring of each step
production
ALEO SOLAR/
? ? Yes Yes Yes Somewhat Very strict quality control
modules
Assures proper measurement
ISOFOTON/ through verifications and
? ? Yes Yes Yes Somewhat
cells, modules maintenance of its laboratory
equipments

Table 3: Information from Websites of 20 PV Companies around the World

? – No information found in that category
As can be observed from the above table, no information was found on some company websites for certain
categories. It may mean that such information either exists in other portions of the website but were not
found, or was not stated at all on the website. Therefore the limitation of this research is that one cannot
come to any conclusions on what the company does or does not do in those areas since no field
survey/audit was involved. Nevertheless the impression is that companies which have highly automated
processes, or carry out stringent quality assurance measures and hold these of significant importance to the
companies’ operations, most likely have this stated on their website. In general, all the companies
researched have ISO 9001 certification except for Solland Solar which states that its quality policy ‘will be’
certified according to that standard. Not all companies have the ISO 14001 certification but all the module
producers have IEC 61215 certification. Not much information was found from the websites on the use of
SPC in processes. But it seems that for many companies, improvement is needed in the utilization of
equipment automation and in supplier quality management.
9.2. Comparison of Electrical Conversion Efficiencies
Research and development efforts in the PV industry have been largely geared towards increasing the
conversion efficiency of solar cells and modules. Higher efficiency attained through increased productivity
and reduced costs will subsequently result in lower cost per watt peak. However there is still a large gap
between efficiency of cells produced on a large scale at the plants and those obtainable in the laboratory
(about 25% for c-Si). The conversion efficiency of a company’s product to a large extent is an indication of
the company’s process technology and product quality which also translates to its market performance. The
charts below show the average efficiency of solar cells and modules produced by a few companies between
the years 2004 and 2010.

Figure 9: Average Conversion Efficiency of Monocrystalline Solar Cells [33]

In general, companies achieved higher efficiencies over the years for monocrystalline cells. Monocrystalline
silicon produces better efficiency cells than multicrystalline silicon material. However multicrystalline cells
are cheaper to produce, therefore more companies manufacture with this material than with monocrystalline
silicon.
 Figure 10: Average Conversion Efficiency of Multicrystalline Solar Cells [33]
From the chart above, it appears that most companies achieved in average, higher efficiencies over the years
with the exception of Sunways which has a lower average efficiency in 2010 than in 2005. The reason for
this is not clear, but looking at table 1, one may deduce that the company’s processes do not reflect as much
quality assurance or quality information as some other companies in that table. However, one may also cite
economic reasons as a possible explanation for the lower average efficiency in 2010.

Figure 11: Average Conversion Efficiency of Monocrystalline Solar Modules [33]

From the chart above, it can be seen that ErSol (Bosch) achieved significantly higher average efficiency in its
monocrystalline modules than the other companies. This is a reflection of better production processes and
quality management.
 Figure 12: Average Conversion Efficiency of Multicrystalline Solar Modules [33]
In addition to average conversion efficiency, another important factor is the efficiency variation in the same
batch of a company’s products.

Figure 13: Probability Density vs. Conversion Efficiencies in PV Cells and Modules of Companies
 The above plots show variations in efficiency of cells and modules from different companies’ technical
datasheets. Some product series have a narrower efficiency range than others, which is a good sign. In
contrast Photowatt’s multicrystalline module (bottom right) shows a very wide range of efficiencies
which explains the low average efficiency obtained in 2009 [figure 12]. Such variations may be traced to
variations in materials, processes or environmental parameters. Hence a stable and consistent process
which can be accomplished through process and quality management is essential for reducing this gap.

9.3. Reliability of PV Modules in the Market

Figure 14: Failure Rate Comparison of c-Si Modules for the 1997-2005 and 2005-2007 Periods [32]
The above figure shows the results of the failure rate analysis of crystalline silicon PV modules conducted by
ASU-PTL. It shows that the failure rate dramatically increased in the period 2005-2007 as compared to
1997-2005. According to the analysis, this higher percentage of failure was partly due to the market entry of
a large number of new manufacturers [32]. This implies that the new PV manufacturers did not have as
much stringent quality management as the older companies in the industry. Such a situation poses a risk of
jeopardizing customer and investor confidence in PV products. If not properly addressed, it will curtail
progress at this stage when the industry is in constant need of improvements throughout the whole value
chain. Therefore, it is important that new PV manufacturers establish a quality management system right
from the start of their operations. Better yet, quality assurance should be enforced globally by appropriate
regulatory bodies for all companies entering the PV market. Supplemented by standardization in the
industry, companies can be equipped with uniform guidelines for operation along the manufacturing chain.

10 Conclusion and Recommendations

Quality in the PV industry is a reflection of the structure, process and product quality of PV companies.
Ultimately, such quality has to be ‘bankable’ in the sense that it is stable enough to ensure profitability and
hence attract more investors to the industry. Implementing adequate quality and process management is
instrumental to achieving this. Major companies in the industry have the ISO 9001 certification for a QM
system. However some areas still need to be improved such as in:
 Supply chain efficiency – shifting from a static to a dynamic and efficient supply chain
 Supplier QM – performing periodic audits of supplier’s quality system and processes
 Upgrade of IT structure – for the supply network and equipment communication interfaces
 Implementing proper SPC Control – for improved stability in all process stages
 Increasing in-line product tests – to reduce rate of failed products at the end of the line
 Technical inspections – preferably unannounced inspection of production sites to check that
manufacturer’s processes are continually improved and conform to quality standards
 Module Certification - In addition to testing products, performing quality audit of PV processes,
before issuing certifications
With new manufacturers entering the supply chain, the continued growth of the PV industry makes the
need for standards more important than ever. Standardization efforts are already underway through SEMI
PV Group in co-operation with EPIA and other technical experts in the industry. Several PV standards
committees have been formed across the globe to handle specific tasks in such areas as tests and
measurements, processes, materials and equipment.
Some PV companies have formed partnerships and strategic alliances with other companies in order to
benefit through resources such as manufacturing capability, distribution channels, equipment, expertise, etc.
This highlights the importance of benchmarking, a tool of total quality used among companies striving to
be more competitive. Benchmarking will help PV companies improve their process or product quality by
learning best practices of other companies in the industry.

Figure 15: Quality Management and Standardization – PV Industry Cooperation for Good Results
11 References
[1] International Organization for Standardization (ISO). International Standards for Business,
Government and Society (2010). http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html
[2] PV Technologies: Cells and Modules. European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA). (2010).
http://www.epia.org/solar-pv/pv-technologies-cells-and-modules.html
[3] Solar Cell Manufacturing Plants. SolarbuzzTM. (2010). Solarbuzz, LLC. (18 Jan. 2010).
http://www.solarbuzz.com/plants.htm
[4] Goetsch L. D., Davis B. S. Quality Management: Introduction to Total Quality Management for
Production, Processing, and Services. New Jersy: Pearson Prentice Hall. (2006).
[5] James Amano, Director, International Standards, SEMI. PV Standards Update. (April 2010).
http://www.pvgroup.org/NewsArchive/ctr_036230.
[6] The Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP). http://www.pvgap.org/index.html
[7] Varadi, P. F., Dominiguez, R. and Shaeffer, L. Quality Management in Photovoltaics: Manufacturers
Quality Control Training Manual. Quality in Manufacturing: General Concepts. Global Approval
Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP). Geneva, Switzerland. (Feb. 2002).
[8] George Marsh. PV Manufacture: Synergy Without Dependence. (01 Mar. 2009). Renewable Energy
Focus. 17 Jan. 2010. http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/3187/pv-manufacturesynergy-
without-dependance/
[9] Ron Sedlock. The Process-Based Approach: Going Beyond Auditing to Assessing. American Society
for Quality (ASQ) San Diego Sect. 703 Meeting. (May 9, 2006). The Quality Catalyst. Melrose,
Florida USA.
[10] Kerri Simon. SIPOC Diagram. iSixSigma: Quality Resources for Achieving Six Sigma Results.
http://www.isixsigma.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=1013:sipoc-
diagram&Itemid=219
[11] Dietmar Borchert, Markus Rinio. Interaction between Process Technology and Material Quality
during the Processing of Multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cells. (March 20, 2008). Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC. (2008).
[12] Rainer Krause, Udo Kleemann. Supply Chain Management in the PV Industry. IBM Deutschland,
Mainz, Germany. PV-tech. (2009).
[13] Crabtree, G., Jester, T. L., Fredric C., Nickerson J., Meemongkolkiat V. and Rohatgi A. Production
Viability of Gallium Doped Mono-Crystalline Solar Cells. Shell Solar Industries, Camarillo, USA.
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA.
[14] Prof. Dr. Werner Bergholz. Jacobs University Bremen, Germany. Microelectronics. (Spring 2010).
[15] Govindasamy TamizhMani. Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial Photovoltaic Cells – Supply Chain
Procurement Specification Guideline. Arizona State University Photovoltaic Reliability Laboratory.
(March 2009). Solar America Board for Codes and Standards (Solar abcs).
[16] Olivia Mah. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Materials. National Solar Power Research Institute, Inc.
(December 21, 1998).
[17] Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology. Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands.
http://www.ecn.nl/units/zon/rd-programme/silicon-photovoltaics/crystalline-silicon-solar-cell-
technology/
[18] Johan Hoogboom et al, Mallinckrodt Baker B.V. Surface Modification for Efficiency Improvement
of Inline Solar Cell Manufacture. Deventer, The Netherlands. PV-tech.
[19] Cell Production from Inside. Q-Cells AG. www.q-cells.com
[20] Sefar Knows Solar. Sefar AG. http://www.sefar.com/htm/609/en/Solar-Industry.htm?Folder=31423
[21] Dr. Seth P. Bates. Silicon Wafer Processing. San Jose State University, USA. Applied Materials.
(Summer 2000).
[22] B. Sopori, Y. Zhang, and W. Chen. Process Monitoring in Solar Cell Manufacturing. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (October 1999).
[23] James M. Gee and Ted F. Ciszek. The Crystalline-Silicon Photovoltaic R&D Project at NREL and
SNL. http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/cells5.htm
[24] Thomas Pyzdek, Paul Keller. The Six Sigma Handbook. (Chapter 3). Quality Publishing. (1999).
[25] Don J. Lee, Anna C. Thornton. The Identification and Use of Key Characteristics in the Product
Development Process. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, USA. (1996).
[26] Process Capability: How to Understand it. Quality Tools: Tools and Techniques for Quality
Improvement and Problem Solving. http://syque.com/quality_tools/toolbook/Procap/how.htm
[27] C.E. Witt, R.L. Mitchell, H.P. Thomas, M.L. Symko, R. King, and D.S. Ruby. Manufacturing
Improvements in the Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology (PVMaT) Project. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (July, 1998).
[28] What is Process Automation? The ABB Group.
http://www.abb.com/cawp/db0003db002698/b3913fe3a1296b7bc12571f10040f47f.aspx
[29] Win Baylies, Marty Burkhart, Don Cook, Dick Hockett, Matthias Meier and Bettina Weiss.
Structuring Standards for the Photovoltaic Manufacturing Industry. SEMI/PV Group Photovoltaic
Standards Committee. Photovoltaics International. (November 2008).
[30] Nigel B. Mason. Industry Developments that Sustain the Growth of Crystalline Silicon PV Output .
BP Solar, Proceedings of the Photovoltaic Science, Applications and Technology Conference,
Durham UK, 28-30. (March 2007).
[31] Marcus Tarin. Lock-in Thermography Enables Solar Cell Development. MoviTHERM; Ross
Overstreet/FLIR Systems. Photovoltaics World Magazine. New Hampshire, USA (January 11, 2010).
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2010/01/lock-in-thermography-enables-
solar-cell-development
[32] G. TamizhMani, B. Li, T. Arends, J. Kuitche, B. Raghuraman, W. Shisler, K. Farnsworth, J.
Gonzales, & A. Voropayev. Failure Analysis of Design Qualification Testing: 2007 vs. 2005.
Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory (ASU-PTL), Mesa, Arizona, USA.
Photovoltaics International. (August 2008).
[33] Mediha Zeneli. Comparative Analysis of PV Cell and Module Makers Parameters . Bachelor Thesis
Electrical and Computer Engineering. Jacobs University Bremen, Germany. (Spring 2010).
12 Appendix
1. SIX-SIGMA
The Six-Sigma concept is an innovative tool which is used to improve the performance of processes to the
point of 3.4 per million or less defects. It was designed for use in high-volume production settings; therefore
it is well suited to manufacturing systems. It follows a six-step protocol for process movement which is as
follows [4]:
1. Identify the product characteristics wanted by customers
2. Classify the characteristics in terms of their criticality
3. Determine if the classified characteristics are controlled by part and/or process
4. Determine the maximum allowable tolerance for each classified characteristic
5. Determine the process variation for each classified characteristic
6. Change the design of the product, process, or both to achieve a Six Sigma process performance

2. DEMING’S CYCLE
The Deming (PDCA) Cycle links production of a product with consumer needs and focuses the resources
of all departments (research, design, production, marketing).
1. Plan – plan to improve operations by identifying problems and finding solutions
2. Do – make changes accordingly on a small or experimental scale, to minimize disruptions
3. Check – check whether the changes are achieving the desired results or not, including continuous
check of key parameters (e.g. the KCCs) to ensure that any new problems are identified.
4. Act – implement changes on a larger scale if successful. Otherwise, plan to make adjustments for
desired results.

3. BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is part of the total quality process where companies compare processes and performance
metrics to best practices within the industry or from other industries. There are two types:
Competitive benchmarking – a competitor’s operation is studied using publicly available data without
cooperation with the target firm [4].
Cooperative or process benchmarking – a partner company’s key processes are studied through cooperation
efforts by both firms so as to improve the benchmarking firm from a substandard to a world-class level [4].
4. EXAMPLES QUALITY ISSUES IN PV CELLS AND MODULES

Jorge Coello, 23rd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 1-5 September 2008, Valencia, Spain

5. ABBREVIATIONS IN TABLE 3
UL – Underwriters laboratories Inc.; provides product safety certification and compliance solutions.
IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission; prepares and publishes standards for electrical, electronic
and related technologies.
CE - Conformité Européenne; conformance to EC (European Commission) directives. The CE mark on a
product indicates that the manufacturer or the importer for the EEA (European Economic Area) has
respected the requirements for safety, health and the environment.
TÜV - Technischer Überwachungs-Verein (Technical Surveillance Association); carries out tests, inspections
and certification of products, services and systems in industries worldwide.