BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES

1. Structure of soil

Air and/or water occupy the spaces (VOIDS or pores) between the soil grains

The components of soil are;

Air Is highly compressible, so it is important

to remove as much as possible by
rolling, compaction etc.

Water Can flow into or out of or through soil.

Greatly affects all soil properties.
Known as pore water.

Solids Arrangement of the particles is

important (most dense is best).

The voids can have variable water/air content;

Voids content Soil description

Completely filled with water SATURATED
Partially full of water (i.e.some air) PARTIALLY SATURATED
Filled with air (i.e. no water) DRY

The solids and water components have mass but air does not. Water and/or air
can flow in and out of the voids altering the mass of the soil. Also, the structure
or framework of soil grains, can be compressed, so there are more grains per
unit volume, thus increasing the weight. These factors require the mass /
volume relationships for soil to be formalised. The soil model allows this to be
achieved.

The components of the soil model and their symbols are shown below;

Quantities of SOIL Quantities of

mass MODEL volume

VA
MA air = 0 AIR
Total air Vv V
mass VW Voids Total
M MW=water WATER volume
water
MS = solid SOLID VS solid

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
2. Measurements of mass

i. Water content, w = mass of water = Mw

(or moisture content) mass of solid MS

usually expressed as a %
typically 8 – 16% for glacial clay
20 – 30% for lake bed/river deposits
can be = 0% for DRY soil
can be > 100% e.g. peat ≃ 400%

ii. Specific Gravity of Solid Particles, GS

Defined as;
mass of a volume of material
mass of the SAME volume of water

has no units
for most UK soils, Gs = 2.6 - 2.9

3. Measurements of volume

i. Void Ratio, e
volume of voids VV VW + VA
e = = =
volume of solids VS VS

used to express void content of soil

usually expressed as a ratio (can be >1)
typically 0.6 – 1.2
has no units

From the above;

VV = e VS
and
V = VV + VS = eVS + VS
V = (1 + e)VS

ii. Porosity, n
volume of voids VV VW + VA
n = = =
total volume V V

used to express void content of rock

usually expressed as a % ( always <100%)
typically 2% (granite) to 60% (chalk)

VW + V A
n =
VS +VW + VA

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
 Dividing through by VS gives;

(VW + VA)/ VS e
n = =
(VS +VW + VA)/ VS 1+e

iii. Degree of Saturation, Sr

Volume of water VW VW
Sr = = =
Volume of Voids VV VW+VA

usually expressed as a %
has a range of 0 to 100%
if fully saturated, then Sr = 100% (no air)
if dry, then Sr = 0% (no water)

VW
Sr = and from (3) above, VV = e VS
VV

V W = S r e VS

Class example 1
A sample of saturated clay had a mass of 1526 g in its natural state and
1053g after drying. Take Gs = 2.70 and determine the values of:

i. water content
ii. void ratio
iii. porosity
[44.9%; 1.21; 54.8%]

4. Measurements of mass & volume

i. Bulk Density, b

b = total mass M MS + MW
= =
total volume V VS+VW+VA

units kg/m3
typically 1500 to 2200 kg/m3

ii. Soil Unit Weight, γ

total weight (MS + MW) g
γ =
total volume
= x
1000
VS+VW+VA

units kN/m3
typically 14.00 to 21.00 kN/m3

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
iii. Dry Density, d
mass of solid MS MS
d = = =
total volume VS+VW+VA V

units kg/m3
in a dry soil, = d since MW = 0

iv. Dry Unit Weight, γd

weight of solid MS g
γd = total volume = x
1000
VW+VS+VA

units kN/m3
v. Saturated Density, sat

Density of soil when the voids are completely

filled with water

MS + MW M S + VV W
sat = =
V V
(since MW = VV W)
density of water, W = 1000kg/m3
units kg/m3

vi. Saturated Unit Weight, γsat

Unit weight of soil when the voids are completely

filled with water:
(MS + VV γW) g
γsat = V x 1
000
units = kN/m3

Class example 2
A sample of soil had a mass of 129.1g and a volume of 56.4cm3 in its
natural state. Its dry mass was 121.5g. If Gs = 2.70, determine:

i. Soil density
ii. Dry unit weight
iii. Degree of saturation
[2289; 21.13; 67%]

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
5. Relationship between Sr , e, w and Gs

Consider a soil sample with the volume of solid matter equal to 1 cubic
3 3
metre, i.e. VS= 1 m . Thus if e = 0.72, it is actually 0.72 m .

Void Void VV VV
e m3 = e = = = VV
VV ratio VS 1

3 Solid
1m s MS/Vs MS/1
VS Gs = = =
w w w
Volume
Scale
i.e. mass of solid, MS = GS w

Density of water, w = Mw
Vw

and from (5) above Vw = Sr e Vs

= Sr e (since Vs=1)

Mw
W =
Sr e

Mw = W Sr e

MW w Sr e
Now, water content, w = =
MS Gs w

w Gs = Sr e

OK for any soil

e.g. if soil is saturated, then Sr = 1
and void ratio, e =w Gs

6. Relationship between soil density, and degree of saturation, Sr

Mass Ms + Mw + MA
Soil density, = =
Volume Vs + Vw + VA

From above, Vs = 1; Ms = Gs W; Mw = W Sr e

Vv = Vw + VA = e

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
 Gs W+ W Sr e
=
1+e
i.e.
(Gs
Sr e) W
+
=
1+e
NOTE: Soil density for any degree of saturation

If the soil is saturated, then Sr = l

(Gs + e) W
Saturated density, sat =
1+e

If the soil is dry, then Sr = 0

Gs W
Dry density, d =
1+e

Similarly for unit weight: -

soil unit weight, γb

(Gs + Sr e) γw
γ =
1+e

Saturated unit weight, γsat

(Gs + e) γw
γsat =
1+e

Dry unit weight, γd

Gs γw
γd =
1+e

Class example 3
A site investigation revealed a layer of sand overlying bedrock. A
sample of the sand taken in a cylindrical mould (102mm I.D. x 186mm
high) from above the water table had a mass of 2502g. After oven
drying, the mass of the sample was 2005g. The specific gravity of the
soil particles was found to be 2.69.

Determine the following:

a) Soil density, and unit weight, γ
b) Water content, w%
c) Dry density, d and dry unit weight, γd
d) Void ratio, e
e) Degree of saturation, Sr%
f) Saturation density, sat and the saturated unit weight, γsat
g) Water content when the soil is fully saturated

[1646, 16.15 24.8%; 1319, 12.94; 1.04; 64.2; 1828; 17.93; 38.7%]

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
7. Determination of basic soil properties

The following may be determined by experiment:

1. Soil density, (kg/m3), or

Soil unit weight, γb (kN/m3)

2. Dry density, d (kg/m3), or

Dry unit weight, γd (kN/m3)

3. Water content, w (%)

4 Specific gravity of solid particles, Gs

(difficult and time consuming test)

The following may be calculated from the previously derived expressions: -

5. Void ratio, e (no units)

6. Degree of saturation, Sr (%) (no units)

7. Saturated density, sat (kg/m3), or

Saturated unit weight, γsat (kN/m3)

Class example 4 (very similar to example 2)

A sample of soil had a mass of 129.1g and a volume of 56.4cm3 in its
natural state. Its dry mass was 121.5g. If Gs = 2.70, determine:

iv. Void ratio, e

v. Bulk density, b
vi. Dry unit weight, γd
[0.25; 2289; 21.13]

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
TERMINOLOGY, SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Term Symbol Units

Volume m3
Mass kg
Gravity g 9.81 m/sec2
Weight kN = (kg x 9.81)/1000
Density Mass / Volume
Unit weight γ Weight / Volume

Total volume V m3
Volume of air VA m3
Volume of water Vw m3
Volume of voids Vv m3
Volume of Solids Vs m3

Mass of Water Mw kg
Mass of solids Ms kg
Weight of water Ww kN
Weight of solids Ws kN
Total weight W kN

Specific gravity Gs None

Density of water w
1000kg/m3
Unit weight of water γw 9.81 kN/m3
Void ratio e None
Degree of saturation Sr None
Moisture content w None
Porosity n None
Aid Void Content Av %

Bulk density b
kg/m3
Dry density d
kg/m3
Saturated density sat
kg/m3
Bulk unit weight γb kN/m3
Dry unit weight γd kN/m3
Saturated unit weight γsat kN/m3

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
 Density kg/m3 Unit weight kN/m3

= W(Gs + Sr e)
γb =
γw (Gs + Sr e)
1+e 1+e

d =
W Gs
γd = γw Gs
1+e 1+e

sat =
W (Gs + e)
γsat = γw (Gs + e)
1+e 1+e

w Gs = Sr e

Transposing the above expressions:

From 2 above;

W Gs γW Gs
e= -1 e= -1
d γd

W Gs (1 – Av) γw Gs (1 - Av)
d max = γd max =
1 + w Gs 1 + w Gs

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)
DEFINITIONS

Term Expression

Density of water, w mass of water Mw

volume of water Vw

Unit weight of water, γw weight of water Ww

volume of water Vw

Specific gravity, Gs density of solids s

density of water w

Water content, w mass of water Mw

mass of solids Ms

Void ratio, e volume of voids Vv

volume of solids Vs

Degree of saturation, Sr volume of water Vw

volume of voids Vv

Air Void content, Av volume of air voids Va

total volume V

Porosity, n volume of voids Vv

total volume V

Bulk density, b total mass M

total volume V

Dry density, d mass of solids Ms

total volume V

Saturated density, sat total saturated mass M

total volume V

Bulk unit weight, γb total weight W

total volume V

Dry unit weight, γd weight of solids Ws

total volume V

Saturated unit weight, γsat total saturated weight W

total volume V

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Basic Soil Properties (Dr P McMahon)