c





 

 


 



Organization are defined as collectivities that have been established for the pursuit
of relatively specific objectives on a more or less continuous basis.




 

Based on their function:

(i) Jconomic organizations

(ii) Political organizations
(iii) Integrative
(iv) Pattern maintenance

Another classification of organization :

(i) Voluntary association

(ii) Military associations
(iii) Philanthropic
(iv) Corporation
(v) Family business

ë  

Output as the basis for classifications organizations:

(i) Mutual benefit associations.

(ii) Business organizations
(iii) Service organizations
(iv) Common well organizations
 ë 
 


 

(i) Jconomic organizations:

Jconomic organizations are primarily those which are concerned with
adding value as used by economics. Such business activities may be in form of
tardiness, commercial, industrial and other direct services.
(ii) Political organizations
(iii) Integrative organizations
(iv) Pattern maintenance organizations.

ë  
  



(i) Mutual benefit associations.

(ii) Business organizations.
(iii) Service organizations.
(iv) Commonweal organizations.

J 
    

(i) Jconomic environment

(ii) Political and legal environment
(iii) Technological environment
(iv) Socio ± cultural environment.




  





 

  

Organizational behavior is a branch of the social science that seeks to build theories
that can be applied to predicting, understanding and controlling behavior to work organizations.

   

Organizational behavior is a subset of management activities concerned with

understanding, prediction and influencing individual behavior in organizational seetings.
^ 


  



 
    




Organizational behavior can be treated a distinct field of study and net a
discipline or even emerging discipline. A discipline is an accepted science with a
theoretical foundation that serves as the basis for research and analysis.


 x 


  
OB is basically an interdisciplinary approach interdisciplinary approach
integrates the relevant knowledge drawn from different disciplines for some specific
purpose, OB draws heavily from psychology, societies and anthropology.



   

 
The basic objective or OB is to make application of various researchers to solve
the organizational problems particularly related to human behavior aspect unlike the
pure science which concentrates on fundamental researchers concentrates on applied
researchers.

 ^ 
   
OB is a normative science. A normative science unlike the positive science
which suggests only causes ± effect relationship prescribed how the various findings
of the researchers can be applied to get organizational research which are acceptable
to the society.
 Œ

 



OB focuses the attention on people from humanistic point of view. It is based
on the belief that needs and motivation of people are a high concern. There is an
acceptance of the value of the individual as a thinking seeing organism and without
these considerations the organization may not be fully operational as a social entites.
(vi) Oriented towards organizational objective:
OB being an applied science and emphasizing human aspect of the organization
objectives.
(vii) Actual systems approach:
OB is total systems approach where in the living systems of an organization is
viewed as an enlargement of a man. The systems approach is an integrative approach
which takes into account all the varialbles affecting organizational functioning.
£roup :

Definition :

Two or more persons:

To form a group there should be atleast two persons because a single individual
cannot interact. However there cannot be any specific limit on the maximum number of persons
in a group but the size of the group will be determined by rules and regulations of the
organization in this context.

Collectivity identity:

Members of the group must be aware about their membership of the group. Jach members
of the group must believe that he is a member of is a participant in some specific group.

Interaction :

Members of the group interact among them solves interaction means that each member
shares his ideas with other through communication and this communication can take place face
to face in writing over the telephone across a computer network or in any other manner which
allows communication among group members.

Shared goal interest:

Members of the group should subscribe to the attainment of some common objectives.
However it is not necessary that each member subscribes to or agrees with all the objectives of
the group if a group has a varieties of objectives or interest each member of the group must share
at least one of the groups concerns. The shared goals interest binds the group members together.

Types of groups:

The basis of differentiation may be purpose, extent of structuring, process of formation

and size of the group membership. However an analytical classification of the groups may be

(i) Formal and informal

(ii) Primary and secondary
(iii) Membership and reference
(iv) Command and task
(v) In- group and out-group

(i) Primary and secondary groups:

A primary group is characterized by intimate, face to face association and co-
operation. The membership of such a group is small and is based on intimate
relationship.
A secondary group is more formal general and remote. The membership of
the secondary group may not have any interest in the problems and pleasures or
others. The continuous interaction, intimacy, face to face interaction, co-operation
and association of primary groups may not be found in secondary groups.

(ii) Membership and reference groups:

A membership group is one to which and individual really belongs while a
reference group is one with which the individual identifies or to which he would like
to belong.
The attractiveness of the reference group makes the norms of that group more
attractive to the individual who aspires to it and it norms will therefore become more
influential in determining behavior.

(iii) Command and task groups:

A command group is composed of the subordinate who report directly to a
common superior. The type of group is determined by organization chart. A task
group is comprised of the employee who work together to complete a particular task
or project. A task group is usually formed to solve a problem or perform an activities
that involves a number of organization units.

(iv) In- groups and out-groups:

The in ± groups represents a clustering of individual holding prevailing values
in a society or atleast having a dominant place in social functioning.
 The out ± group is the conglomerate looked up as subordinate or marginal in the
society. It is usually referred to as the minority group even though in certain
instances. It may represent a numerical majority.

(v) Formal and informal groups:

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs or tasks
which are related to the total organization mission. Thus these are consciously and
deliberately created such as group may be either permanent in the form of top
management team such as board of directors or management committee, work units
in the various departments of the organization, staff group providing specialized
services to the organization and soon or the formal groups may be constituted on
temporary basis for fulfilling certain specified objectives.
Informal groups on the other hand are created in the organization because
operation if social and psychological forces operating at workforce. Members create
such groups for their own satisfaction and then working is not regulated by the
general framework of original rules and regulations.

Characteristics of formal organization :

Principles of organization :

(i) Division of labour

(ii) Scalar and functional processes
(iii) Structure and
(iv) Span of control

Characteristics of formal organization :

(i) Organization structure is designed by the top management to fulfill certain

requirements ± performance of necessary activities thereby achieving organizational
goals.
(ii) Organization structure is based on the principles of division of labour and efficiency
in operations.
 (iii) Organization concentrates more on the performance of jobs and not on the individuals
performing the jobs.
(iv) The authority and responsibility assigned to each job have to be adhered to by job
holders. Based on the concept of authority and responsibility people are placed in
hierarchy and their status is determined accordingly.
(v) Co ±ordination among members and their control are well specified through
processes procedure.

Characteristics of informal organization :

(i) Informal organization is a natural outcome at the work place. It is not designed and
planned.
(ii) Informal organization is created on the basis of some similarity among its members.
The bases of similarity may be age, sex, place of origin, caste, religion, personality,
characteristics of likings, dis-likings etc.
(iii) Membership in an informal organization is voluntary. A person may become member
of several informal organization at the same time.
(iv) Behavior of members of the informal organization is co-ordinated and controlled by
group norms of the formal organization.

Inter ± group organization :

An organization consists of many groups created formally or informally. Since the

organization is a system, these group cannot remain independent. Rather, each group depends on
others for raw materials, resources, information or assistance in performing a task. The nature of
such inter dependence varies in different relationship and can be classified into four categories.

(i) Poled interdependence.

(ii) Sequential interdependence.
(iii) Reciprocal interdependence.
(iv) Team interdependence.
 Theory

Rudner :

Definition :

Theory as a systematically related set of statements including some law like generalization
that is empirically testable and the sort of systematic relatedness is deductive relatedness.

Organizational theory:

Definition :

Toshi :

Organization theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts) definitions and

propositions that present a systematic view of behavior of individuals, groups and sub ± groups
interacting in some relatively patterned sequence of activity the intent of which is goal directed.

Types of organization theories : (different )

(i) Classical
(ii) Neo ± classical and
(iii) Modern

Classical organization theory :

Meaning :

The term classical in Jnglish language means something traditionally accepted or long
established. The classical theory is the beginning of the systematic studies of the organization.
The classic writers have viewed organization as a machine and human being as different
components of that machine. Their approach has focused on input output mediators and has
given less attention to facilitating and constraining factors in the external environment.

Characteristics of classical organization theory:

(i) Classical organizational theory is built on an accounting model.

 (ii) It maximizes neatness and control.
(iii) It puts special emphasis on the detection of errors and their correction after they have
happened.
(iv) This approach to the organization is the classical embodiment of the extra pair of
hands concept.
(v) In designing the jobs and in picking these extra pair of hands, classical theory
assumes man to be relatively homogeneous and relatively un modifitable.
(vi) Stability of the employees ± stability in the sense of minimizing change within the
employees is a goal in the organization.
(vii) Classical theory is in its essential character centralized and the integration or the
system is achieved through the authority and control of the central mechanism.

Principles of scientific management :

(i) Separation of planning from doing.

(ii) Functional foremanship of supervision having eight different supervisors to give
instructions in their respective fields.
(iii) Job analysis based on time, motion and fatigue studies to determine fair amount of
work.
(iv) Standardization of tools, period of work working conditions and cost of production.
(v) Scientific selection and training of workmen and
(vi) Financial incentives to motivate workmen.

Fayol and classical theory :

He has observed the organizational functioning from manager point of view and found
that activities of an organization can be divided into six groups (i) technical, (ii) commercial, (iii)
financial, (iv) security, (v) accounting, (vi) managerial. He accepts that all of these first five
activities are well known to most of the managers, consequently he emphasized the managerial
activities. He has classified the managerial activities into five parts (i) planning, (ii) organizing,
(iii) commanding, (iv) co-ordinating, (v) controlling.
Principles of classical organization theory:

(i) Division of work.

(ii) Authority and responsibility.
(iii) Discipline.
(iv) Unity of command.
(v) Unity of direction.
(vi) Sub ± ordination of individual to general interest.
(vii) Remuneration of personnel.
(viii) Centralization.
(ix) Scalar chain.
(x) Order.
(xi) Jquity.
(xii) Stability of tenure.
(xiii) Initiative.

Neo classical organizational theory:

The classical organizational theory which focused attention of the physiological

and mechanical variables of organizational functioning was tested in the field to
increase the efficiency of the organizations.

The essence of behavioural approach is contained in two points.

Neo classical theory and organizational design.

(i) Flat structure:

Neo classical organizational theory suggests flat structure as against the all
structure suggested by classical theory.

(ii) Decentralization :
The neo ± classical organization theory suggest decentralization in organization
structure.
 (iii) Informal organization:
A note worthy point of neo classical theory is the informal organization. This
aspect has been left altogether by classical theory.

Modern organizational theory :

Meaning :

Modern organization theory ( MOT) is of recent origin having developed in early 1960¶s.
it is an integrative theory and combines the valuable concept of classical models with the social
and behavioural sciences. It is an amorphous aggregation of these models in the meaningful way
to enable us to understand organization.

Features of organizational theory :

(i) Open system view:

MOT takes organization as an open system. It implies that the organization
continuously interacts with its environment for its survival and growth. Thus an
organization has different elements:
Input, transformation, process, output, feed back and environment.

(ii) Adaptive :
MOT takes organization as an adaptive system. Organization being an open
system its survival and growth in a dynamic environment demands as adaptive system
which can continuously adjust to changing environment.

(iii) Dynamic :
Organization as a system is dynamic. It¶s suggest that organization attempts at
achieving equilibrium. However this equilibrium is not static as happens in
mechanical system.

(iv) Probabilistic :
MOT is probabilistic and not deterministic. A deterministic model always
specifies the use of model in a condition with pre- determined results.
 (v) Multi level and multi dimensional :
It features of organization. It has both macro and micro approach. At macro level
it can be applied to supra system, say a business system as a whole. At micro level it
can be applied in an organization.

(vi) Multi variable :

MOT is multi variables and involves taking into account many variables
simultaneously.
(vii) An integrated approach :
MOT takes an integrated view. The reason for a phenomenon in its wider context
taking into the total factors affecting the phenomenon.

Unit ± 2
Personality

Meaning :

Personality factors are extremely important in organizational setting. While perception,

learning and motivation deal with some specific aspects of human behavior, personality takes the
whole man concept because it affects the various psychological processes.

Definition :

Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological system
that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.

Personality theories :

(i) Psychoanalytic
(ii) Socio ± psychological
(iii) Trait and
(iv) Self theories
Psychoanalytic theory :

Psychoanalytic theory is based on the notion that man is motivated more by unseen
forces than he is controlled by conscious and rational thought. This frame work contains three
aspects though inter related but often conflicting. These are ID, ego and super ego.

(i) The ID:

The ID is the source of psychic energy and seeks immediate gratification for
biological or instinctual needs.

(ii) The ego:

The ego is the conscious and logical part of the human personality and is
associated with the reality principle. ID wants immediate pleasure while ego dictates
denial or postponement to a more appropriate time.

(iii) The super ego:

The super ego represents social and personnel norms and serves as an ethical
constraint on behavior. The super ego provides norms to ego to determine what is
wrong or right.

Socio ± psychological theory :

Socio ± psychological personality theory recognizes. The inter dependence of the

individual and society. Socio ± psychological theory differs from psychoanalytic in two respects.

(i) Socio variables

(ii) Behavioural motivation in conscious.

Trait theory:

Trait factor theory represents a quantitative approach to the study of personality. This
theory postulates that an individual personality is composed of definite précis proportional
attributes called traits.
Determinants of personality :

Biological factors :

The general biological characteristics or human biological system influence the way
in which human being tends to sense external event data, interpret and respond to them.

(i) Hierarchy , (ii) Brain , (iii) Physical features.

Family and social factors :

Family and social groups have most significant impact of personality development.
These groups have their impact through socialization and identification process. (i) home
environment, (ii) family members, (iii) social graphs, (iv) real ± self.

Personality development :

Human personality development is a continuous process. It starts since the child is in

fetal stage. After birth, the child develops and leaves and this process continues throughout his
life.

(i) Freudian stage.

(ii) Neo ± Freudian stage ± Jrikson¶s psychological stage.

Freudian stage :

Personality develops as a result of interaction of four main sources of stress. These are
physical growth process, frustration, conflicts and threats.

(i) Oral stage:

Oral stage covers the period from birth to 18 months of age. This period may be
divided into two stages:- oral sucking and oral biting.

(ii) Anal stage :

This stage is from 18 months to 3 years. The child satisfies his sexual instinct by
releasing urine and fasces.
 (iii) Phallic stage:
This stage extends from 3 to 7 years. At this stage the child¶s learns to
discriminate genitals.

(iv) Latency stage :

This stage is from 7 to 12 years. At this stage the child¶s sexual instincts are
usually at sleep because of social fear.

(v) £enital stage :

This stage is from 12 to 20 years. The boys and girls see their genitals as their sex
organs grow.

Neo ± Freudian stage:

Modern psychological do not agree the over ± emphasis of sexual instincts as

determinants of personality development as identified by freud.

Jrikson¶s psychological factors:

(i) Oral sensory stage:

This is the stage of infancies and the child tries to resolve the crisis of trust versus
mistrust.

(ii) Mascular and anal stage:

This is the early childhood stage of the life in which the child develops the sense of
autonomy if his behavior is approved by the parents and other people.

(iii) Locomotors genital stage:

This is the play stage of the life and the child tries to resolve the crisis of initiative
versus guilt.
 (iv) Latency stage:
This is the school going stage of the life and the child tries to develop many new
skills and social abilities.

(v) Adolescence :
This is the teenage stage of the life and the adolescent person tries to gain a sense
of identity.

(vi) Jarly adulthood:

This is the stage of early 20¶s of the life in which the person tries to resolve the
crisis of intimacy versus isolation.

(vii) Young and middle adulthood :

This is the late 20¶s stage of the life in which the person tries to resolve the crisis
of generatively versus stagnation or self absorption.

(viii) Mature adulthood:

This is the 30¶s stage of the life in which the person faces the crisis of integrity
despair.

Self theory:

The psychoanalytic, socio ± psychological and trait theories of personality represent the mere
traditional approaches to explaining the complex human personality.

(i) Self image :

Self image is the way one sees oneself.
(ii) Ideal ± self
(iii) Looking glass self:
Looking glass self is predominantly a social product which emerges from face to
face interaction with others the very beginning of the life .
 (iv) Real self:
The first three aspect of self concept are the functions of individual perceptions and
they may be same or different as the real self.

Attitude :

Definition :

Attitude is the persistent tendency to feel and behave in a favourable or unfavourable way
towards some object person or ideas.

Features of attitude:

(i) Attitudes affect behavior of an individual by putting him ready to respond favourably
or unfavourably to things in his environment.
(ii) Attitudes are acquired through learning over the period of time. The process of
learning attitudes starts right from child hood and continuous throughout the life of a
person.
(iii) Attitude are invisible as they constitute a psychological phenomenon which cannot be
observed directly. They can be observed by observing the behavior of an individual.
(iv) Attitude are pervasive and every individual has some kind of attitudes toward the
objects in his environment. Infact attitudes are forced in the socialization process and
may relate to anything in the environment.

Various factors in attitude formation:

£roup factors:

The influence of group on the attitude of individuals is inversely proportional to the

distance of the group from the individual.

(i) Family :
The term family may be used in variety of ways it was include a nuclear family
which means the immediate group of father, mother and children an extended family
includes nuclear family and other relatives.
 (ii) Reference group :
The awareness and learning of behavior alternatives is accomplished
efficiently through the influence of reference groups.
(iii) Social factors :
The social classes have important influence on individual attitudes. They have
the important task of transmitting cultural behavior patterns to specific group and
families.

Personality factors:

Personality factors are important in attitude formation. However many personality

characteristics themselves are determined by group and social factors as discussed earlier.

Attitude measurement :

Attitudes are subjective attributes of people. They can be regarded as constraints in the
sense that they are conceptualizations of human qualities that are formed on the basis of either
rational consideration or statistical evidence.

Classification of methods of attitude measurement:

(i) Self report

(ii) Indirect tests
(iii) Direct observation
(iv) Psychological reaction techniques.

Attitude change:

There is often a paradox of attitudes in that people need them to provide stability to
social world yet world is a changing one and people must change their attitudes appropriate to
the situations.

Basic factors of attitude change:

(i) The characteristics of attitude.

(ii) The personality of attitude holder.
 (iii) The group affiliation of the attitude holder.

Characteristics of attitudes:

(i) Jxtremeness of the attitude.

(ii) Multi laxity
(iii) Consistency
(iv) Inter connectedness
(v) Consonance of the attitude cluster of which the focal attitude is a part.
(vi) The number and strength of the needs which are served by the attitude.
(vii) Centrality of related values.

Method or attitude change:

(i) Communication of additional information.

(ii) Approval and disapproval of a particular attitude.
(iii) £roup influence
(iv) Inducing engagement in discrepant behavior.

£roup dynamics:

Definition:

The social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group
dynamics.

£roup behavior:

A committee is created to solve the problems which are normally not to be solved by
individuals. The committee decides the matter through meetings. The term meetings refers to
group deliberation through which members are able to communicate face to face to each other.
Thus committee meeting is a type of group behavior.

£roup behavior can be analyzed as follows:

 (i) Chairman ± member relationship
(ii) Participation
(iii) £roup pressure
(iv) Decision process

Reason for use of committees:

(i) Poling of knowledge and experience

(ii) Facility for co-ordination
(iii) Representation of interested groups.
(iv) Fear of too much authority in a single.
(v) Consolidation of authority
(vi) Transmission and sharing of information.
(vii) Motivation through participation
(viii) A tool of management development
(ix) Avoidance of action.

Problems in group behavior (or) committee:

(i) High cost

(ii) Slow decision
(iii) Indecision
(iv) Minority tyranny
(v) Splitting of responsibility
(vi) Misuse of committees

£roup formation :

The first basic issue in analyzing informal organization is to identify the basic
logical behind the formation of informal groups as these are not created by the management of
the organization but emerge on their own.

Theories of group formation:

 (i) Propinquity theory:
Theory of propinquity states that individuals affiliate with one another because of
spatial or geographical, proximity thus in organizational context individuals working
together tend to form a group with others more easily as compared to with individuals
working relatively at a distant place.

Homan¶s interactions theory:

Harmon¶s theory is based on activities interaction and sentiments. All these elements are
directly related to one another.

Balance theory:

Balance theory of group formation propounded by new comb has suggested similarity of
attitude towards relevant objects and goals as the basic for group formation.

Jxchange theory:

Jxchange theory of group formation derives its clue from social exchange theory which
says that people involve in social exchange on the basis of perceived reward ± cost relationship
in a particular relationship.

£roup cohesiveness:

£roup cohesiveness means the degree of attachment of the members to their group. If
group cohesion is high the interaction between members of the group is high and the degree of
agreements in group opinion is high.

Features of group cohesiveness:

(i) The members share the group goals and norms and have common interest and
background.
(ii) The number of members is small.
(iii) The members interact among themselves quite frequently and inter personnel
communication is very effective.
(iv) £roup loyalty among the members is high because the group enjoys high status.
 (v) The members stand united against any perceived external threats to the group.
(vi) The members keep themselves glued to the group as they feel that their needs would
be satisfied by the group.
(vii) The group has a history of past success.

Factors affecting group cohesiveness:

(i) Degree of dependency on the group.

(ii) Size
(iii) Homogeneity and stable membership
(iv) Location of the group
(v) £roup status
(vi) £roup leadership
(vii) Outside pressure
(viii) Competitors

£roup decision ± making:

£roup decision making is an activities based on the old adage ³two heads are better than
one´

Decision making process:

(i) Specific objective

(ii) Problem identification
(a) Diagnosis
(b)Analysis
(iii) Search for alternatives
(iv) Jvaluation of alternatives
(v) Choice of alternatives
(a) Jxperience
(b)Jxperimentation
(c) Research and analysis
(vi) Action
 (vii) Results

Behavior in group decision making:

(i) Conformity to group norms

(ii) Influence processes
(iii) Role of leader
(iv) Useful behavior for consensus

Positives and negative respects:

£roup decision making positive aspects of group decision making:

(i) Pooling of knowledge and information

(ii) Satisfaction and commitment
(iii) Personnel development
(iv) More risk taking

Negative aspects of group decision making:

(i) Time consuming and costly

(ii) Individual domination
(iii) Problem of responsibility
(iv) £roup think

Nature of organizational change:

(i) When change occurs in any part of the organization, it disturb the old equilibrium
necessities the development of a new equilibrium. The type of new equilibrium
depends on the degree of change and its impact on the organization.
(ii) Any change may affect the whole organization. Some parts of the organization may
be affected more, other less some parts are affected directly, others indirectly.
(iii) Organizational change is a continuous process. However some changes which are a
minor type, may be absorbed by the existing equilibrium others which are major ones
may be require special change efforts.
Factors in organizational change:

Organizational changes are required to maintain equilibrium between various external and
internal forces to achieve organizational goals.

Jxternal factors:

(i) Technological changes:

When there is a change in technology in the organization environment and other
organization adopt the new technology, the organization under focus becomes less
cost effective and its competitive position weakness.
(ii) Changes in marketing conditions:
Since every organization experts its output to the environment, an organization has
to force competition in the market. There may be two types of forces which may
affect the competitive positions of an organization, other organization supplying the
same products and buyers who are buying the product.
(iii) Social changes:
Social changes reflect in terms of peoples aspirations their needs and their way of
working.
(iv) Political and legal changes:
Political and legal factors broadly define the activities which an organization can
undertake and the methods which will be followed by it in accomplishing those
activities.

Internal factors:

(i) Change in managerial personnel:

Besides environmental changes there is a change in managerial personnel old
manager are replaced by new manager which is necessitated because of retirement,
promotion, transfer or dismissal.
(ii) Deficiency in existing organization:
Some times changes are necessary because of deficiency in the present
organizational arrangement and process

 Unmanageable span of management

 Large number of managerial levels

 Lack in co-ordination between various departments.

 Obstacles in communication

 Multiplicity of committees

 Lack of uniformity in policy decision

 Lack of co-operation.
(iii) Chain effect of change.
(iv) Reactive and proactive change.
(v) Planned change.
(vi) Technology related changes.
(vii) Task related changes.
(viii) Structure related changes.
(ix) People related changes.

Resistance to change:

Resistance:

This is more general tendency and peoples initial reaction is that of resistance. This
appears to be natural phenomenon because each individual or group establishes an equilibrium
and tries to maintain that any change disturbs this equilibrium and therefore there is tendency to
resist the change. There are various factors which are responsible for this change and will be
discussed in the next section.

Kinds of changes:

(i) Changes in knowledge, information and techniques.

(ii) Changes in the scope of management
(iii) Changes in problems.
(iv) Changes in environment.

Resistance to change:
(i) organizational sources of resistance to change:

Types:
 (a) Fixed structure
(b)Narrow focus of change
(c) £roup interia
(d)Threatened enterprise
(e) Threatened power
(f) Resources allocation.

(ii) Individual sources of resistance to change:

(a) Habit
(b)Security
(c) Fear of the unknown
(d)Jconomic factors
(e) Lack of awareness
(f) Social factors
(g)Other reason:

 Less control

 £reater uncertainity

 Surprise about job

 Dissimilarity

 Loss of face

 Concern about future competence

 Serious effects

 More work

 Past complaints and resentments

 Real threat.

Overcoming resistance to change:

Meaning :

The secret to real success is effective management of the emotional vulnerability that
accompanies organizational change.
Types of overcoming resistance to change:

It can be handled at two levels

i) At the level of individual

ii) At the level of group

i) Individual level
(a) Involvement :
It is a process through which those who are affected by the change are brought
to understand the change. This is not a one ± time action, rather should be looked
upon as a dialogue which continues over a period of time.

(b)Obtaining commitment:

Commitment is an agreement to take an active part in the actual mechanics
of the change.

(c) Leadership:
The role of leadership in getting acceptance for a change is very important as
a capable leader reinforce a climate of psychological support for changes.

(d)Training and psychological counseling:

The management can change the basic values of the people by training and
psychological counseling. People should be educated to become familiar with
change its process and working.

£roup level:

i) £roup contact:
Any effort to change is likely to succeed if the group accepts that change.

Advantages:

 Through groups one can communicate with more people per unit of time.

 In group there may be some person who may to the same group.

 £roup can get at the basic problem very rapidly as compared to the single
individual.

ii) Participation :
Participation helps to give people involved in the organizational change a
feeling of importance. It makes people feel that the organization needs their
opinions and ideas and is unwilling to go ahead without taking them into account.
iii) £roup dynamics training for charge:
£roup dynamics also helps in providing various training programmes for
accepting and implementation change.

Counseling:

Definition:

T.W.Harrel:

Some advice given to labour process or problems analysis situation in no. of times and
problem analyzing own intension taking decision related to particular person.

Nature of counseling:

i) Jxchange discussion between two persons concept and intension.

ii) Solve the problems to employees.
iii) Single person problem, working problem inter related with counseling.
iv) Counseling analyzing for office related expert and office not related expert.
v) This matter kept at secret open talk and making counseling.

Importance of counseling or need:

i) Conflict
ii) Frustration
iii) Stress
Functions of counseling:

i) Advice
ii) Reassurance
iii) Communication
iv) Release of emotional tension
v) Clarified thinking
vi) Re-orientation

Types of counseling:

i) Non ± directive counseling

ii) Direct counseling
iii) Co-operative counseling

Functions of co-operative counseling:

i) Continuous eating through loss confidence

ii) Communication
iii) Release Stress
iv) Clear intension

Unit ± 4

Hawthorne experiments:

The real beginning of applied research in the area of organizational behavior started
with Hawthorne experiments. The findings of these studies were given a new name human
relations or human approach of organization in November 1924 a group of professors from
Harrar business school U.S.A began an enarvity into the human aspects of work and working
conditions at the Hawthorne plant of western electric company Chicago which was engaged in
producing bells and others electrical equipments for telephone industry.
These were as follows:

i) Illumination experiments (1924 ± 27) to find out the effect of illumination on worker
productivity.
ii) Relay assembly test room experiments (1927 ± 28) to find out effect of change in
working hours and other working conditions on productivity.
iii) Mass interviewing programme (1928 -30) to find out the worker attitude and
sentiments.
iv) Bank wiring observation room experiment (1931 ± 32) to find out social aspect of
work organization.

Conclusions and implications of Hawthorne experiments:

i) Social factors in output:

An organization is basically influenced by social factors. Jlton mayo has
described an organization as a social system, a system of diques informal status,
rituals and a mixture of logical, non ± logical and illegal behavior.
ii) £roups:
In the organization tend to create groups often workers tend to react as members
of groups and not a individuals. The group determines their norms of behavior.
iii) Leadership:
Leadership is important for directing group behavior. Leadership cannot come
from superiors only as held by scientific management approach. There may be
informal leadership as is clear by bank wiring experiments.
iv) Communication:
These experiments show that communication in the organization is very
important through communication workers can be explained why a particular course
of action is being taken participation of workers can be sought in decision making
process concerning the matters of their importance and problems faced by them and
their attitude opinions and methods as working mat be identified.
v) Conflict:
The conflict generates in the organization because of the creation of the groups
with conflicting objectives. Thus groups may be in conflict with organization though
 the creation of groups. Sometimes helps to achieve organizational objectives similarly
conflict may arise because of adjustment of individual and organization.
vi) Supervision:
The supervisory climate has also an important role to play in determining the
rate of output. The friendly to the workers attentive genuinely concerned supervision
affects the productivity favourably. For example. In the bank wiring room, an entirely
different supervisory climate existed.

Jvaluation of Hawthorne experiments:

The Hawthorne experiments opened a new frontier to the study of management which has
been followed by many behavioural scientists later on. About Hawthorne experiments Henry
lands Berger has observed that a most spectacular academic battle has raged. Since then or
perhaps it would be more accurate to say that a limited number of gunners has kept up a study
barrage reusing the same ammunition. The beleaguered may garrison however has continued its
existence behind the solid protection of factory walls.

Hawthorne experiments are not without criticisms. Certain criticisms or human relations
soon began to be aired after the experiments when human relation techniques were tested
experimentally it become clear that they by no means always have the desired effect on
procedures, analyses of findings and the conclusion drawn.

Power :

³power is the ability to influence flows of the available resources towards certain goals as
opposed to other goals power is assured to be exercised only when these goals are atleast
partially in conflict with each other.

Importance of power:

1. Necessity for co-ordinated activities:

Power is required in the organization for the effective performance of activities
of the people.
i) People become upset and insecure in the presence of chaos.
ii) Chaos precludes the synergistic benefits that are gained from effective organizations.

2. Basis for authority and responsibility:

Power is commonly recognized as the basis of authority and responsibility. In one
way authority can be viewed as one of the pre requesities of power.

Power relationship:

Resistance :

The target person or whom the power is exercised may resist the influence and may not
behave in accordance to influencer wishes. The attempt of influence may be rewarded by the
person.

Obedience:

The person may succumb to influence though he would rather not. When people are
forced to behave against their wishes it is referred to as obedience.

Compliance:

The person may comply with the desire of the influencer. Compliance refers to a persons
acceptance of influence because he is expected to be rewarded for responding to a request or
punished for not responding to it.

Conformity:

The person may conform to the influencer¶s desire conformity refers to acceptance of
influence because people desire to be in mainstream of social behavior. Often people who are
free to have in different ways will simply do what they see other doing.

Commitment:

The persons may show commitment to the desire of the influencer. This is the most
desirable outcome from the use of power as there is enthusiastic release of energy and talent to
satisfy the influencer¶s request.
Types of power: ( Based on sources of power)

Coercive power:

It power is defined as the power which resets upon the application or the threat of
application of physical sanctions.

Reward power:

Reward power is opposite of coercive influence. It is based on one¶s control and allocation
of material resources and rewards. This power is based on the old saying that ³wealth power´.

Legitiment power:

Legitiment power is based on agreement and commonly held values allowing one person to
have power over another person. Such legitimacy may be either formal as is the case with the
organization.

Referent power:

Referent power is based on identification. Identification is the process or learning where in

a person copies the behavior of other person whom he takes as an ideal.

Jxpert power:

Jxpert power is based on the famous proverb ³ knowledge is power´. Jxpert power is the
influence which one yields as a result of one¶s experience special skill or knowledge.

Power distribution organization:

³Managers and managed in organization at the same time come to influence each other
more effectively and thereby generate joint power as the outcome of a better command by the
organization over its technological, economic and human resources in the service of certain
objective´.

Factors in power distribution:

Organization as social entities participate in power distribution in teo ways.

Structural power:

Organization structured on hierarchical basis distributes power according to positions.

Role in the hierarchy provides some important power attributes the most significant being
legitimacy.

Functional power:

Organization through its assignment of functions has an important vehicle for allocating
its power resources. The allocations of functions largely depends upon specialization and
division of labour.

Difference of power among various units in an organization.

Concentration of power:

There is a school of thought which argues that power may concentrate in the hands of a
few inspite of the structural functional adjustment in the organization. It is claimed that a basic
dynamic of organization process is an inexorable passage of control into the hands of an elite, an
oligarchy.

Michel¶s bases his theory on two factors:

(i) The significance of organization size.

(ii)The clash of interest within any highly specialized organization.

Tatics of gain power:

(i) Creating and managing uncertainties.

(ii)Norm of reciprocity.
(iii)Identification with power centre.
(iv)Impression management
(v)Pressure building
(vi)Competition
(vii) Coalition
(viii) Co-optation
 Authority :

Concept:
The willing and unconditional compliance of people, resting upon their belief that
it is legitimate for superior to impose his will on them and illegitimate for them to refuse
to obey.

Definition:
Authority in the organization is the power in a position to exercise dis creation in
making decisions affecting others.

Features of authority:

(i) There is existence of right in authority. This right is given to a manager in an

organization by his superior.
(ii)The right of giving of order is legitimate.
(iii)Authority gives the right of decision making because a manager can give order only
when he decide what is to be or not to be done by his subordinates.
(iv)The basic objective behind the use of authority is to influence the behavior of the
subordinates in terms of doing right things at right time so that organization objectives
are achieved.
(v)Authority in itself is an objective thing but its exercise is always subjective.

Sources of Authority:

Formal authority theory:

The views of classical management theorist and those of maximization Weber on the nature
of authority have much in common.

Classical theory:

The classical theory holds that the authority inherent in a managerial position is archieved
by delegation from the higher position.
 Share holders

Board of directors

Chief executive

Department manager

Foreman

Workers.

Flow of formal authority:

Acceptance theory:

Authority is the character of a communication in a formal organization by virtue of which

it is accepted by a contributor to or a member of the organization as governing or determining
what he does or is not to do so for as the organization is concerned.

Competence theory:

In addition to formal and acceptance theories of the source of authority, there is a feeling
that authority is generated by personal competence Urwick identifies formal authority as being
conferred by organization ³ technical authority´ as being implicit in popularity.