Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Selection of Strains
For successful mushroom production, it is necessary for each grower to produce as economically and
efficiently as possible the highest quality of mushrooms. This can be accomplished among other
requirements, by selecting the best strains which should be high yielding , visually attractive, having
desirable flavour, and resistance to adverse climate and pests and diseases. Presently, there are many
strains of white, cream and brown varieties in cultivation. The brown variety is the natural mushroom and
considered to be the most vigorous form. It tolerates and adverse conditions better than the white variety.
A snow white mushroom first appeared amongst a bed of mushroom in the USA and ever since the
variety has dominated the mushroom industry throughout the world, although it has a very high limited
shelf-life. Where growing conditions tend to be on the dry side and humidity cannot be correctly controlled
the brown mushroom should be grown. New superior strains are through selection, hybridization and
induced mutations continually introduced by mushroom research laboratories and spawn makers. In
India, S 11, S 649 and S791 are the good strains available. These strains were originally introduced from
reowned commercial spawn makers, Somycel and darlington. Now these strains are well adapted in the
Indian climate and are very popular with the growers.
2. Maintenance of Strains.
Three methods are known by which strains can be propagate. these are multispore culture, tissue culture
and mycelium transfer. By periodic subculturing of the mycelium on a suitable agar medium, the span
strains can be kept for many years in a fairly good state. However, the frequent subculturing of the strain
may result in its degeneration. Maintenence of strain by multisporous culture is only possible if new
multispore cultures are compared with the original strain before the original multisporous culture would
show much genetic variation. In the tissue culture, small pieces of fruit bodies are cut under sterile
conditions and inoculated on a nutrient medium. Mycelium growing out of these tissue can provide the
starting point for subsequent spawn production. However, it is commonly observed that tissue cultures
often give lower yields than the original cultures. Of these 3 methods, mycelium transfer is most reliable
but it is essential that the performance of the mycelium is continually checked in order to detect any
degeneration-like slow-growing matted mycelium or fluffy mycelium with abnormal growth rate.
Spawn
The propogating material used by the mushroom growers for planting beds is called spawn. The spawn is
equivalent to vegetative seed of higher plant. Quality of spawn is basic for the successful mushroom
cultivation.
At present, the pure culture spawn has been the basis of modern spawn production units all over the
world. The manufacture of the pure culture spawn is done under scientifically controlled conditions which
demand a standard of hygiene as in a hospital operation theatre. Equipment and substrate used for
spawn are autoclaved and filtered air is passed during the inocluation ensures complete freedom from
contamination.
(a) Manure spawn
Both composted horse-dung or synthetic compost may be used. The composted manure is thoroughly
washed to remove such substance in compost which retard growth. The excess water is squeezed out
and moisture content adjusted to 60%. The manure is packed in half-litre milk bottles or heat-resistant
polypropylene bags os suitable size. The bottles or bags plugged with non-absorbant cotton-wool and
sterlized in an autoculave at 1210C for 2 hr or on 2 consecutive days for an hour each. They are then
inoculated with a large bit of agar-containing mycelium and incubated at 22 0-240C in a dark place. the
spawn can be used to inoculate fresh bottles or bags to obtain the second generation spawn.
(b) Grain spawn
Ten kilograms of wheat grains are boiled for 15 min in 15 litres of water and then allowed to soak for
another 15 min without heating. the excess water is drained off and the grains are colled in sieves. Turn
the grains several times with a spoon for quick cooling. The colled grains, are mixed with calcium
carbonate. the gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and 30 g fo calcium carbonate. The gypsum prevents the grains
from sticking together and calcium carbonate is necessary to correct the pH. the prepared grains are filled
into half-litre milk bottles or polypropylene bags (at the rate of 150-200 g per bottle or bag) and autocalved
for 2 hr at 1210C. After sterlization, the material should have a pH value of 6.5 to 6.7. the bottles are
inoculated with grains spawn or with bits of agar medium colonized with mycelium and incubated at 22 0-
240C in a dark place. the mycelium completely permeates the grains in about 2 weeks. Other grains like
sorghum and pearlmillet can also be used for spawn making.
(c)Perlite spawn
This was developed by Lemke (1971). Perlite is a mineral which expands at temperature more than
10000C. The ingredients, of the spawn are : Perlite (1,450 g), wheat-bran (1,650 g), gypsum (200 g),
calcium carbonate (50 g), and water (665 cc). The gredients are mixed, filled in bottles and sterlized.
Thereafter, the process is the same as for grain spawn. Perlite spawn is easy to disperse and can be
produced at a cheaper cost. This spawn can be stored for a long time.
4. Compost
The white-button mushroom is grown on a select substrate which provides adequate levels of nutrients to
support the crop so that it can successfully complete with other microorganisms. Traditionally, partially-
decomposed horse-manure has been the principal medium for providing the required nutrients in artificial
cultivation of the mushroom and it is only in recent times that other materials have also been used
successfully.
(a) Materials and their functions
(i) Base materials. These includes wheat straw, maize cobs and other similar cellulosic plant wastes with
or without horse-manure. Conventionally wheat straw either alone or mixed with horse-manure is the
most widely used base material. When wheat straw is not available, straws of the other cereals, like rice
of barely may be used. the chief function is to provide cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in bulk. These
materials also provide proper physical structure to the mixture to ensure the necessary aeration for the
build up of microbial population and the subsequent spawn growth in the compost. Rice and barley straws
are quite soft and decompose quickly, leaving only a little fibre for imparting a proper physical structure to
the compost. Therefore the types and quantity of supplement should be discretely utilized at the proper
time.
(ii) Supplements. These are for activating fermentation and can be categorised as :
Animal dungs. These include horse- and chicken-manure, the extremely variable manures in composition.
Nitrogen cantent may vary from 1 to almost 5% . In addition to nutrients, they contribute greatly to the final
bulk density of the compost. cow manure is not considered suitable.
Carbohydrate nutrients. From molasses, wet brewers' grain and malt sprouts, carbohydrates are readily
available.
Concentration meals. These materials are usually used for animal feeds and include wheat or rice bran,
dried brewer's grain, the seed meals of cotton, soya, castor and linseed. In these, both nitrogen and
carbohydrate are available rather slowly. Nitrogen content may vary from 3-12%. The oil and mineral
content of some of these may be significance in mushroom nutrition.
Nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrogen in chemical fertilizers (ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate and
urea) is rapidly released for the quick growth of microbial population.
Materials to correct mineral deficiencies. These are muriate of potash and calcium superphosphate.
Materials to correct greasiness. Gypsum and calcium carbonate serve to precipitate suspended colloidal
materials and neutralize greasiness.
The choice of materials within each category is largely determined by cost-factors and their availability
locally. Compost prepared from horse-dung mixed with straw are termed as 'natural', whereas they are
called synthetic if the base material is used is mainly straw without bulk animal-manure.
(b)Wheat straw
Straw protected from rain is preferred. One year old straw which is no longer bright yellow and shiny, can
be used only if it is tough. Full-length straw must be chopped to smaller size, about 8-10cm length, or else
the heap would be less compact. Such a heap would not be able to retain moisture and termentation
would be slower. The reverse, if the straw is too short, the heap would be compact and with very little air
space inside allowing anaerobic fermentation. Straw, as is sold in the market for cattle feed is quite
suitable. Composting is a microbial process requiring biological changes in all parts of the straw tissues
and for this, it is essential that the straw tissue be accessible to the appropriate bacteria and fungal
enzymes. Microbial action starts as soon as the straw is wetted and stacked in a heap. If the straw is
short, fragile and damp, all parts of it will become exposed to microorganisms in a short time ans
composting will start early and proceed fairly uniformly. If the straw is long, tough and dry, cut ends and
few broken points may start microbial activity, leaving other parts untouched until later, to result in uneven
composting. To include speed and uniformly, it needs much more mechanical breakage and wetting
treatment at the beginning of the preparation.
Horse-manure
Stable manure with wheat, barley and hay-bedding must be collected regularly from the stables at
intervals not more than a fortnight. Manure that has been collected over a long period of time will not
ferment properly. It should be an even mixture of droppings and straw well-soaked in urine. Care should
be taken that there is no admixture of manure of other animals, garbage or other trash. There should not
be excess water because very wet manure cannot be stored satisfactory.
Composting theory
Composting for mushroom cultivation has 3 basic purposes :
(i) it transforms the horse-manure and straw into the substrate more suitable for the growth of Agaricus
bisporus mycelium than for the many microorganisms whose presence in such a substratum cannot be
avoided;
(ii) to create a favourable medium for the unfavourable microbial flora which does not inhibit the growth of
A. bisporus. Protein in the countless dead bacteria and other microorganisms is a vital item in mushroom
nutrition; and
(iii) its fermentation temperature is high enough to eliminate most harmful pests and diseases.
Composting is accomplished by pilling up wetted inputs in the heap. When this is done properly the
temperature inside the heap begins to rise due to the aerobic fermentation brought about by bacteria and
other microorganisms. It is not unusual to reach a temperature of 70 0-740C, in the center of the heap on
the third of composting. Because of the high temperatures which build up in composting heaps,
thermophillic and the thermotolerant organisms quickly dominate over the mesophiles. In the early stages,
the natural mesophile flora subside but the population of the thermophiles and thermotolerants increases.
Bacterial population dominates and their rapid increase in numbers coincides with maximum heat
generation--consequently, the temperature build up. This is followed by a relatively prolonged stage
dominated by thermophiles mainly thermophilic actinomycetes. As the fermenting organisms require both
water and oxygen, the heap is watered frequently and aerated by 'turning'. If there is unsufficient
moisture, the microorganisms require cannot function properly. If there is an excess of moisture much
oxygen is excluded and anaerobic fermentation sets in resulting in a soggy and stinking compost. In such
a compost mushroom spawn will not grow.
During composting, ammonia gas is liberated and some of it is lost to atmosphere, but some is consumed
by bacteria to produce nitrogenous intermediates which are eventually converted into protein by another
kind of bacteria. Composting more than necessary results in loss of valuable nitrogen and cellulose.
(e) Formulations
There is no standard pattern in the compost fromulations. However, 3 basic formulations for preparing
compost are in use. The horsedung compost is all horse-manure. Synthetic compost is mainly a
combination of straw, carbohydrate source (wheat bran), chicken litter and chemical fertilizer. The main
objective of computing the formulation being to achieve some of the balance between carbon and
nitrogen. The nitrogen level of compost at stacking is adjusted to 1.5% of the dry matter and the carbon-
nitrogen ratio at the same time is 25-30 : 1. the compost should have 2.0-2.3% N at the completion of the
process, which corresponds to 17:1, C-N ratio.
There are so many variations in compost formulations. The basis of primarily the cost of availability of the
ingredients and suitable supplements in the particular growing states. Some recommended formulae are :
(i) Natural compost
Basic formula (IARI)
(in kg)
Horsedung 1,000
Wheat straw (chopped) 350
Urea 3
Gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) 30-40
Urea can be replaced with 100 to 110 kg of poultry manure Hayes and Randle (1969) recommended :
(in kg)
Horsedung 1,016
Chicken manure 101.6
Molasses 38.1
Cotton-seed meal 15.24
Gypsum 15
(in kg)
Wheat straw (chopped) 1,000
Wheat bran 80
Urea 10
Ammonium sulphate or calcium ammoinum nitrate 10
Gypsum 40-50
(in kg)
Hay or Wheat straw 68
Corn cobs (crushed) 68
Brewer's grain 13.6
Poultry manure 11.33
Urea 1.18
Potash 1.63
Gypsum 4.5
(in kg)
Rice straw 1,000
Urea 5
Calcium cyanide 10
Ammonium sulphate 13
Calcium carbonate 25
Calcium superphosphate 30
(in kg)
Rice straw 1,000
Chicken manure 100
Urea 12-15
Gypsum 20
Formulated by Ho (1978) in Taiwan
(in kg)
Rice straw 1,000
Ammonium sulphate 18
Urea 4.50
Calcium superphosphate 18
Calcium carbonate 27
Nitrogeneous supplements and carbohydrates are mixed on day zero. Gypsum is usually mixed at the
third and forth turning in quantities. During the final turning, 40 ml Malathion diluted in 20 litres of water is
sprinkled. any other available insecticide, like DDT, BHC or Lindane can also be used. The above
schedule has been worked out on the basis of author's experience and can be altered if the conditions
within the heap so require. The guiding principle is that the heap should be opened when the temperature
within rises no further. For horsedung manure, the final turning is given is given on day rather than on day
20.
(i) Composting by short method
The method which was developed by Sinden and Hauser (1950) constitutes a general advance in
controlled composting. The short method consists of two phases : phase I and phase II. The procedure
for phase I is similar to the initial stages of the long method except, thatturnings are given sooner, the first
on day 3, the second on day 6 and the third day on 9 or 10 when gypsum is added. The compost is now
ready for the phase II or the peak heating.This is recognised as the microbial-composting stage and is an
integral part of the total composting process. One aspect of the phase II is to promote such conditions in
which the pasteurization of the compost. BY heating the compost and the surrounding air, for a brief
periodof temperatures of about 600C, virtually all important parasites and pathogens can be eliminated.
The culture of mushroom is gaining popularity in the Philippines.
Mushroom is a delicacy and is really accepted as vegetable. Its present
cultivation in this country is limited, perhaps due to insufficiency of
planting materials and the limited local knowledge about its culture.
Mushroom growing requires little space and time and farmers can make
use of their rice straws following harvesting. Mushroom can be grown the
whole year round provided a good storage of rice straw is prepared.
Dry rice straws and banana leaves are the most common types of
bleeding materials. However, other materials like cotton wastes, jute
sacks, corn stalks, water hyacinth, sugar baggasse and abaca waste
materials may also be used for bedding materials.
Sufficient water supply and soaking tank or any similar container are
used. Plastic sheet of gauge No.6, empty cement bags and sacks are
used to cover the beds.
Procedures
1. Gather long, clean and well dried rice straws and banana leaves,
preferably those that are still standing in the field. Avoid using old
and contaminated bedding materials.
Harvesting
Details
Continent Size:
17,819,000 sq km
6,879,000 sq miles
Population:
Highest Point:
Four FAO major fishing areas account for more than 10 percent each and
collectively produced about 66 percent of the world marine catches in 2006.
The Northwest Pacific is the most productive, with a total catch of 21.6
million tonnes (26 percent of total marine catches), followed by the Southeast
Pacific, with a total catch of 12.0 million tonnes (15 percent), the Western
Central Pacific with 11.2 million tonnes (14 percent) and the Northeast
Atlantic, with 9.1 million tonnes (11 percent).
In the Northwest Pacific, small pelagics are the most abundant category, with
the Japanese anchovy providing large catches, although there were signs of
decline in 2005 and 2006 as compared with catches of more than 2
million tonnes in 2003. Other important contributors to the total catch are
the largehead hairtail, considered overexploited, and the Alaska pollock and
chub mackerel, both considered fully exploited.Squids, cuttlefish and
octopuses are important species yielding 1.4 million tonnes.
The Western Central Pacific is the most productive fishing area of the tropical
regions, with total catches up about 3 percent on 2004. Tunas and tuna-
like species make up about 24 percent of the total for this fishing area, with
most species assessed as either fully exploited or moderately to fully exploited.
The status of other species groups is highly uncertain. This region is highly
diverse, its fisheries are mostly multispecies, and detailed data for reliable
assessments are usually not available for most stocks. Analysis of survey
information for some countries in the region (Malaysia, the Philippines,
Thailand and Viet Nam) have shown considerable degradation and overfishing
of coastal stocks, most dramatically in the Gulf of Thailand and along the east
coast of Malaysia.
A record high has been reached in total landings in the Eastern Indian Ocean,
with a total of 5.8 million tonnes, a 5-percent increase compared with 2004.
The category “marine fishes non-identified”, representing 50 percent of the total
catches in the area, accounts for most of this increase. “Miscellaneous pelagic
fishes” (including Indian mackerels and various carangids) made up 11 percent
of the catches and “miscellaneous coastal fishes” (croakers, ponyfishes, sea
catfishes, etc.) 10 percent. Tuna catches in 2006 were slightly below the six-
year (2000–05) average of 450 000 tonnes. While catches of most groups show
either a rising trend or are fluctuating slightly with no clear trend, there are
indications that parts of this fishing area could be overfished, with the
situation being aggravated by increasing stress from pollution, sedimentation,
modified river runoffs and intensive coastal aquaculture.
There have been several changes in the status of the stocks in the Southeast
Atlantic since the last full assessment made in 2004. The
important hake resources remain fully exploited to overexploited although
there are signs of some recovery in the deepwater hake stock (Merluccius
paradoxus) off South Africa. The status of the coastal fishes remains fully
exploited or depleted. A significant change concerns the Southern African
pilchard, which was at a very high biomass and estimated to be fully exploited
in 2004, but which now, under unfavourable environmental conditions, has
declined considerably in abundance and is overexploited throughout the
region. In contrast, the status of Southern African anchovy has improved from
fully exploited to fully to moderately exploited, and Whitehead’s
round herring is underexploited to moderately exploited. The condition of Cape
horse mackerel has deteriorated, particularly off Namibia, where it is currently
overexploited. The condition of the Perlemoen abalone stock has deteriorated,
driven heavily by illegal fishing, and it is currently overfished and probably
depleted.
The growing exports of the last few years reflect the increase in consumption of
fish and fishery products not only in the EU and the United States of America
but in many other regions of the world, including Asia (with the notable
exception of Japan). Furthermore, progress in processing, packaging, handling
and transportation has enabled more rapid and efficient trade. Rising trade
quantities (except for fishmeal) and values reflect the increasing globalization of
the fisheries value chain, with the outsourcing of processing to other countries.
At the same time, the growth of international and global distribution channels
through large retailers has furthered this development.
Table 8 shows the top ten exporters and importers of fish and fishery products
in 1996 and 2006. Since 2002, China has been the world’s largest exporter of
fish and fishery products. In the last few years, it has further consolidated its
leading position. In 2006, its exports reached US$9.0 billion, and they grew
further to US$9.3 billion in 2007. Despite this, fishery exports represented only
1 percent of its total merchandise exports in 2006 and 2007. China’s fishery
exports have increased remarkably since the early 1990s. This increase is
linked to its growing fishery production, as well as the expansion of its fish-
processing industry, reflecting competitive labour and production costs. In
addition to exports from domestic fisheries production, China also exports
reprocessed imported raw material, adding considerable value in the process.
China has experienced a significant increase in its fishery imports in the past
decade. In 2006, it was the sixth-largest importer with US$4.1 billion, and
imports reached US$4.5 billion in 2007. This growth has been particularly
noticeable since the country’s accession to the WTO in late 2001, as a
consequence of which it lowered import duties, including those on fish and
fishery products. The growth in imports is partly a result of the above-
mentioned imports by China’s processors of raw material for reprocessing and
export. However, it also reflects China’s growing domestic consumption
ofspecies, mainly of high value, that are not available from local sources.
<-- Back to Level 1
Level 2 Questions
Top
Level 1: Summary
Level 2: Source
About
Links
Glossary
Next Sub-Question
Fishery net exports (i.e. the total value of their exports less the total value of
their imports) continue to be of vital importance to the economies of many
developing countries (Figure 32). They have increased significantly in recent
decades, growing from US$1.8 billion in 1976 to US$7.2 billion in 1984, to
US$16.7 billion in 1996 and reaching US$24.6 billion in 2006. The low-income
food-deficit countries (LIFDCs) play an active and growing role in the trade in
fish and fishery products. In 1976, their exports accounted for 10 percent of
the total value of fishery exports. This share expanded to 12 percent in 1986,
17 percent in 1996 and 20 percent in 2006, when their fishery exports were
US$17.2billion and their fishery net export revenues were an estimated
US$10.7 billion.
Not only is the emerging dominance of large retail and restaurant chains in
seafood distribution and sales shifting negotiating power towards the final
stages in the value chain, retailers are also increasingly imposing private- or
market-based standards and labels on developing- country exports. This is
making it more difficult for small-scale fish producers to enter international
markets and distribution channels.
<-- Back to Level 1
Level 2 Questions
Top
Level 1: Summary
Level 2: Source
About
Links
Glossary
Next Question
Commodities
Exports of frozen fish have increased in the past decade, from 31 percent of the
total quantity of fish exports in 1996 to 39 percent in 2006. Exports of
prepared and preserved fish totalled 9.3 million tonnes (live weight equivalent)
in 2006, representing17 percent of total exports (10 percent in 1996). Exports
of curedfish accounted for 5 percent of total exports in 2006, remaining rather
stable in the last decade. In 2006, exports of non-food fishery products
represented 29 percent of total fish exports in terms of quantity, a large
proportion of which originated from South American countries.
20
Cod and related species.
5.3.1 Shrimp
5.3.2 Salmon
The share of salmon (including trout) in world trade has increased strongly in
recent decades and now stands at 11 percent. This has been driven mainly by
the strong growth in salmon and trout aquaculture in Northern Europe and in
North and South America. Prices have oscillated in line with sudden shifts in
supply, reaching record levels in 2006 but returning to more normal levels in
2007 and 2008. Industry concentration is enabling producers to benefit from
economies of scale, in particular in the use of feed, but also in the handling of
disease, a problem that has affected some of the larger companies. Demand for
farmed salmon is firm, increasing steadily year by year, with new markets
opening up in both developed, transition and developing countries. The
increase in demand for farmed salmon is facilitated by the expansion of
modern retail channels and the steady availability of product throughout the
year.
Groundfish prices
5.3.3 Groundfish
Tuna prices
5.3.4 Tuna
The share of tuna in total fish exports in 2006 was 8 percent. Tuna markets
were rather unstable owing to large fluctuations in catch levels, and they
declined in 2007. The main reason for this decline was the increased fuel price,
which made long fishing trips uneconomical for the world tuna fleet. Prices
increased in all main markets (Figure 37), and canned tuna prices soared for
the first time in 20 years. Japan, the largest market for imported tuna, saw
falling quantities in all categories. Import tariffs on tuna remain an important
issue for both importers and exporters, as does the impact of preferential
access for products from specific countries.
Source & ©: FAO Fisheries – The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture,
2008
PART 1:World review of fisheries and aquaculture, Fish trade, p. 56-57
Tuna prices
5.3.5 Cephalopods
The share of cephalopods in world trade in fish was 4.2 percent in 2006.
Thailand is the largest exporter of squid and cuttlefish, followed by Spain,
China and Argentina. Morocco is the principal octopus exporter. Spain, Italy
and Japan are the largest importers of this species. Total annual catches of
cephalopods are fairly stable at about 3.6–3.8 million tonnes. Squid prices
plummeted in 2007 as traders in Argentina sold at prices much below those of
the previous season. On the other hand, octopus production and trade
declined in 2007 as a result of limited catches by the Mauritanian fleet.
...
vivek e s <vivu619@gmail.com>
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
St. Kitts & Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent &
the Grenadines
Trinidad & Tobago
United States
North America,
the planet’s 3rd largest continent, includes (23)
countries and dozens of possessions and territories. It
contains all Caribbean and Central America countries,
Canada, Mexico, the United States of America, as well as
Greenland - the world’s largest island.
Oceanic production
The factors limiting primary production in the ocean are also very different
from those on land. The availability of water, obviously, is not an issue (though
its salinity can be). Similarly, temperature, while affecting metabolic rates
(see Q10), ranges less widely in the ocean than on land because theheat
capacity of seawater buffers temperature changes, and the formation of sea
ice insulates it at lower temperatures. However, the availability of light, the
source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks
for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the
ocean.
[edit] Light
The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone). This is
a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is
sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur. For practical purposes, the
thickness of the photic zone is typically defined by the depth at which light
reaches 1% of its surface value. Light is attenuated down the water column by
its absorption orscattering by the water itself, and by dissolved or particulate
material within it (including phytoplankton).
Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's
surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales. The most
characteristic of these is the seasonal cycle(caused by the consequences of the
Earth's axial tilt), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong spatial
components. Consequently, primary production in temperate regions such as
theNorth Atlantic is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the
water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in
winter). In tropical regions, such as the gyres in the middle of the
major basins, light may only vary slightly across the year, and mixing may only
occur episodically, such as during large storms or hurricanes.