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› is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g.,
a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted
to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non-crystalline glasses.

The earliest ceramics were pottery objects made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other
materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth
surface. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the
20th century, new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for
example, in semiconductors.

The word ceramic comes from the Greek word "țİȡĮȝȚțȩȢ" (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for
pottery",from "țȑȡĮȝȠȢ" (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery". The earliest mention on the root
"ceram-" is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, "workers of ceramics", written in Linear b syllabic
script. Ceramic may be used as an adjective describing a material, product or process; or as a
singular noun, or, more commonly, as a plural noun, ceramics.

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-A ceramics is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material.Examples of such

materials can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay (a complex silicate)

-By this definition,ceramics materials would also include glasses; however many materials scientists
add the stipulation that ³ceramics´ must also be crystalline.

  
 

- Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low
density , high strength, stiifness, hardness, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

-Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators.

-Some ceramics have special properties: some ceremics are magnetic; some are piezoelectrical
materials; and a few special ceramics are superconductors at very low temperature.

-Ceramics have one major drawback: they are brittle. 

 
 

- Ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives. the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for
much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it
on a hard surface.
- Ceramics are increasingly used in motor sports, where a series of durable and lightweight
insulatory coatings have become necessary, for example on ceramic disk brakes.

- eramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel
large-calibre rifle fire. such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts (sapi).
similar material is used to protect cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of
the material.

- owever, people¶s demands for microelectronics and structural composite compounds have
created a \high demand for ceramics.

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·rtech has a wide range of Technical Ceramics Materials to offer. Each one with its own unique
characteristics designed to meet the requirements of many diverse applications. Some of the more
widely used materials are described below.
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Alumina Ceramics is the most widely used advanced ceramic material. It offers very good
performance in terms of wear resistance, corrosion resistance and strength at a reasonable
price. Its high dielectric properties are beneficial in electronic products.

Applications include armor, semiconductor processing equipment parts, faucet disc valves, seals,
electronic substrates and industrial machine components.

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Zirconia oxide has the highest strength and toughness at room temperature of all the advanced
ceramic materials. The fine grain size allows for extremely smooth surfaces and sharp edges.

Applications include scissors, knifes, slitters, pump shafts, metal-forming tools, fixtures, tweezers,
wire drawing rings, bearing sleeves and valves.

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Single crystal sapphire offers superior mechanical properties and chemical stability coupled with
light transmission.

Applications include GaAs carrier plates, P·S scanner window, microwave plasma tubes and
windows, fixtures for high temperature equipment and blue LED.

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Silicon carbide has the highest corrosion resistance of all the advanced ceramic materials. It also
retains its strength at temperatures as high as 1400°C and offers excellent wear resistance and
thermal shock resistance.

Applications include armor, mechanical seals, nozzles, silicon wafer polishing plates and pump
parts.

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Silicon nitride exceeds other ceramic materials in thermal shock resistance. It also offers an
excellent combination of low density, high strength, low thermal expansion and good corrosion
resistance and fracture toughness.
Applications include various aerospace and automotive engine components, papermaking machine
wear surfaces, armor, burner nozzles and molten metal processing parts{ 

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Macor ® Machinable Glass Ceramic

Macor® is a machinable glass ceramic material that posses outstanding engineering
properties. Unlike other ceramics, Macor can be machined with ordinary metalworking tools.

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Steatite has a very high mechanical strength and dielectrical properties. The outstanding feature of
special steatite is ?
 


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4-40 2.4 4,400 1,600
6-32 3.3 5,000 1,600
8-32 7.4 7,000 1,600
10-32 11.7 8,000 1,600
1/4-20 14.6 8,000 1,600



   
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Composition by weight 99.8% Al2·3 5.4% Y2·3
Density gm/cm 3.89 6.0
Porosity (volume %) Impervious Impervious
Color Ivory ·ff-white
ardness (GPa *noop) 11.1 11.7

our-point bend strength (M·R) (MPa) 330 760
(psi) 48,000 110,000
Maximum temperature (°C) 1,650 2,200
Thermal expansion coefficient (from 25 to 700°C) (1/ °C) 7.5 X 10-6 11.2 X 10-6
Thermal conductivity (@20°C) (W/m°*) 35 2

((Btu in.)/(ft2 hr ° )) 242 14
Dielectric strength (V/mil) 200 51
Dielectric constant (@1 M z and 20°C) 10.0 28
Volume resistivity: -cm @ 25°C Greater than 10-14 Greater than10-13
-cm @ 300°C 2.5 X 10-11 N/A
-cm @ 500°C 5.5 X 10-8 4.8 X 10-3
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Back in the late 1980s, I had my company make a couple hundred ceramic hex -headed nuts and bolts
Sizes 2-56 and 1/4-20 out of alumina to use as promotional giveaways at the National Design Show
in Chicago. Despite a nice booth showcasing the company's ability to form complex ceramic parts
with tight tolerances, many of the engineers seemed more interested in the ceramic nuts and bolts.
They wanted to know their properties, what other designers were using them for, and what was their
availability.

Since then, that trade-show gimmick has grown into a three-catalog line of alumina and zirconia
fasteners ranging from 1 /4-20 to 0-80, and up to 3-in. long. We also manufacture metric fasteners
for European markets (2 to 6 mm and up to 75-mm long). So it seems there is a definite market for
re-liable fasteners that are electrically
 nonconductive, nonmagnetic, and capable of withstanding
temperatures to 1,600°C (2,900° ).

’
’      
 

Many engineers are inclined to reject the idea of ceramic fasteners on the grounds that they must be
impossible to torque and, therefore, impossible to install. Ceramics do have little resistance to
torque, and they do not degrade or break down gracefully. ·vertorque them by just a hair, drop
them, or strike an installed nut with a hammer, and they shatter. And if even a small fracture starts,
you can be sure the fastener will soon be in pieces. But this just makes alumina and zirconia
fasteners tricky to install, not impossible.

Alumina and zirconia also have lower coefficients of thermal expansion than do metals. And with
engineers mixing and matching, using ceramic nuts on metal bolts and vice versa, they must take
into account operating temperatures and thermal expansion. So if you plan to use an alumina nut on
a threaded, metal rod, be aware it could split if the metal expands more than the alumina at higher
temperatures.

What overcomes engineers' reluctance to use such brittle materials for nuts and screws is usually a
challenging project. They have to attach a critical component to a device or another component, but
the fastener can't conduct electricity and provide a path for a short circuit. ·r the nuts and bolts
must ignore high magnetic fields in an MRI machine, for example, where magnetic fields could push
and pull metal fasteners.

Ceramics are also inert and practically immune to corrosion. The only acid that affects them, for
example, is hydrofluoric acid. This lets them be used in plating operations. Ceramics also don't
outgas and are impervious even in helium atmospheres, so  ceramic fasteners can be used in vacuum
environments. And although fasteners made of nylon, PT E, Delrin, or PEE* might do the job, they
will 
fail if the device is expected
 to operate at relatively
 modestly elevated temperatures, (above
480° for PEE*, above 180° for Delrin, and above 150° for nylon, for example).

´
  ´     
’ 

In general, ceramics encompass all materials that are neither organic or metals. The four basic
classes include oxides (Mg·, Al2·3, and mullite), nonoxides (carbides, nitrides, and several
combinations
 of C, Si, and N), glasses (Si·2 and B2·3), and various salts (chlorides, sulfates, and
nitrates). or now, however, commercial fasteners are only made out of alumina (Al2·3, which is
also known as corundum or polycrystalline sapphire) and zirconia (Zr·2).

We manufacture ceramic fasteners using a proprietary low-pressure (100-psi or less) injection-

molding technique. ·ther manufacturers use high-pressure molding to make ceramic fasteners. They
typically mix ceramic powder with a polymer binder, which makes a feedstock flexible enough to be
injected in molds at pressures up to 5,000 psi. They use a minimum amount of binder because of the
difficulty removing it after the part has been formed in the mold. As a result, the feed-stock is stiff,
and it takes high pressures to push it into the mold's nooks and crannies.

The downside of this approach is that high-pressure equipment is more expensive and the feed-stock
of powder and binder is abrasive enough to erode expensive carbide tooling, wearing them out
quickly. The high pressures also create density variations in the part, with lower densities in sections
farthest from the injectionmolding gates. This, in turn, creates parts that do not shrink uniformly
when fired as denser sections shrink less. Therefore, molds must be adjusted to compensate for the
shrinkage variations, making tooling even more expensive.

We use a specially formulated wax as a binder with alumina powders that have a median grain size
of 0.8 m. The mixture, which is 85% solids by weight, gets heated to 200° , turning it into a
homogenous paste with a taffy-like consistency. A vacuum pulls out most air bubbles, leaving just the
feedstock, which is placed in our proprietary molding machines. There, low-pressure air forces it
into an aluminum (6016) mold without compacting the mixture. These molds are a magnitude less
expensive than carbide molds. And low pressures do not compact the feedstock appreciably, so there
are no density variations in "green" parts. This means fired parts shrink uniformly when fired and
there is no need to adjust molds.

A dewaxing process ² sorry, trade secret ² removes most of the wax and opens the material's
porosity. We burn the rest of the wax out, then fire the part to 1,650°C, sintering it. The uniform
density leads to uniform shrinkage in all dimensions.

Between removing the binder and sintering, alumina parts shrink 16% (linear) in size; while zirconia
parts shrink 23% (linear). With proper controls and planning, we mold fasteners with dimensional

tolerances of ±1%. or example, to make sure our ceramic bolts work with any Class 2 thread, we
make the pitch diameter of the threads 0.001 to 0.0015 below the Class 2's minimum-allowable
diameter. This way, even though the pitch diameter on the threads are designed slightly smaller than
on a normal Class 2 bolt, they still work with any Class 2 thread. Similarly, we ensure the pitch
diameter on our ceramic nuts are a little larger than normal so they work with regular Class 2 bolts.

The limitation of this approach is tolerance stack up. To avoid this problem, we recommend
engineers never have designs that have the bolt engage more than five or six threads at once.

Injection molding makes it easy for us to put different heads on the fasteners by just changing molds.
Machining a hex socket or Torx head into a finished bolt would be totally impractical. It is also
impossible to machine internal threads on inserts or onto parts. (Machining alumina requires
diamond tooling, and it is actually a grinding process. And there is no such thing as a diamond tap
for internal threading.) But with molding, we just make a mandrel of the thread type with the proper
shrink factor and insert it in the mold to create internal threads.

The bolts don't need any secondary machining after sintering. And a 1/4-20 bolt will have 8,000 psi
of tensile strength, making them stronger than plastics, but not as strong as metals. They can
withstand 14 lb-in. of torque, are reusable, and will survive temperatures to 1,650°C. The fasteners
are nonconductive, non-magnetic, and relatively lightweight, having a density of about 4 gm/cm 3 ,
about half that of steel.

In the future, it's possible we will be adding carbon nanotubes into the ceramic powders and binders
before forming ceramic parts, including fasteners. This could strengthen the fasteners, make them
more resistant to impacts, and capable of handling more torque.





In this project report we conclude that, ceramic is very useful for our day to day life.
Ceramics are used in very kind of purpose like pottery, manufacturing of machine
tools,also as a semiconductors in electric purpose and ceramics is mostly used in
industries.


!2Î  
www.wikipedia.com , www.amazon.com ,and from meachanical engineering materials book.

(3 semister)


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