What is Wireless Computer Networking?

Answer: Wireless networks utilize radio waves and/or

microwaves to maintain communication channels between
computers. Wireless networking is a more modern
alternative to wired networking that relies on copper and/or
fiber optic cabling between network devices.

A wireless network offers advantages and disadvantages

compared to a wired network. Advantages of wireless
include mobility and elimination of unsightly cables.
Disadvantages of wireless include the potential for radio
interference due to weather, other wireless devices, or
obstructions like walls.

Wireless is rapidly gaining in popularity for both home and

business networking. Wireless technology continues to
improve, and the cost of wireless products continues to
decrease. Popular wireless local area networking (WLAN)
products conform to the 802.11 "Wi-Fi" standards. The gear
a person needs to build wireless networks includes network
adapters (NICs), access points (APs), and routers.

What Is a Computer Operating System?

Computers use low-level software called an operating

system (O/S) to help people build and run their own
programs. Operating system software runs not just on laptop
computers but also on cell phones, network routers and
other so-called embedded devices.

Types of Operating Systems

The best-known operating systems are those used on
personal computers:
• Microsoft Windows
• Mac OS X
• Linux
Some operating systems are designed for certain types of
equipment, such as
• Google Android (a variant of Linux), and Symbian - for
cell phones
• Solaris, HP-UX, DG-UX, and other variants of Unix - for
server computers
• DEC VMS (Virtual Memory System) - for mainframe
computers
Other operating systems enjoyed a period of notoriety but
are of only historical interest now:
• Novell Netware was a popular O/S for PCs in the 1990s
• IBM OS/2 was an early PC O/S that competed with
Microsoft Windows for a time but had limited success
• Multics was an especially innovative operating system
created in the 1960s for mainframes, that influenced the
later development of Unix

Network Operating Systems

A modern O/S contains much built-in software designed to

simplify networking of a computer. Typical O/S software
includes an implementation of TCP/IP protocol stack and
related utility programs like ping and trace route. This
includes the necessary device drivers and other software to
automatically enable a device's Ethernet interface. Mobile
devices also normally provide the programs needed to
enable Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless connectivity.
The early versions of Microsoft Windows did not provide any
computer networking support. Microsoft added basic
networking capability into its operating system starting with
Windows 95 and Windows for Workgroups. Microsoft also
introduced its Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) feature in
Windows 98 Second Edition (Win98 SE). Contrast that with
Unix, which was designed from the beginning with
networking in view. Nearly any consumer O/S today qualifies
as a network operating system due to the popularity of the
Internet.

Embedded Operating Systems

A so-called embedded system supports no or limited

configuration of its software. Embedded systems like routers,
for example, typically include a pre-configured Web
server,DHCP server, and some utilities but do not allow the
installation of new programs. Examples of embedded
operating systems for routers include:
• Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System)
• DD-WRT
• Juniper Junos
An embedded OS can also be found inside an increasing
number of consumer gadgets including phones (iPhone OS),
PDAs (Windows CE), and digital media players (ipodlinux).

Introduction to Client Server Networks

The term client-server refers to a popular model for

computer networking that utilizes client and server devices
each designed for specific purposes. The client-server model
can be used on the Internet as well as local area networks
(LANs). Examples of client-server systems on the Internet
include Web browsers and Web servers, FTP clients and
servers, and DNS.

Client and Server Devices

Client/server networking grew in popularity many years ago

as personal computers (PCs) became the common
alternative to older mainframe computers. Client devices are
typically PCs with network software applications installed
that request and receive information over the network.
Mobile devices as well as desktop computers can both
function as clients.
A server device typically stores files and databases including
more complex applications like Web sites. Server devices
often feature higher-powered central processors, more
memory, and larger disk drives than clients.

Client-Server Applications

The client-server model distinguishes between applications

as well as devices. Network clients make requests to a
server by sending messages, and servers respond to their
clients by acting on each request and returning results. One
server generally supports numerous clients, and multiple
servers can be networked together in a pool to handle the
increased processing load as the number of clients grows.

A client computer and a server computer are usually two

separate devices, each customized for their designed
purpose. For example, a Web client works best with a large
screen display, while a Web server does not need any
display at all and can be located anywhere in the world.
However, in some cases a given device can function both as
a client and a server for the same application. Likewise, a
device that is a server for one application can
simultaneously act as a client to other servers, for different
applications.

[Some of the most popular applications on the Internet

follow the client-server model including email, FTP and Web
services. Each of these clients features a user interface
(either graphic- or text-based) and a client application that
allows the user to connect to servers. In the case of email
and FTP, users enter a computer name (or sometimes an IP
address) into the interface to set up connections to the
server.

Local Client-Server Networks

Many home networks utilize client-server systems without

even realizing it. Broadband routers, for example,
contain DHCP servers that provide IP addresses to the home
computers (DHCP clients). Other types of network servers
found in home include print servers and backup servers.

Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer and Other Models

The client-server model was originally developed to allow

more users to share access to database applications.
Compared to the mainframe approach, client-server offers
improved scalability because connections can be made as
needed rather than being fixed. The client-server model also
supports modular applications that can make the job of
creating software easier. In so-called "two-tier" and "three-
tier" types of client-server systems, software applications are
separated into modular pieces, and each piece is installed on
clients or servers specialized for that subsystem.

Client-server is just one approach to managing network

applications The primary alternative, peer-to-
peer networking, models all devices as having equivalent
capability rather than specialized client or server roles.
Compared to client-server, peer to peer networks offer some
advantages such as more flexibility in growing the system to
handle large number of clients. Client-server networks
generally offer advantages in keeping data secure.

(computer) port

Definition: In computer networking, the term port can refer

to either physical or virtual connection points.

Physical network ports allow connecting cables to

computers, routers, modems and other peripheral devices.
Several different types of physical ports available on
computer network hardware include:

• Ethernet ports
• USB ports
• serial ports
Virtual ports are part of TCP/IP networking. These ports allow
software applications to share hardware resources without
interfering with each other. Computers and routers
automatically manage network traffic traveling via their
virtual ports. Network firewalls additionally provide some
control over the flow of traffic on each virtual port for
security purposes.

What Is a Port Number?

Answer: In computer networking, a port number is part of

the addressing information used to identify the senders and
receivers of messages. Port numbers are most commonly
used with TCP/IP connections. Home network routers and
computer software work with ports and sometimes allow you
to configure port number settings. These port numbers allow
different applications on the same computer to share
network resources simultaneously.

How Port Numbers Work

Port numbers are associated with network addresses. For

example, in TCP/IP networking, both TCP and UDP utilize
their own set of ports that work together with IP addresses.

Port numbers work like telephone extensions. Just as a

business telephone switchboard can use a main phone
number and assign each employee an extension number
(like x100, x101, etc.), so a computer has a main address
and a set of port numbers to handle incoming and outgoing
connections.

In both TCP and UDP, port numbers start at 0 and go up to

65535. Numbers in the lower ranges are dedicated to
common Internet protocols (like 21 for FTP, 80 for HTTP,
etc.).
When You May Need to Take Action with Port
Numbers

Port numbers are typically processed by network hardware

and software automatically. Normally you will not see them
while casually using a network nor need to take any action
involving them. However, in these special cases you can
work with network port numbers:
• network administrators may need to set up port
forwarding to allow the port numbers of specific
applications to pass through a firewall. On home
networks, broadband routers support port forwarding on
their configuration screens.

• network programmers sometimes need to specify port

numbers in their code, such as in socket programming.

• sometimes, a Web site URL will require a specific TCP

port number be included. For example,
http://localhost:8080/ uses TCP port 8080. Again, this is
more usually seen in software development environments
than on the Internet.

LAN - Local Area Network

Definition: A local area network (LAN) supplies

networking capability to a group of computers in close
proximity to each other such as in an office building, a
school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like
files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn
often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or
other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive
hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and
hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware
options also exist.
Specialized operating system software may be used to
configure a local area network. For example, most flavors of
Microsoft Windows provide a software package
called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports
controlled access to LAN resources.

The term LAN party refers to a multiplayer gaming event

where participants bring their own computers and build a
temporary LAN.

Also Known As: local area network

Examples:
The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet
LAN. The smallest home LAN can have exactly two
computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands
of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups
called subnets. An Internet Protocol (IP) "Class A" LAN can in
theory accommodate more than 16 million devices
organized into subnets.

WAN - Wide Area Network

Definition: A WAN spans a large geographic area, such as

a state, province or country. WANs often connect multiple
smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or
metro area networks (MANs).
The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some
segments of the Internet, like VPN-based extranets, are also
WANs in themselves. Finally, many WANs are corporate or
research networks that utilize leased lines.
WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive
networking equipment than do LANs. Key technologies often
found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM.

Internet

Definition: The term Internet today refers to the global

network of public computers running Internet Protocol. The
Internet supports the public WWW and many special-purpose
client/server software systems. Internet technology also
supports many private corporate intranets and private
home LANs.
The term "Internet" was originally coined in the 1970s. At
that time, only the very meager beginnings of a public global
network were in place. Throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and
1990s, a number of smaller national networks like ARPANET,
BITNET, CSNET, and NSFNET evolved, merged, or dissolved,
then finally joined with non-US networks to form the global
Internet.

Ethernet

Definition: Ethernet is a physical and data link layer

technology for local area networks (LANs). Ethernet was
invented by engineer Robert Metcalfe.
When first widely deployed in the 1980s, Ethernet supported
a maximum theoretical data rate of 10 megabits per second
(Mbps). Later, so-called "Fast Ethernet" standards increased
this maximum data rate to 100 Mbps. Today, Gigabit
Ethernet technology further extends peak performance up to
1000 Mbps.
Higher level network protocols like Internet Protocol (IP) use
Ethernet as their transmission medium. Data travels over
Ethernet inside protocol units called frames.
The run length of individual Ethernet cables is limited to
roughly 100 meters, but Ethernet networks can be easily
extended to link entire schools or office buildings
using bridge devices.

protocol (network)

Definition: A network protocol defines rules and

conventions for communication between network devices.
Protocols for computer networking all generally use packet
switching techniques to send and receive messages in the
form of packets.
Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to
identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into
messages sent and received. Some protocols also support
message acknowledgement and data compression designed
for reliable and/or high-performance network
communication. Hundreds of different computer network
protocols have been developed each designed for specific
purposes and environments.

Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and

among the most widely used network protocols.
Besides Internet Protocol (IP)itself, higher-level protocols
like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to provide
additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet
Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. These
higher level protocols interact more closely with applications
like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact with
network adapters and other computer hardware.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed

specifically for use by network routers on the Internet.
Common routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF and BGP.

How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems like Microsoft Windows contain

built-in services or daemons that implement support for
some network protocols. Applications like Web browsers
contain software libraries that support the high level
protocols necessary for that application to function. For
some lower level TCP/IP and routing protocols, support is
implemented in directly hardware (silicon chipsets) for
improved performance.
TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol

Definition: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet

Protocol (IP) are two distinct network protocols, technically
speaking. TCP and IP are so commonly used together,
however, that TCP/IP has become standard terminology to
refer to either or both of the protocols.
IP corresponds to the Network layer (Layer 3) in the OSI
model, whereas TCP corresponds to the Transport layer
(Layer 4) in OSI. In other words, the term TCP/IP refers to
network communications where the TCP transport is used to
deliver data across IP networks.

The average person on the Internet works in a

predominately TCP/IP environment. Web browsers, for
example, use TCP/IP to communicate with Web servers.

What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?

Answer: In the world of computers, networking is the

practice of linking two or more computing devices together
for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a
mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Area Networks
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One
approach defines the type of network according to the
geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for
example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide
area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even
across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public
WAN.

Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types
of high-level network design are called client-
server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature
centralized server computers that store email, Web pages,
files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network,
conversely, all computers tend to support the same
functions. Client-server networks are much more common in
business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in
homes.
A network topology represents its layout or structure from
the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for
example, all of the computers share and communicate
across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all
data flows through one centralized device. Common types of
network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.

Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by
computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to
classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they
support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to
support specific applications. Popular protocols
include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the
Internet and in home networks.

Wired vs Wireless Networking

Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in
both wired and wireless networks. Networks
with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools,
and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless
networking alternatives have emerged as the premier
technology for building new computer networks.

Introduction to Peer to Peer Networks

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers

share equivalent responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking
(also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server
networking, where certain devices have responsibility for providing or
"serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of
those servers.

Characteristics of a Peer Network

Peer to peer networking is common on small local area networks (LANs),

particularly home networks. Both wired and wireless home networks can be
configured as peer to peer environments.

Computers in a peer to peer network run the same networking protocols and
software. Peer networks are also often situated physically near to each other,
typically in homes, small businesses or schools. Some peer networks,
however, utilize the Internet and are geographically dispersed worldwide.

Home networks that utilize routers are hybrid peer to peer and client-server
environments. The router provides centralized Internet connection sharing,
but file, printer and other resource sharing is managed directly between the
local computers involved.

Peer to Peer and P2P Networks

Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the

development of P2P file sharing networks like Napster. Technically, many
P2P networks (including the original Napster) are not pure peer networks but
rather hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some functions such
as search.

Peer to Peer and Ad Hoc Wi-Fi Networks

Wi-Fi wireless networks support so-called ad hoc connections between

devices. Ad hoc Wi-Fi networks are pure peer to peer compared to those
utilizing wireless routers as an intermediate device.

Benefits of a Peer to Peer Network

You can configure computers in peer to peer workgroups to allow sharing of

files, printers and other resources across all of the devices. Peer networks
allow data to be shared easily in both directions, whether for downloads to
your computer or uploads from your computer.
On the Internet, peer to peer networks handle a very high volume of file
sharing traffic by distributing the load across many computers. Because they
do not rely exclusively on central servers, P2P networks both scale better
and are more resilient than client-server networks in case of failures or
traffic bottlenecks.

Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices.

This article introduces the standard topologies of networking.

Topology in Network Design

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape

does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices
on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be
arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find
a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

• bus
• ring
• star
• tree
• mesh
More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above
basic topologies.

Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a
common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone
functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into
with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another
device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other
devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes
the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much
cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5
("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for
bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus,
performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable
fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for

communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable
or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token
Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or
school campuses.

Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central
connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices
typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable,
but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's
network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire
network also fails.)

Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its
simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each
hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid
approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a
bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it
generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous
topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several
possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring,
although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.)
Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a

full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also
exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Summary

Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can

probably build a home or small business computer network without
understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design, but
becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better
understanding of important networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and
routes.

Introduction to Client Server Networks

The term client-server refers to a popular model for computer networking

that utilizes client and server devices each designed for specific purposes.
The client-server model can be used on the Internet as well as local area
networks (LANs). Examples of client-server systems on the Internet include
Web browsers and Web servers, FTP clients and servers, and DNS.

Client and Server Devices

Client/server networking grew in popularity many years ago as personal

computers (PCs) became the common alternative to
older mainframe computers. Client devices are typically PCs with network
software applications installed that request and receive information over the
network. Mobile devices as well as desktop computers can both function as
clients.

A server device typically stores files and databases including more complex
applications like Web sites. Server devices often feature higher-powered
central processors, more memory, and larger disk drives than clients.

Client-Server Applications

The client-server model distinguishes between applications as well as

devices. Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and
servers respond to their clients by acting on each request and returning
results. One server generally supports numerous clients, and multiple servers
can be networked together in a pool to handle the increased processing load
as the number of clients grows.

A client computer and a server computer are usually two separate devices,
each customized for their designed purpose. For example, a Web client
works best with a large screen display, while a Web server does not need
any display at all and can be located anywhere in the world. However, in
some cases a given device can function both as a client and a server for the
same application. Likewise, a device that is a server for one application can
simultaneously act as a client to other servers, for different applications.

[Some of the most popular applications on the Internet follow the client-
server model including email, FTP and Web services. Each of these clients
features a user interface (either graphic- or text-based) and a client
application that allows the user to connect to servers. In the case of email
and FTP, users enter a computer name (or sometimes an IP address) into the
interface to set up connections to the server.

Local Client-Server Networks

Many home networks utilize client-server systems without even realizing

it. Broadband routers, for example, contain DHCP servers that provide IP
addresses to the home computers (DHCP clients). Other types of network
servers found in home include print servers and backup servers.

Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer and Other Models

The client-server model was originally developed to allow more users to
share access to database applications. Compared to the mainframe approach,
client-server offers improved scalability because connections can be made as
needed rather than being fixed. The client-server model also supports
modular applications that can make the job of creating software easier. In so-
called "two-tier" and "three-tier" types of client-server systems, software
applications are separated into modular pieces, and each piece is installed on
clients or servers specialized for that subsystem.

Client-server is just one approach to managing network applications The

primary alternative, peer-to-peer networking, models all devices as having
equivalent capability rather than specialized client or server roles. Compared
to client-server, peer to peer networks offer some advantages such as more
flexibility in growing the system to handle large number of clients. Client-
server networks generally offer advantages in keeping data secure.

Frame Relay

Definition: Frame relay is a data link network protocol designed to transfer

data on Wide Area Networks (WANs). Frame relay works over fiber optic
or ISDN lines. The protocol offers low latency and to reduce overhead, does
perform any error correction, which is instead handled by other components
of the network.
Frame relay has traditionally provided a cost-effective way for
telecommunications companies to transmit data over long distances. Frame
relay has decreased in popularity as companies are gradually migrating their
deployments to Internet Protocol (IP) based solutions.

DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Definition: DHCP allows a computer to join an IP-based network without

having a pre-configured IP address. DHCP is a protocol that assigns unique
IP addresses to devices, then releases and renews these addresses as devices
leave and re-join the network.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) usually use DHCP to allow customers to
join the Internet with minimum effort. Likewise, home network equipment
like broadband routers offers DHCP support for added convenience in
joining home computers to the LAN.
DHCP environments require a DHCP server set up with the appropriate
configuration parameters for the given network. Key DHCP parameters
include the range or "pool" of available IP addresses, the
correct subnet masks, plus gateway and name server addresses.

Devices running DHCP client software can then automatically retrieve these
settings from DHCP servers as needed. Using DHCP on a network means
system administrators do not need to configure these parameters individually
for each client device.

Also Known As: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

OSI Model Reference Guide

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has been an

essential element of computer network design since its ratification in 1984.
The OSI is an abstract model of how network protocols and equipment
should communicate and work together (interoperate).
The OSI model is a technology standard maintained by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). Although today's technologies do not fully
conform to the standard, it remains a useful introduction to the study of
network architecture.

The OSI Model Stack

The OSI model divides the complex task of computer-to-computer

communications, traditionally called internetworking, into a series of stages
known as layers. Layers in the OSI model are ordered from lowest level to
highest. Together, these layers comprise the OSI stack. The stack contains
seven layers in two groups:

Upper layers -

7. application
6. presentation
5. session

Lower layers -

4. transport
3. network
2. data link
1. physical

Upper Layers of the OSI Model

OSI designates the application, presentation, and session stages of the stack
as the upper layers. Generally speaking, software in these layers performs
application-specific functions like data formatting, encryption, and
connection management.
Examples of upper layer technologies in the OSI model are HTTP, SSL and
NFS.

Lower Layers of the OSI Model

The remaining lower layers of the OSI model provide more primitive
network-specific functions like routing, addressing, and flow control.
Examples of lower layer technologies in the OSI model are TCP, IP,
and Ethernet.

Benefits of the OSI Model

By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the

OSI model simplifies how network protocols are designed. The OSI model
was designed to ensure different types of equipment (such as
network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be compatible even if built by
different manufacturers. A product from one network equipment vendor that
implements OSI Layer 2 functionality, for example, will be much more
likely to interoperate with another vendor's OSI Layer 3 product because
both vendors are following the same model.

The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new
protocols and other network services are generally easier to add to a layered
architecture than to a monolithic one.

ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Definition: ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed to support

both voice and data communications. ATM is normally utilized by Internet
service providers on their private long-distance networks. ATM operates at
the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either fiber or twisted-
pair cable.
ATM differs from more common data link technologies like Ethernet in
several ways. For example, ATM utilizes no routing. Hardware devices
known as ATM switches establish point-to-point connections between
endpoints and data flows directly from source to destination. Additionally,
instead of using variable-length packets as Ethernet does, ATM utilizes
fixed-sized cells. ATM cells are 53 bytes in length, that includes 48 bytes of
data and five (5) bytes of header information.
The performance of ATM is often expressed in the form of OC (Optical
Carrier) levels, written as "OC-xxx." Performance levels as high as
10 Gbps (OC-192) are technically feasible with ATM. More common
performance levels for ATM are 155 Mbps (OC-3) and 622 Mbps (OC-12).
ATM technology is designed to improve utilization and quality of service
(QoS) on high-traffic networks. Without routing and with fixed-size cells,
networks can much more easily manage bandwidth under ATM than under
Ethernet, for example. The high cost of ATM relative to Ethernet is one
factor that has limited its adoption to "backbone" and other high-
performance, specialized networks.

What Is Packet Switching on Computer Networks?

Answer: Packet switching is the approach used by some
computer network protocols to deliver data across a local or
long distance connection. Examples of packet switching
protocols are Frame Relay, IP and X.25.

How Packet Switching Works

Packet switching entails packaging data in specially

formatted units (called packets) that are typically routed
from source to destination using network
switches and routers. Each packet contains address
information that identifies the sending computer and
intended recipient. Using these addresses, network switches
and routers determine how best to transfer the packet
between hops on the path to its destination.

Pros and Cons of Packet Switching

Packet switching is the alternative to circuit

switching protocols used historically for telephone (voice)
networks and sometimes with ISDN connections.

Compared to circuit switching, packet switching offers the

following:

• More efficient use of overall network bandwidth due to

flexibility in routing the smaller packets over shared links.
Packet switching networks are often cheaper to build as
less equipment is needed given this ability to share.

• Longer delays in receiving messages due to the time

required to package and route packets. For many
applications, delays are not long enough to be significant,
but for high-performance applications like real-time video,
additional data compression and QoS technology is often
required to achieve the required performance levels.

• Potential for network security risks due to the use of

shared physical links. Protocols and other related elements
 on packet switching networks must designed with the
appropriate security precautions.

Bluetooth

Definition: Bluetooth is a specification for the use of low-

power radio communications to wirelessly link phones,
computers and other network devices over short distances.
The name Bluetooth is borrowed from Harald Bluetooth, a
king in Denmark more than 1,000 years ago.
Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support
simple wireless networking of personal consumer devices
and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless
headsets. Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover
short distances, typically up to 30 feet (10 meters).
Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than
1 Mbps.

Bluetooth networks feature a dynamic topology called

a piconet or PAN. Piconets contain a minimum of two and a
maximum of eight Bluetooth peer devices. Devices
communicate using protocols that are part of the Bluetooth
Specification. Definitions for multiple versions of the
Bluetooth specification exist including versions 1.1, 1.2 and
2.0.

Although the Bluetooth standard utilizes the same 2.4 Ghz

range as 802.11b and 802.11g, Bluetooth technology is not a
suitable Wi-Fi replacement. Compared to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
networking is much slower, a bit more limited in range, and
supports many fewer devices.

As is true for Wi-Fi and other wireless technologies today,

concerns with Bluetooth technology include security and
interoperability with other networking standards. Bluetooth
was ratified as IEEE 802.15.1.
Wi-Fi - Wireless Fidelity

Definition: Wi-Fi is the industry name for wireless LAN

(WLAN) communication technology related to the IEEE
802.11 family of wireless networking standards. To some,
the term Wi-Fi is synonymous with 802.11b, as 802.11b was
the first standard in that family to enjoy widespread
popularity. Today, however, Wi-Fi can refer to any of the
established
standards: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n.

The Wi-Fi Alliance (see sidebar) certifies vendor products to

ensure 802.11 products on the market follow the various
802.11 specifications. Unfortunately, 802.11a technology is
not compatible with 802.11b/g/n, so Wi-Fi product lines have
been somewhat fragmented.

Routers

Definition: Routers are physical devices that join multiple

wired or wireless networks together. Technically, a wired or
wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the
wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do),
and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI
model.
Home net workers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired
or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI network
layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem
broadband router joins the home's local area network
(LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.

By maintaining configuration information in a piece of

storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers
also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or
outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and
receivers. Some routers allow the home net worker to
update the routing table from a Web browser interface.
Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with
those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.
Gateway

Definition: A network gateway is

an internetworking system capable of joining together two
networks that use different base protocols. A network
gateway can be implemented completely in software,
completely in hardware, or as a combination of both.
Depending on the types of protocols they support, network
gateways can operate at any level of the OSI model.
Because a network gateway, by definition, appears at the
edge of a network, related capabilities like firewalls tend to
be integrated with it. On home networks, a broadband
router typically serves as the network gateway although
ordinary computers can also be configured to perform
equivalent functions.

Firewall

Definition: A network firewall protects a computer

network from unauthorized access. Network firewalls may be
hardware devices, software programs, or a combination of
the two.
Network firewalls guard an internal computer network
(home, school, business intranet) against malicious access
from the outside. Network firewalls may also be configured
to limit access to the outside from internal users.

Network Firewalls and Broadband Routers

Many home network router products include built-in firewall

support. The administrative interface of these routers
include configuration options for the firewall. Router firewalls
can be turned off (disabled), or they can be set to filter
certain types of network traffic through so-called firewall
rules.

Network Firewalls and Proxy Servers

Another common form of network firewall is a proxy server.
Proxy servers act as an intermediary between internal
computers and external networks by receiving and
selectively blocking data packets at the network boundary.
These network firewalls also provide an extra measure of
safety by hiding internal LAN addresses from the outside
Internet. In a proxy server firewall environment, network
requests from multiple clients appear to the outsider as all
coming from the same proxy server address.

What is Ad-Hoc Mode in Wireless Networking?

Answer: On wireless computer networks, ad-hoc mode is a

method for wireless devices to directly communicate with
each other. Operating in ad-hoc mode allows all wireless
devices within range of each other to discover and
communicate in peer-to-peer fashion without involving
central access points (including those built in to broadband
wireless routers).
To set up an ad-hoc wireless network, each
wireless adapter must be configured for ad-hoc mode versus
the alternative infrastructure mode. In addition, all
wireless adapters on the ad-hoc network must use the
same SSID and the same channel number.
An ad-hoc network tends to feature a small group of devices
all in very close proximity to each other. Performance suffers
as the number of devices grows, and a large ad-hoc network
quickly becomes difficult to manage. Ad-hoc networks
cannot bridge to wired LANs or to the Internet without
installing a special-purpose gateway.

Ad hoc networks make sense when needing to build a small,

all-wireless LAN quickly and spend the minimum amount of
money on equipment. Ad hoc networks also work well as a
temporary fallback mechanism if normally-available
infrastructure mode gear (access points or routers) stop
functioning.