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Received 16 February 2010; received in revised form 9 April 2010; accepted 10 April 2010
Available online 12 May 2010
Abstract
The development of photovoltaic (PV) energy throughout the world this last decade has brought to light the presence of module mis-
match losses in most PV applications. Such power losses, mainly occasioned by partial shading of arrays and differences in PV modules,
can be reduced by changing module interconnections of a solar array. This paper presents a novel method to forecast existing PV array
production in diverse environmental conditions. In this approach, field measurement data is used to identify module parameters once and
for all. The proposed method simulates PV arrays with adaptable module interconnection schemes in order to reduce mismatch losses.
The model has been validated by experimental results taken on a 2.2 kWp plant, with three different interconnection schemes, which show
reliable power production forecast precision in both partially shaded and normal operating conditions. Field measurements show interest
in using alternative plant configurations in PV systems for decreasing module mismatch losses.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.009
1302 D. Picault et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1301–1309
Nomenclature
effect (Meyer et al., 2004), hot-spots, and cell structure deg- technologies (Kjaer et al., 2005). Other solutions proposed
radation (such as cracked cells) all participate in the trans- using cascaded DC–DC converters in PV plants (Bratcu
formation of solar cell electrical properties. Regarding et al., 2009; Shimizu et al., 2003; Roman et al., 2008) have
heterogeneous cell illumination, there are two main causes: also been considered for independently extracting maxi-
partial shading of the array and diversity of tilt angles. mum power of modules.
Generally, solar plants are consisted of PV modules which This paper deals with solar array modelling using recent
are at the same tilt angle. Yet in certain Building-Integrated photovoltaic module modelling techniques applied to crys-
PV (BIPV) applications Benemann et al., 1996; Omer et al., talline silicon modules in order to predict power produc-
2003; Fernadez-Infantes et al., 2006; Drif et al., 2008, for tion in existing PV plants. Furthermore, reduction of
example modules on roof and wall of a building are con- mismatch losses by changing interconnection schemes of
nected to a same inverter, the variety of tilt angles in a same modules in solar generators is addressed. Finally, this
array could occasion severe module mismatching. More- paper presents results on novel field tests conducted on a
over, PV plants can be subject to partial shading occa- 2.2 kWp plant with several interconnection schemes con-
sioned by nearby trees, antennas, chimneys, passing curring with model predictions.
clouds, or nearby houses that cover a portion of a BIPV
plant during the day. In solar tracking plants, shadows of 2. PV module modelling using the Lambert W-function
one tracker can appear over modules of another during
morning and evening hours. In utility-sized plants, nearby The one-diode model is commonly used for modelling
overhead power lines and transmission towers can bring modules of crystalline silicon technology. The equivalent
moving shadows across a portion of the plant during the electric circuit comprises a current source, two resistors,
day. In other words, partial shading of solar arrays affects and a single-diode, as shown in Fig. 2. The one-diode
a great variety of PV systems. model contains five parameters which describe the PV
Many solutions for reducing mismatch losses have been module properties: Iph, Io, Rs (caused by resistances in
proposed by modifying array interconnections or adding solder bonds, emitter and base regions, cell metallization,
power converters. Quasi-random cell organization (Feld- cell-interconnect bus bars and resistances in junction-box
man et al., 1981) and plant oriented irradiance equalization terminals) (Meyer et al., 2004), Rsh (representing the leak-
(Velasco et al., 2005), intend to distribute the impact of age currents through the solar cell or on cell edges due to
shadows as uniformly as possible by reorganizing cell/mod- crystal damage or impurities near the junction), and Vt
ule connections in strings. Another proposed method is by (depending on module technology and cell organization).
using alternative array interconnection topologies such as The voltage–current relationship that can be deduced using
total-crossed tied (TCT) and bridge-link (BL) configura- the equivalent circuit results in a transcendental equation
tions, which use series–paralleling of modules, either stati- (Patel et al., 2008; Kaushika et al., 2007; Joyce et al.,
cally (Gautam et al., 2002; Kaushika et al., 2003, 2007; 2001; Kawamura et al., 2003) presented in Eq. (1) [PV
Karatepe et al., 2007) or dynamically (Nguyen et al., module current–voltage relation using one-diode model]:
2008). Connection schemes of series–parallel (SP), TCT V þRs I V þR I
s
and BL topologies are shown in Fig. 1. Investigations on I ¼ I ph I o e V t 1 with
adding power conversion units have also been studied for Rsh
module mismatch reduction such as replacing centralized N s a kb T
Vt ¼ ð1Þ
inverter topologies by string, multi-string, or AC-module q
D. Picault et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1301–1309 1303
Fig. 1. Diagram of series–parallel (SP), total-cross tied (TCT) and bridge-link (BL) connection schemes.
Rs I Table 1
Calculation time (in seconds) of module current with N voltage values.
N Lambert-W Newton–Raphson
100 0.001 1.409
Iph Rsh V 1000 0.005 79.712
2000 0.313 340.001
tovoltaic systems. Previous papers have proposed matrix is equal, as shown in Eq. (4) [Expression of current laws for
models for simulating PV arrays in series–parallel config- series–parallel array]:
uration with various environmental conditions (Patel
8 i 2 ½1; M 1; 8 j 2 ½1; N; f ðV i;j Þ f ðV iþ1;j Þ ¼ 0
et al., 2008; Kaushika et al., 2003; Kawamura et al.,
2003). This method has proven to be convenient of use ð4Þ
for implementation and verification of simulations results. The DC bus voltage law expresses the voltage that the
The proposed model also uses a matrix approach to solve string is submitted to at the entry point of the inverter,
a PV array problem. The principle is to use either module the DC bus voltage. In order to determine the plant current
voltages or currents as unknowns (in our case voltages are for each DC bus voltage value, the operating point of the
chosen for better numerical precision) to determine an plant current–voltage characteristic is calculated for a DC
unknown vector X. Electrical relations describing the PV bus voltage VDCbus. By choosing to submit the first string
array are transcribed into mathematical equations and voltage to DC bus voltage we obtain Eq. (5) [Expression
put in matrix format F. The solution is obtained once of DC bus voltage law for series–parallel array]:
the residual of the product F X is sufficiently small. In
X
M
this paper, the modelling of alternative connection V i;1 V DCbus ¼ 0 ð5Þ
schemes is presented. Custom interconnection schemes i¼1
may be simulated by dynamically modifying the PV array
Finally, the voltage laws describe the voltage equalities
electrical model matrix F. The values of module voltage
that lie between single modules or strings of modules con-
and current can therefore be determined with given
nected in parallel. In the case of the SP topology, (N 1)
incoming solar irradiance G and module temperature T,
strings of M modules are connected to the first string in
DC plant voltage as well as other parameters shown in
parallel, bringing supplementary Eq. (6) [Expression of
Fig. 3.
voltage laws for series–parallel array]:
X M XM
3.1. The traditional series–parallel topology 8 j 2 ½2; N; V i;1 V i;j ¼ 0 ð6Þ
c i¼1 i¼1
In a PV array composed of M modules per string with N By using the previous M N equations, the M N rank
strings, that is to say an array comprising M N modules, non-linear system can be solved. This is done by determin-
we can identify (M 1) N nodes and (M 1) (N 1) ing the solution to the matrix equation F X = 0, where F
possible interconnections of modules, as shown in Fig. 3. is a square matrix of dimension M N M N and X is the
The most common topology for PV arrays is series–paral- voltage vector of length M N. The iterative Newton–
lel, where M modules are connected in series, and N strings Raphson method is applied to solve the equation system
of M modules are connected in parallel. using the F matrix and its associated jacobian matrix.
The equations describing the electric behaviour of the The process is initialized by supposing that each module
PV array can be classified into three groups: current laws, in the array have the same voltage value VDCbus/M.
voltage laws and DC bus voltage law.
The current laws describe current flow through the array 3.2. Alternative module interconnection schemes
of PV modules using Kirchhoff’s current laws at the nodes
of the array. In the case of the SP topology, the current Prior research has shown interest in modifying module
flowing through two consecutive modules in a same string interconnection schemes for reducing mismatch losses.
Alternative topologies have been proposed such as the 4. Module parameter translation method to desired
TCT and BL configurations which have improved global environmental conditions
PV array efficiency by reducing mismatch losses. In previ-
ous papers (Kaushika et al., 2003, 2007), simulations were Module current–voltage characteristics depend on envi-
carried out for each topology with a dedicated set of equa- ronmental conditions such as irradiance and module tem-
tions in order to forecast PV power production. This paper perature. Current–voltage curve translation is based on
proposes a simulation model for a PV array where electric the calculation of the short circuit current (Isc) and open-
equations are automatically modified in order to simulate a circuit voltage (Voc) at desired environmental conditions
custom interconnection scheme, that is to say one single (G2, T2) from a measured I–V curve taken at (G1, T1).
algorithm for various configurations. Translation equations have been investigated throughout
As stated previously, in an array of M N modules there the past (Blaesser et al., 1988; Anderson, 1996; Marion,
are (M 1) (N 1) possible module interconnections. 2002; Hermann et al., 1996; Tsuno et al., 2005), demon-
The interconnection matrix ConMat, describes the inter- strating linear variation of short circuit current with
connections in an array, by using the null value if the irradiance and variation of open-circuit voltage with tem-
connection is not established, and one in the corresponding perature, as shown in Eq. (9), these translation equations
cell if modules are interconnected. For example, in the use temperature and irradiance correction factors a, b
case of the SP topology, the corresponding interconnec- and d (Marion, 2002). The translation method can be
tion matrix is a null matrix of dimension (M 1) adapted to other PV module technologies by using suitable
(N 1). correction factor values [Translation equation for module
When a module is interconnected with another, that is current (I) and voltage (V) from conditions (G1, T1) to
to say a parallel connection is established, a current law is (G2, T2)].
replaced with a voltage law, thus conserving the total
number of equations in the system. Indeed, if nodes Ni,j IðG2 ; T 2 Þ ¼ IðG1 ; T 1 Þ GG21 ½1 þ aðT 2 T 1 Þ
h i
and Ni,j+1 are connected, as shown in Fig. 3, the two cur- V ðG2 ; T 2 Þ ¼ V ðG1 ; T 1 Þ ½1 þ bðT 2 T 1 Þ 1 þ d ln GG21
rent laws describing current flow between modules Mi1,j
and Mi,j and modules Mi1,j+1 and Mi,j+1 are fused into ð9Þ
a new current law shown in Eq. (7) [Expression of current
law fusion equation for ConMati,j connection]: In order to describe the influence of environmental
conditions on the five parameters used in the one-diode
model, the translation method was applied to Eq. (1) and
f ðV i1;j Þ f ðV i;j Þ ¼ 0
by parameter identification, translation formulas were
f ðV i1;jþ1 Þ f ðV i;jþ1 Þ ¼ 0
deduced, as shown in Fig. 4. The parameter translation
) f ðV i1;j Þ f ðV i;j Þ þ f ðV i1;jþ1 Þ f ðV i;jþ1 Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ equations can be applied to any crystalline silicon or other
technology that uses the single-diode equivalent circuit as a
Furthermore, the node connection generates an addi- model. The novel parameter translation method uses the
tional voltage equation, since interconnected modules have correction factor calculation method proposed by Marion
the same voltage. In the previous case, the additional equa- (2002). Module parameters have previously been identified
tion ties the sum of voltages of modules in the same string from a reference curve and then translated using previously
prior to modules Mi1,j and Mi1,j+1, as shown in Eq. (8) determined correction factors for Isofotón I-106 modules
[Additional voltage law due to ConMati,j connection]: (a = 0.009 °C1, b = 0.0028 °C1, d = 0.0039), results
are shown in Fig. 4. The parameter translation method
X
i1 X
i1
conserves the precision used by the chosen translation
V k;j V k;jþ1 ¼ 0 ð8Þ
k¼1 k¼1
model, in our case the Marion method. The translation
of I–V curves by parameter extraction has two benefits:
Hence, by using and interpreting the interconnection flexibility in translation models and observation of param-
matrix to modify the PV array electrical property matrix eter evolution with environmental conditions.
F, the user can simulate any PV array interconnection
scheme. 5. Case study: influence of modifying topologies in partial
The shade scenario on the solar array is taken into shaded installations
account by applying a shade factor, with values taken
between 0 (for totally shaded modules) and 1 (for non- In order to validate the simulation model, measurements
shaded modules), to the irradiance received by the have been carried out on a 2.2 kWp rooftop installation,
modules. This simplified model of the effect of shade does consisting of 20 Isofotón I-106 modules, part of the UNI-
not take into account the temperature drop due to shading. VER project at Jaén University in Spain (Drif et al., 2007)
Shade factors for each model are grouped into the shade as can be seen in Fig. 5. Originally, the plant was grid-con-
matrix S thus giving the shade scenario for the entire solar nected and made up of two strings of 10 modules to fit
array. inverter specifications. In order to see the influence of mod-
1306 D. Picault et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1301–1309
Fig. 4. I–V curve translation method using measurements taken at environmental conditions (G1, T1) for prediction of I–V characteristic at (G2, T2)
conditions.
ule interconnections, the plant has been reconfigured into in order to keep similar environmental conditions during
four strings of five series-connected modules. Furthermore, measurements.
modifications on the installation have been made in order The experimental procedure consisted in successively
to rapidly change the module interconnection scheme. To measuring the current–voltage characteristic of three topol-
do so, a connection box has been designed to centralize ogies (SP, TCT and BL) followed by the I–V characteristic
module terminals into a unique location, facilitating plant recording of each module within the array. This procedure
topology changes in a short time span (less than 15 min) was carried out in both non-shaded and partially shaded
(a) 2.2 kW plant containing (b) PV modules with plastic film (c) Connection box in SP configuration for
20 Isofoton I-106 modules used for shaded scenario 2 strings of 10 modules
5.1. Normally operating PV array results 5.2. Partially shaded PV array results
In normal operating conditions, photovoltaic plants are In partially shaded conditions photovoltaic plants, I–V
not subject to partial shade and therefore have a power- curves present two main properties: maximum power
voltage characteristic containing only one maximum peak. reduction and appearance of multiple power peaks. The
Experimental results, presented in Fig. 6, show that in first effect is a consequence of lower incoming solar power
homogeneous irradiance conditions all three topologies onto the array. The appearance of multiple peaks is due to
have similar power-voltage characteristics. Furthermore, module mismatch, which may be accentuated by bypass
TCT and BL topologies have slightly higher maximum diode operation. The multi-peak effect is visible on the
power ratings than the series–parallel topology at same experimental results, presented in Fig. 7, in case of partial
environmental conditions. However, in such conditions shading of an array. Although all three topologies show
the power gain remains negligible: +0.2% maximum power inflexion points on their current–voltage characteristics,
increase with respect to the SP topology, considering the both TCT and BL arrays have smoother curves conse-
measurement apparatus error. quently lessening the multi-peak effect. Furthermore, mea-
The production forecast method was then applied using surements show an increase of roughly 4% and 2.5% in
the earlier mentioned steps: parameter extraction of indi- maximum power for the TCT and BL interconnection
vidual modules, parameter translation to plant measure- schemes. In other words, the PV array is able to produce
ment conditions, and plant I–V curve construction. 4% more power than the SP topology by simply modifying
Maximum power points of the predicted and experimental the array interconnections of the plant into a TCT config-
curves are presented Table 2. Simulation results fit closely uration. PV plant owners can therefore expect higher
20
1000
1000
20
Current [A]
Power [W]
Current [A]
Power [W]
10
10
Fig. 6. Experimental values of non-shaded 2.2 kWp plant. Fig. 7. Experimental values of partially shaded 2.2 kWp plant.
1308 D. Picault et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1301–1309
Table 3 8.00
Maximum power values of experimental and simulation results in shaded
7.00
scenario.
2.00
1.00
energy production yields leading to higher return on invest-
0.00
ment rates. SP TCT BL
Simulation results confirm the plant’s I–V curve evolu-
tion, with maximum power brought by the TCT topology Non-shaded Partially shaded
followed by the BL topology, as can be seen in Table 3. Fig. 8. Calculated mismatch losses of SP, TCT, BL topologies in both
Simulation errors are slightly higher than previous simula- non-shaded and partially shaded conditions.
tions but remain well under the 5% threshold. In the partial
shading case, additional errors in the bypass diode model
can explain higher error levels. Another phenomenon vali- 6. Conclusion
dating the simulation model is the reduction of the multi-
peak phenomena which is more pronounced in the simula- A method for forecasting existing photovoltaic plants’
tion model than in experimental measurements. power production has been proposed and validated by
The use of alternative module interconnection schemes experimental measurements in both shaded and non-
have shown increase in power production during shaded shaded conditions. The PV module model uses the Lam-
conditions by using simulation tools validated experimen- bert W-function enabling a direct tie between current and
tally. The experimental power increase in alternative voltage of modules which significantly reduces calculation
schemes is directly linked to mismatch losses considering time. Furthermore, various interconnection schemes of
that the use of the connection box reduces significantly modules can be simulated thanks to the automatically gen-
the additional cable losses. erated electrical relations which describe solar array opera-
tion. This paper also addresses PV module parameter
5.3. Analysis of mismatch losses identification and novel parameter translation to desired
environmental conditions, which are necessary for compar-
The proposed PV array forecasting algorithm has been ing expected power production with changing irradiance
used to determine mismatches in the experimental results. and temperature levels. Moreover, new experimental work
To do so, the module I–V characteristics have been trans- on alternative array configurations shows that modifying
lated to the I–V plant curve conditions environmental con- the module interconnection scheme inside a PV plant can
ditions for each topology SP, TCT and BL. Then, the raise maximum power output by up to 4%, especially in
maximum power of each module has been calculated and partially shaded conditions, with respect to traditional
summed in order to determine the maximal available array module interconnection schemes. Further simulation
power at given environmental conditions. The difference results should be carried out to see if TCT and BL topolo-
between the maximal available power and the maximum gies can have a greater impact in different scenarios.
measured power for each topology in both non-shaded Control strategies for dynamically modifying array inter-
and partially shaded conditions was then calculated. connections, thanks to automated DC switches inside a
Results shown in Fig. 8, present the mismatch losses, connection box, could help optimize PV array power out-
expressed in percent with reference to the maximal avail- put in degraded mode operation. Such control strategies
able power of the array. could consist in real-time control of PV plants given the
The TCT configuration shows the least mismatch losses rapid simulation times using the Lambert W-function
in partially shaded conditions, whereas the BL configura- model when applicable. The PV forecast method could also
tion has the least mismatch losses in non-shaded condi- be used for determining the optimal interconnection
tions. It should be noticed that in traditionally configured schemes with given shade scenarios for maximizing power
arrays, the calculated mismatch losses for the 20 module production of PV plants submitted to recurrent partial
plant represent a 19 W loss, that is to say a 1.71% power shading as can be found in previously discussed PV
loss in this case. Whereas in the BL configuration, mis- applications.
match losses in non-shaded conditions add up to 11 W.
Module connection modifications are expected to bring Acknowledgements
higher power increase ratios in more severe mismatch cases
such as different shade scenarios with higher solar irradi- This work was funded by the Solution PV project by the
ance values. MINEFI (French Ministry of Industry), the Rhone-Alpes
D. Picault et al. / Solar Energy 84 (2010) 1301–1309 1309
Region (France), the CG 38, the Metro, and the Competi- Kaushika, N.D. et al., 2003. Energy yield simulations of interconnected
tiveness Pole TENNERDIS. The authors would like to solar PV arrays. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 18 (1), 127–
134.
thank the University of Jaén’s Solar Energy Laboratory Kaushika, N.D. et al., 2007. An investigation of mismatch losses in solar
for its collaboration which also made this work possible. photovoltaic cell networks. Energy 32, 755–759.
Kawamura, H. et al., 2003. Simulation of I–V characteristics of a PV
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