FACTS TECHNOLOGY for OPEN ACCESS.

CIGRE JWG 14/37/38/39-24.

FINAL DRAFT REPORT.

AUGUST 2000.

14 August 2000/EGC
CONTENTS.

Introduction.

1 FACTS Technology.
2 FACTS Applications.
3 Planning Methods and Simulation Tools.
4 FACTS and Open Access Networks – Case Studies.
5 Open Access and Large Systems.
6 Economic Evaluation of FACTS Devices.
7 Conclusions.

Appendices.

Bibliography.

1
INTRODUCTION.

A number of CIGRE and IEEE Reports (See the Bibliography – which is not intended to be
an exhaustive list of FACTS publications) have been published on FACTS devices, their
technology, systems applications and modelling. In this context, FACTS has been defined by
the IEEE as “ alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic –
based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability ”

The CIGRE Committees, which have been active in this area over the past few years, are
Study Committees 14,37 and 38. Two CIGRE Symposia, one in Tokyo in 1995 and the other
in Tours in 1997 also addressed FACTS technology developments and their potential
applications in the emerging open access transmission networks.

From this wealth of publications one aspect seemed worthy of preparing, namely a planning
guide which summarised the key technological developments in the FACTS area and
addressed, in particular, the open access aspects of networks and the scope for the application
of FACTS devices therein.

The present Joint Working Group was established in 1997, sponsored by four Study
Committees i.e. SC’s 14,37,38 and 39 with its membership nominated from all these Study
Committees. The Joint Working Group held its first meeting in France in March 1998 and this
Report presents its findings. The interim Report phase has been omitted.

The approved Terms of Reference and Membership List are given in Appendix 0. At its first
meeting the definition of FACTS was confirmed by the JWG to include conventional devices
such as phase shifting transformers, and HVDC Links.

2
CHAPTER 1 .

FACTS TECHNOLOGY.

1.1 Introduction

Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers originally included only recently

developed devices, mainly using semiconductor components. However, in order to provide a
complete list of devices for controlling power flows, increasing stability, increasing transfer
capability and providing access between different areas in the power system, the definition of
FACTS has been broadened in this Report to include traditional devices, some of them
without semiconductor control.

1.2 FACTS Devices Summary

Terminology

SVC Static Var Compensator

STATCOM Static Synchronous Compenator
MSC Mechanically-switched Capacitor*
TCBR Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor
TCPST Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer
PST Phase Shifting Transformer*
IPC Interphase Power Controller
SC Series Capacitor*
MSSC, TSSC Mechanically/Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator.
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
CSC Convertible Static Compensator.

* Not strictly a FACTS device.

Figure 1 tabulates the various FACTS and conventional devices, the system conditions or
issues that the devices can be used to address and their key features. Most of the devices are
discussed in more detail in the later sections of this Chapter.

3
FACTS devices

Issue Device Comment See

Section
Steady-state voltage MSC Stepwise, infrequent
control control
Steady-state voltage SVC, Statcom Continuous control 1.4, 1.5
control
Steady-state voltage SC Continuous control
control
Dynamic and post- SVC, Statcom Fast acting control 1.4, 1.5
contingency voltage
control
Improvement of steady- PST Environmental 1.9
state load sharing impact
Improvement of steady- SC Low losses
state load sharing
Post-contingency load PST 1.9
sharing
Post-contingency load TCSC Fast control action 1.3
sharing
Transient stability SC Self regulating
improvement
Transient stability SVC, Statcom High dynamic 1.4, 1.5
improvement
Power Oscillation TCSC Insensitive to 1.3
Damping localisation
Power Oscillation SVC, Statcom Needs robust control 1.4, 1.5
Damping algorithms
Power Quality SVC Voltage fluctuations 1.4
Improvement
Power Quality Statcom Voltage fluctuations, 1.5
Improvement very fast control

Figure 1. FACTS controllers and their applications

4
1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors, TCSC

TCSC is used for Power Oscillation Damping (POD), and/or Sub Synchronous Resonance
(SSR) mitigation. The series capacitor is provided with a parallel branch using a reactor and a
thyristor valve, see Figure 2. This arrangement provides a continuously controllable reactance
since the parallel thyristor reactor branch produces a current that adds up to the line current
through the capacitor thereby increasing its capacitive size beyond its physical reactance
obtained by the line current only.

IL

ITh

Figure 2. TCSC

Further development, of the present design, is focusing on cost reduction and increased
current handling capability.

1.4 Static Var Compensator, SVC

A typical shunt - connected static var compensator, composed of thyristor - switched

capacitors (TSCs) and thyristor - controlled reactors (TCRs) is shown in Figure 3.

UN

Figure 3. SVC

5
The compensator is normally operated to regulate the voltage of the transmission system at a
selected terminal. The V - I characteristic of the SVC indicates the regulation with a given
slope around the nominal voltage can be achieved in the normal operating range defined by
the maximum capacitive and inductive currents of the SVC. The voltage support capability of
the conventional thyristor controlled static var compensator rapidly deteriorates with
decreasing system voltage.

In addition to voltage support, SVCs are also employed for transient (first swing) and
dynamic stability (damping) improvements.

The future trends of the SVC development are focusing on reducing cost and increasing
performance, as an example increasing the short time overload capacity. The SVC equipment
needs to be re-locatable and the filters (if needed) designed in such a way so resonance with
the power system is avoided. The SVC plays an important role in providing dynamic Mvars,
especially in heavily loaded meshed networks since the generators will be controlled off and
on depending on despatch.or plant economics. The installation of new generating plant or
high voltage overlays may greatly strengthen weak points and render some SVCs redundant
after only a few years service. In order to simplify relocatability, SVC installations need to be
compact, avoiding permanent buildings; outdoor equipment needs to be arranged in-groups of
components that are capable of being carried, by road or rail, with a minimum of dismantling.
Packaged substations have been used for many years and the use of transportable cabins to
provide a weatherproof housing for sensitive components is a similar concept. Thus the
thyristor valves, controls, protection, auxiliary power sources etc. need to be inside a cabin,
whereas reactors, capacitors, switchgear, auxiliary/earthing transformers, etc, can be mounted
outdoors on easily transportable skids or frames, complete with many of their interconnecting
busbars.

1.5 Static Compensator, STATCOM

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) employing forced switching type of

semiconductors in a converter that functions as a controllable synchronous voltage source, has
been introduced for reactive shunt compensation.

The basic principle of reactive power generation by the STATCOM is analogous to that of the
conventional rotating synchronous compensator.

6
 UN
I

Id
UD

Figure 4. STATCOM

From a DC input voltage source, provided by the charged capacitor, the converter produces a
set of controllable three - phase output voltages with the frequency of the AC power system.
By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the reactive power exchange
between the converter and the AC system can be controlled. If the amplitude of the output
voltage (V) is increased above that of the AC system voltage (VT ), then the current flows (Iq )
through the tie reactance from the converter to the AC system, and the converter generate
reactive (capacitive) power for the AC system. If V is decreased below VT , then the converter
absorbs reactive (inductive) power. The STATCOM converter itself can keep the capacitor
charged to the required voltage level.

The V – I characteristic indicates that the STATCOM can provide both capacitive and
inductive compensation and is able to control its output current over the rated maximum
capacitive or inductive range independently of the AC system voltage. That is, the
STATCOM, in contrast of the SVC, can provide full capacitive output current at any system
voltage, practically down to zero. The STATCOM may have an increased transient rating in
both the inductive and capacitive operating regions.

The ability of the STATCOM to produce full capacitive current at low system voltage also
makes it more effective that the SVC in improving the transient stability (first swing). The
inherent capability of the STATCOM to generate as well as to absorb reactive power makes it
eminently suitable for power oscillation damping.

STATCOM uses switched components of thyristor type such as Gate Turn-Off Thyristor,
GTO Thyristor, Gate Commutated Thyristor, GCT or Transistor type of components such as
the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, IGBT. The Voltage Source Converter, VSC, might be
built using series connection of the devices, multi-pulse configuration or multi-level
configuration. Using series connection 2 or 3 level design, pulse width modulation (PWM)
can be used. PWM simplifies the main circuit design.

GCT is a further developed GTO with gate designed for hard-drive making the component
better suited for series connection. One type of the GCT components could also be used for
PWM but without series connection. The DC side, the DC capacitor bank, could either be
single-phase DC bank if un-symmetrical control is needed and PWM cannot be used.

7
STATCOM using IGBT is interesting since, as an example, a three-level design and series
connection, using high frequency (1- 2 kHz) PWM, makes the device filterless and the
technology could be, in addition to the traditional generation or absorption of reactive power,
used for active filtering of harmonics. This type of converter also can handle large
asymmetries in the system.

Due to the higher performance, the PWM type of STATCOM could find a broader market
than the traditional SVC due to increased performance and possibilities for using the
STATCOM for active filtering and easier re- locatability (weight and footprint).

1.6 Unified Power Flow Controller, UPFC.

The UPFC is an extremely powerful and versatile concept for power flow control. The UPFC
can control, individually or in combination, three effective transmission parameters - voltage,
impedance, and angle -, or directly, the active and reactive power flow in the line.

The UPFC is a combination of a STATCOM (converter 1) for the shunt part, and a SSSC
(converter 2) for the series part, both connected by a common DC link. See Figure 5.

Figure 5. UPFC

Converter 1 is used primarily to provide the active power demand of converter 2 at the
common DC link. Converter 2 itself generates the reactive power demand corresponding to
series voltage injection ( V pq ) and, therefore, the transmission system is not burdened by
reactive power flow due to the operation of the UPFC.

Actually, since converter 1 can also generate or absorb reactive power at its AC terminal,
independently of the active power it transfers to (or from) the DC terminal it follows that,

8
with proper controls, it can also fulfil the function of an independent STATCOM. That is it
can provide reactive power compensation for the transmission line and thus execute an
indirect voltage regulation at the input terminal of the UPFC.

In addition, the UPFC can operate as a series impedance compensator when the shunt element
(STATCOM) is out of service and a static var source when the series element (SSSC) is out
of service.

Future development needs to focus on less complexity and reduced cost.

1.7 SSSC.

The Static Synchronous Series Compensator, SSSC, offers an alternative to conventional

series capacitive line compensation. The SSSC is a synchronous voltage source that internally
generates the desired compensating voltage – in series with the line – independent of the line
current. See Figure 6.

Figure 6. SSSC

The SSSC can be considered functionally as an ideal generator. The SSSC can produce a set
of (three) alternating voltages at the desired fundamental frequency with controllable
amplitude and phase angle. Further the SSSC can generate or absorb reactive power when tied
to an electric power system to function like a synchronous condenser (compensator) and
convert the active power it exchanges with the AC system into a DC voltage that is
compatible with an electric energy source or storage. The transmitted power becomes a
parametric function of the injected voltage. The SSSC can control both reactive and active
power with the AC system, simply by controlling the angular position of the injected voltage
with respect to the line current.

With the appropriate combinations of SVSs unique FACTS controller arrangements able to
control independently real and reactive power flow in individual lines, balance real and
reactive flows among line, can be devised. From the standpoint of practical applications,
steady state flow control or stability improvements, the SSSC clearly has considerably wider
control range then the controlled series capacitor of the same MVA rating.

9
1.8 Switched Series Capacitors, MSSC or TSSC.

Mechanically Switched Series Capacitors, MSSC, are mainly used for load flow control. The
capacitor bank is divided into segments each possible to be bypassed by means of breakers. In
this way a stepwise controllability of the inserted capacitive reactance is achieved. In case of a
large number of switching are needed the breakers can be replaced by thyristor valves acting
as electronic switches thus forming a Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor, TSSC.

1.9 Phase Shifting Transformer, PST, IPC, TCPAR.

Phase shifting transformer, PST, using tap-changers or thyristor switches for control. See
Figure 7.

Figure 7. TCPST

In order to reduce cost some units could be equipped with parallel inductor and this solution is
also named Interphase Power Controller, IPC. If the PST is provided with a fast acting
switching device, i.e. thyristor switches, the PST is renamed in to TCPST, Thyristor
Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer, and can be used for Power Oscillation Damping,
POD.

1.10 High Voltage Direct Current, HVDC

HVDC is mainly used for the coupling of asynchronous AC systems (Back-to-Back HVDC),
for sea-cable transmission with distances of more than 50 – 80 km and for long distance bulk
power transmission. Due to the ability to control the converters very fast and almost
independent from the AC system conditions, the HVDC technology offers a number of
advantages especially for the increased power exchange in a deregulated environment:

10
 • Coupling of AC systems with different frequencies or different rules concerning
security, reliability, frequency control, voltage control, primary- and secondary-
control reserve capacity, etc.
• system interconnection independent from stability requirements
• transmission over very long distances without stability problems
• power infeed without increase of short circuit current.
• feeding power from remote generation centres direct into load centres.
• load flow control
• frequency control
• voltage control
• substitution of secondary reserve (under certain conditions)
• stabilizing the AC system by fast DC-power-ramping or –modulation
• economical and ecological advantages at very long distance high power
transmission compared to AC

Conventional HVDC use line commutated converters (thyristors) which require inertia of the
AC systems. Capacitor commutated converters allow also operation in AC systems with
lower short circuit capacity. DC transmission (Back-to-Back or long distance) with self
commutated converters (GTO, IGCT or IGBT) allows also for feeding into systems without
generation.

Today’s HVDC links at high power level use conventional technology. DC links at the
medium and lower power level using self- commutated converters are today available and
under further development and test operation, also in medium voltage distribution systems.

The near future may see multi-terminal HVDC high power links to exchange large amount of
power between remote partners and to integrate the countries along the route. Low power DC-
links in the low and medium voltage systems allow the customer to purchase power from
different partners according to cost situation without restrictions to electrical parameters like
voltage amplitude or phase.

1.11 Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)

Braking resistors have been applied as a means of controlling potentially destabilizing system
disturbances. They are designed to provide speed control by dissipating power in a power
resistor. Stability limits of synchronous generators can be improved by reducing the
imbalance between the machine mechanical power and the generator electrical power due to
system faults.

Conventional braking resistors are limited in performance due to the dead time of the breaker
and due to the limited number of operations possible. TCBR uses electronic switches thus
enhancing the above functions. Also,electronic switching enables braking resistors to provide
a dynamic response and a variable amount of braking resistance for improved damping
control.

11
The improved performance of TCBR has been shown in different system studies.

1.12 Concluding Remarks.

A number of FACTS devices have been described in the chapter and are the result of 10 years
or more of development.

It seems certain that development of FACTS technology will continue, aimed at providing
flexible control devices to meet deregulated systems needs whilst continuing to strive for
lower costs.

12
CHAPTER 2.

FACTS APPLICATIONS.

2.1 Introduction.

This Chapter is not intended to be an exhaustive list of FACTS installations, but rather to
present details of some major examples of FACTS devices that are presently in service or that
are planned to be commissioned in the very near future, and the reasons for their installation.

As will be appreciated from the various descriptions the older installations were generally –
although not always - installed to ensure compliance with security standards whilst the
“newer” installations have rather more commercial rationales, often to facilitate open access.

2.2 TCSC – Slatt, USA

The TCSC system, commissioned in 1993, is installed on Bonneville Power Administration's

transmission system and located at BPA's C.J.Slatt substation on the Slatt-Buckley 500 kV
line in Northern Oregon. At the substation, six identical thyristor controlled capacitor modules
are applied to each of the three phases. The capacitors, current limiting reactors, thyristor
switchers and protective varistors are located on three platforms, which are at the potential of
the 500 kV line and insulated for a BIL of 1550 kV. In addition, each phase has line
disconnects and a bypass breaker. The advanced digital control and protection system, located
in a building at ground potential, consists of a master controller and a controller for each
capacitor module. Communication between platform and ground is accomplished by fibre
optics. The thyristors are liquid-cooled via a ground-based heat exchanger. A water glycol
mixture is used for this outdoor application.

The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line power
flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid
readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC also can
regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits. Transmission loading may be limited
by system stability or transient stability of generation. The TCSC is a powerful tool to help
relieve these constraints. Its controls can be designed to modulate the line reactance and
provide damping of system swing modes.

The TCSC provides a mechanism for greatly reducing a potential subsynchronous resonance
problem at thermal generators electrically close to transmission lines with series
compensation. In some cases, the inability to mitigate SSR with conventional series capacitors
has limited line compensation to levels between 20 and 40 percent. With even a small
percentage of TCSC, the total compensation can be increased significantly.

13
The figure 1,below, shows an elementary one-line diagram of the Slatt-TCSC. It is comprised
of six identical TCSC modules connected in series. Each module consists of a capacitor, a bi-
directional thyristor valve (with its associated reactor), and a varistor. A bypass breaker (with
its associated reactor) is connected across the entire device for use in operational and
protective functions. Also, three disconnect switches are used to bypass and isolate the TCSC
from the Slatt-Buckley transmission line.

Figure 1. One-line diagram of Slatt TCSC.

Each module can operate either bypassed or inserted. In addition, when the capacitor is
inserted, the thyristor valve can be phase-controlled to vary the effective fundamental-
frequency impedance of the capacitor. The basic operating principles are explained below.
While bypassed, the thyristors are gated for full conduction, and the net reactance of the
module is slightly inductive because of the reactor in series with the thyristor valve. Note that
some current also flows through the capacitor during bypassed operation, but most flows
through the thyristor valve and reactor because it is a much lower impedance path.

14
Figure 2. TCSC control modes

If the capacitor is inserted by turning off the thyristor valve (that is, blocking all gating
signals to the thyristors), the effective capacitance of the module is the same as its nominal
value. This is illustrated in figure 2. This mode of operation is essentially the same as for a
conventional series capacitor. While the capacitor is inserted, the thyristors can be gated near
the end of each half cycle in a manner that can circulate controlled amount of inductive
current through the capacitor, thereby increasing the effective capacitive reactance of the
module. This concept is referred to as vernier control. In this mode, the inserted reactance can
be controlled in a continuously-variable (vernier) manner from a minimum value of the
capacitor alone (1.33 ohms) to as much as 4.0 ohms. The upper limit for vernier operation is a
function of line current magnitude and time spent at the operating point.

The Slatt TCSC consists of six modules. The operation of all six modules is automatically co-
ordinated from a higher level control system called the common control. All modules receive
"ohms" orders from the common level, and these orders establish the operating mode and
vernier level for each individual module.

2.3 TCSC - Kayenta, USA

The Kayenta TCSC installation, commissioned in 1993, consists of two series capacitor
banks, each rated 165 Mvar and 1000 Amps with a single phase 60 Hz impedance of 55
ohms. One bank is operated in a conventional series compensation configuration with the
second bank subdivided into a 40-ohm conventional segment and a 15-ohm TCSC segment.
Kayenta substation is in the middle of a 320 km 230 kV transmission line.

With power transfers on the interconnected network approaching the transmission system’s
ability to reliably serve increasing loads, and with restrictions in building new transmission
lines series compensation became an attractive alternative to increase power transfer
capability. Adding of 330 Mvar of series compensation to the line provides 70% series
compensation and increased the power scheduling capability by 30 % to 400 MW.

15
The following control modes are used:
• current control (power flow control)
• impedance control (current sharing in the meshed system)
• inductive mode (TSR-mode)

The following control modes have been tested successfully but are not in commercial
operation:
• power oscillation damping (POD-mode)
• phase balancing
• impedance control mode with inductive impedance

2.4 SVC Harker – NGC

Two Static Var Compensators with a nominal rating of –75 to +150 Mvar each have been
installed at the Harker substation in the north of the UK grid near the Scottish border in 1992.
The main task of these SVCs is voltage control, but also a stability controller for damping of
system power oscillations is implemented.

The National Grid Company (NGC) owns and operates the 400 and 275 kV transmission
system in England and Wales. The NGC transmission system is interconnected with the
power system in Scotland by means of two double circuit tie lines.

16
Figure 3. UK grid and system response to a 3-phase fault with and without SVC-POD-
control

The SVCs at Harker were specifically installed for the purpose of increasing the transient and
dynamic stability margins to meet the appropriate planning standards when designing for an
increase in the power transfer from Scotland to England.

The basic control requirement for the Harker SVCs was for constant voltage control with the
SVCs to be operated at zero output, so as to have the full capability of the SVCs available for
transient stability enhancement. The system damping with only constant voltage control was
just adequate as per the planning standards. However it was considered that investing in an
additional power oscillation damping (POD) control loop at the same time could be justified
economically for the future.

The real power flow across the tie-lines between Scotland and England was chosen for the
input signal for the POD controller, based on the experience that there are light damped power
oscillations with a frequency of about 0.5 Hz, which is the lowest electro-mechanical
frequency seen in the system. This mode of oscillation is strongly present in the tie-line power
flow.

The curves in Figure 3 show the calculated system response following a 3-phase fault east of
Harker cleared by line tripping. The power flow in the tie-line as well as the output of one
SVC are shown for the case, that no SVC is in operation, that the SVCs operate in voltage
control mode only and the POD controller is active additionally. While improving the stability
performance also by controlling the voltage a distinctly more rapid damping can be achieved
with the POD control activated.

17
2.5 MSSC - Kanawha River, USA

Kanawha River Mechanically Switched Series Capacitor, commissioned in 1991, is used in

order to adopt the compensation level of a backbone 345 kV line in order to have sufficient
stability margins during an outage of the parallel 765 kV system. Kanawha River is operated
manually from a central dispatch. Depending on loading conditions of 765 kV system the
compensation level of the Kanawha River 345 kV line is selected from 0 to 60%
compensation in 10 % increments. Thereby always having the necessary capacity of the line
in case of 765 kV outage but reducing the compensation level to minimum necessary in order
to reduce system losses.

2.6 TCSC - Stöde, Sweden

The Stöde TCSC, commissioned in 1998, is implemented in order to obtain the desired level
of compensation of a long 400 kV line from the northern part of Sweden down to the central
part where the load is located. In its southern part the line is also connected to a large nuclear
unit. Without the TCSC there is a risk for SSR which would have limited the compensation
level of the line below what is desired with respect to system power transfer capability. The
installation has a fixed part and a thyristor controlled part. (See Figure 4).

Existing SC Added TCSC

M
M M M

U U
U

U U

M U

U U

U U

Figure 4. One-line diagram Stöde TCSC

18
Stöde TCSC uses a local controller using local measured variables such as line currents and
capacitor voltage. The controller calculates the thyristor triggering instants and measures the
capacitor voltage and thyristor currents in order to operate the TCSC at a stable boost level of
20 %. (See Figure 5).

Figure 5. TCSC control system.

The installation is unmanned and operated from a central dispatch some 400-km from the
installation. A station control and monitoring system collect and stores all events and the
installation uses dial up facilities in order to read all information from remote. Operation of
breakers and disconnectors are done in a traditional way using RTU’s.

2.7 STATCOM - EAST CLAYDON, England

East Claydon 400kV substation is located approximately 40 miles to the north-west of

London. This substation was selected as the site for the installation of an SVC to provide
additional compensation in the South. It is necessary for the SVC to fulfil the defined system
need at its initial location at East Claydon and also to be arranged for possible subsequent
relocation to other NGC substations at either 400kV or 275kV. The STATCOM is expected to
be commissioned in late 2000/early 2001.

A STATCOM-based SVC is required to perform at least as well as an equivalent conventional

SVC employing TCR/TSCs. The favourable time-scale associated with this project provided
the opportunity for NGC to purchase a STATCOM-based device, which implements its stated
intention of encouraging new technologies in order to improve the long term performance of
the system. NGC placed an order in January 1997 for a 0 to +225 Mvar SVC utilising GTO
technology (a STATCOM-type SVC) at East Claydon 400kV substation.

19
The SVC must have a smoothly variable output range of 0-225 Mvar (capacitive only, no
inductive range is needed). In response to system voltage changes, the SVC must be able to
change its output over any part of its range within 100ms with a system infeed of 4000MVA.

Shunt capacitors, TSCs and filter banks are constant impedance devices whose current will
decrease in proportion to any decrease of voltage. In contrast a STATCOM can still generate
its rated current, even if the voltage becomes very low, and it therefore acts as a “constant
current device”. A STATCOM is thus able to generate more Mvar at reduced voltage than
would an equivalent fixed capacitor bank. In the evaluation of prices for different types of
SVC, NGC allowed a premium for the additional Mvar generated by a STATCOM at 0.9pu
system voltage compared with a conventional, constant impedance type of SVC.

There are stringent constraints on the acceptable magnitudes of harmonic voltage distortion
caused by the SVC at its point of connection because NGC regards it as important that the
SVC should not significantly increase the levels of distortion pre-existing on the transmission
system even when harmonic resonant impedance conditions occur. The SVC must also be
able to withstand the maximum background distortion, which could be present at any point on
the Grid System.

The SVC is expected to be in service for at least forty years. In order to evaluate the lifetime
cost of the supplied equipment, SVC losses were capitalised as part of the tender review
process. It is expected that the SVC will normally be operated for lengthy periods between 0
and 30 Mvar, i.e. at or near the float condition, thus enabling a large dynamic Mvar reserve to
be available to support the voltage following system disturbances. The losses in the range 0
to 30 Mvar accounted for 80% of the loss evaluation. A further 10% was allocated to the
average losses from 35 to 60 Mvar and the final 10% for average losses from 75 to 150 Mvar.

Basic Configuration of the STATCOM

It would be possible to generate the whole 225 Mvar capacitive output of the SVC using only
a STATCOM. However, this would have the disadvantage that the STATCOM would have a
total dynamic rating of 450 Mvar (i.e. ± 225 Mvar) and its 225 Mvar inductive range and
rating would be completely unused. Following detailed consideration of different designs, it
was decided to use a STATCOM with a total dynamic range of 150 Mvar (± 75 Mvar); a
small, permanently connected shunt capacitor bank ensures that the STATCOM operates at a
low current in the float region of 0 to 30 Mvar, to give less than 0.1% losses (compared to full
output) and consequently only a small value of loss capitalisation.

A thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) then provides the additional SVC output when more
than about 90 Mvar is needed. The TSC rating is less than the dynamic range of the
STATCOM so as to avoid any discontinuity in the characteristic or any tendency for the
controls to hunt near to the TSC switching point. With the TSC switched off, the SVC has
some inductive range; this is not required for continuous duty but the output can be used to
contribute to temporary system needs under disturbed conditions. Thus, during dynamic
over-voltages, the STATCOM is able to contribute to some reduction of the over-voltage by
operating at its rated inductive current with the TSC blocked.

20
 Figure 6. One-line diagram

The SVC components of the adopted arrangement, shown in Figure 6, make the following
nominal contributions to the rated output of the SVC:

STATCOM ± 75 Mvar
Harmonic filter + 23 Mvar
TSC + 127 Mvar

2.8 TCSC- North-South Interconnection, Brazil

2.8.1 Planning Stage

Until the beginning of 1999, there were two main electric power systems in Brazil which have
not been interconnected yet: the South-Southeast (from now on South system) and the North-
Northeast (from now on North system) systems. They are essentially hydroelectric systems
and concentrate more than 95% of the total national production and consumption. Technical
and economical feasibility studies related to the interconnection of these two systems have
been performed since 1992 and by January 1997 the decision was made. The “North-South
Interconnection” would have the aim of exploring hydrologic diversity between the systems,
achieving energy benefits estimated in about 600 MW-year. Power flows would occur in both
directions, depending on the actual hydrologic conditions. This Interconnection should start
its operation as soon as possible in order to reduce the risks of energy deficit in the systems.

21
Two transmission alternatives were considered and analysed to establish the North-South
Interconnection: a DC bipole (+/- 400 kV) and a single 500 kV AC compact transmission line
(4x954 MCM bundle), 1,020 km long. In both cases, this Interconnection should link the 500
kV substation of Imperatriz (North system) to the Serra da Mesa power plant (South system)
and should be dimensioned to transmit up to 1,300 MW, with suitable operation being
required from no load up to maximum flow, in both directions. The generation installed
capacity in South/Southeast and North/Northeast systems will be 48 GW and 14 GW,
respectively, by the time of North/South Interconnection implementation.

From a purely technical viewpoint, this low capacity interconnection between two large
systems having different planning and operating criteria, would have been an ideal textbook
application for HVDC transmission technology. From a strategic and political viewpoint,
however, the AC transmission alternative could be highly attractive for making cheap
hydroelectric energy available to a rapidly growing, newly born, Federal State and to future
developments located over a vast geographic area having enormous economic potential. Six
hydroelectric plants are expected to be built along the same route in the next two decades and
other transmission links (500 kV AC) are planned to cater for this additional generation.

When comparing the technical behaviour of these two alternatives, it was verified that the AC
solution presented a low frequency (0.2 Hz), poorly damped, inter-area oscillation mode. This
oscillation of wide amplitude (+/- 300 MW) represented a serious technical restriction for the
AC alternative. On the other hand, this alternative presented significant advantage in terms of
costs besides the strategic and political benefits mentioned above.

The decision was made in favour of the AC transmission alternative after the solution for the
technical problems was found. In short, the adopted solution consists of a series compensation
scheme that combines Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) with Fixed Series Capacitors
(FSC). See Figure 7.

The Controlled Series Capacitors Banks (TCSC) are being applied in the interconnection in
order to eliminate the restriction related to the poorly damped low frequency oscillations. The
Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC) for the North/South Interconnection aims at increasing the
power transmission line capability up the value of 1300 MW. Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC)
are also being applied in the existing Eletronorte 500 kV system in substations Marabá,
Imperatriz and Presidente Dutra in order to increase the power transfer capacity of this
transmission corridor, which is a need imposed by the implementation of the North/South
interconnection.

2.8.2 Commissioning and Operational Stages

The Brazilian North-South interconnection, the first link between the South-Southeast and the
North-Northeast power systems in the country, was commissioned in the first quarter of 1999.
The interconnection is 1020 km long, and consists of a single 500 kV compact line between
the substations Imperatriz (north) and Serra da Mesa (south). The line is provided with 54%
of fixed series compensation split into six banks, and two Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitors (TCSC) banks, each providing 6% of series compensation in steady state
conditions. See Figure 7.

22
Figure 7: One line diagram of the transmission line

The nominal capacity of the interconnection is 1300 MW in either direction and the purpose
of the TCSCs is to dampen the low frequency (0.2 Hz) inter-area oscillation that may be
excited by any kind of disturbance in the system. The final commissioning tests involved
verification of the damping performance of the two TCSCs located at Imperatriz and Serra da
Mesa. A large number of tests was done, covering small disturbances as well as short-circuit
and tripping of lines and generators.

The system performance testing showed that the TCSCs were very effective in damping the
inter-area oscillations as shown in Figures 8 (with TCSCs) and 9 (without TCSCs). The
interconnection has been in reliable operation since March 1999 with the TCSCs providing
adequate damping for all scenarios, even for those with low power transfer (below 200 MW).
A novel POD (Power Oscillation Damper) structure, the Phasor POD, was successfully
implemented in the TCSC at Imperatriz. Its performance is very nonlinear and very effective,
suggesting the possibility of using this type of controller in other applications such as SVC,
PSS, HVDC, etc.

Figure 8: Trip of 300 MW in Tucurui – PODs enabled

23
 Figure 9: Trip of 300 MW in Tucurui – PODs disabled

2.9 Relocatable SVC’s (RSVC).

It can be very difficult for system planners to forecast future load growth, and the
corresponding future development and expansion of their supply network, for more than a few
years ahead. The installation of new generating plant or high voltage overlays may greatly
strengthen weak points and render some SVCs redundant after only a few years service.
Other developments may result in the closure of some generating plant and a consequent
weakening of the network at that point. The SVCs may then not be well placed to help the
network in its hour of need.

In general, SVCs have been installed by utilities as fixed substation plant, to meet a perceived
long-term need, with a typical anticipated lifetime of 25-30 years or more. Although it is
always possible to move SVCs to another site, as has been done in South Africa, their design
and layout are usually not arranged so that this relocation is a simple task.

In order to simplify relocatability, SVC installations need to be compact, avoiding permanent

buildings; outdoor equipment needs to be arranged in-groups of components that are capable
of being carried, by road or rail, with a minimum of dismantling. Packaged substations have
been used for many years and the use of transportable cabins to provide a weatherproof
housing for sensitive components is a similar concept. Thus the thyristor valves, controls,
protection, auxiliary power sources etc. need to be inside a cabin, whereas reactors,
capacitors, switchgear, auxiliary/earthing transformers, etc, can be mounted outdoors on
easily transportable skids or frameworks, complete with many of their interconnecting
busbars.

NGC developed a specification for standardised RSVCs, which can easily and quickly be
moved from one substation to another, as system needs dictate, without requiring dedicated
transformers and without requiring any design changes to match the system parameters at
their new location. These system parameters can vary over a very wide range.

The RSVC specification called for a rated output of up to 60 Mvar capacitive at a tertiary
winding voltage of 90% (11.7kV), with the target voltage variable between 95% and 105% of
the transformer primary voltage. The slope is adjustable between 2% and 10% voltage change
for a change of current from zero to rated current. Unlike the earlier SVCs, no inductive

24
range is required. See Figure 10 for a single line diagram of an RSVC. In some parts of
NGC’s system, background harmonics have become relatively high and an RSVC must not
appreciably increase this distortion, nor must harmonic currents flowing in from the system
overload it. Relocation from one site to another, including shutting down, disconnection,
dismantling, transport, re-erection, re-testing and re-commissioning must not take longer than
3 months. It is considered that relocation might occur up to eight times in a 40-year service
life of an RSVC.

More recently NGC has updated its specification for SVCs which are required to be
connected at 400kV and 275kV and which include a dedicated compensator transformer.
These directly connected SVCs will also be relocatable and, like the tertiary-connected SVCs,
will not be required to provide any inductive Mvar. Their dynamic range and rating will be
between 150 and 225 Mvar capacitive and relocation must be possible within 6 months.

By incorporating features into the design of an SVC which facilitate its future relocation, the
risk is removed that these valuable plant items will become redundant, or “stranded” on the
system at a point where they can no longer contribute usefully to its system operation. The
flexibility resulting from relocatability can therefore be of great assistance to system planners
when they seek to identify the value of SVCs for their systems. Figure 11 illustrates the
location of the RSVCs and conventional SVCs on the NGC system.

275kV

60MVA RSVC Range

180MVA +60/-0Mvar
13kV

Control System

34.3 17.1 8.6Mvar

132kV
Thyristor - Switched
Capacitors
(Binary Steps)

Figure 10. Single Line Diagram of an RSVC

25
 Conventional SVCs

Relocatable SVCs

Figure 11. Location of SVCs

2.10 SVC Light.

The Hagfors SVC Light, commissioned in 1993, is a three level converter using the IGBT
component. This type of SVC is close to an active filter and uses high switching frequency,
1650 Hz. For the Hagfors installation the SVC will be used for mitigating flicker from Arc
Furnaces in order to improve the Power Quality.

2.11 Phase-Shifting Transformers

In the German 380 kV bulk power system a 1500 MVA phase shifter is in operation since
about 15 years. The main driving force for the installation was the energy exchange of about
1000 MW between the western part of the German grid and mainly the southern part and also
the northern part. Load flow calculations lead to the result that measures had to be taken to
avoid bottleneck situations. As alternative a HVDC back-to-back station was compared to a
phase shifter transformer. The decision for the phase shifter solution was made on the basis of
lower costs. Even today in the context of the open market the phase shifter is an important
device in the energy transport in the UCTE power system. Especially the FACTS elements
can be used to avoid an influence of the load flow between two partners on a third one.

Two phase shifters 220 kV, 300 MVA are in operation connecting the power station
Obrigheim to the German bulk power system.
In the MV-System near Mannheim, Germany, a phase shifter 30 MVA is used. In the context
of Open Access this phase shifter will be sold in 2000.

Since the restructuring of the Electricity Supply Industry in England and Wales in 1990, there
has been no centrally co-ordinated planning of new generation or the removal from service of

26
older plant, and the subsequent future uncertainty has presented a challenge to the network
designer.

NGCs broad approach to planning the future development of the transmission system has
been to try to maximise the utilisation of the existing system. This has been achieved by the
strategic deployment of power flow and reactive compensation devices. To improve real
power sharing some 15 Quadrature Boosters or phase shifting transformers have been or will
have been installed by 2002 at both the 275 kV and the 400 kV voltage levels with ratings
ranging from 750 MVA to 2750 MVA. Further such devices may be installed if considered
appropriate.

Apart from cost advantage, this approach has helped to keep the environmental impact of
reinforcement to a minimum. In addition quadrature boosters or phase shifting transformers,
even the higher rated units, are relocatable, thus facilitating high utilisation of investment.

2.12 HVDC North Sea Cables between Norway and Central Europe

The benefits of utilizing energy exchange between the Norwegian hydropower system and the
thermal power systems in Europe make it interesting to establish new HVDC sea cable
interconnections. As the national authorities issue the required licenses involved, several new
HVDC links will be established from the southern part of Norway to the continent each
having a cable length of approximately 550-km. A total power of 3000 MW or more can then
be exchanged through the HVDC links including the existing Skagerrak interconnection.
Figure 12 illustrates the asynchronous interconnections between NORDEL and
UCTE/CENTREL. Solid lines are existing interconnections whilst dotted lines are tentatively
planned interconnections.

Norway

Sweden

Denmark

UK

Netherlands Poland
Germany
Belgium

Figure 12. HVDC Cable-Interconnections between Nordel and UCTE

27
Historically, the production system in Norway has been designed to cover the yearly energy
consumption also in ”dry” years. As a result, in most years there has been a power export
from Norway to the neighboring countries. The main grid has gradually been developed as a
result of a growing demand and the need to construct new hydro power even further away
from load centers. The grid has also been designed to utilize hydrological variations between
regions and to enable occasional power exchange within NORDEL. The transmission voltage
level is 300 kV and 420 kV.

The main grid in Southern Norway has been developed to meet the predominant transmission
need from west to east. The interchange capacity from north to south at the southern coast is
fully utilized when the capacity of 1000 MW of the existing Skagerrak HVDC links from
Southern Norway to Denmark is fully utilized. A further increase in the power exchange from
this part of the country will therefore require grid reinforcement to increase the north-south
transmission capacity.

Interchange contracts may comprise elements of firm power exchange, occasional power
exchange and pumped storage (energy-neutral) exchange. The characteristics of the
Norwegian power system indicate that the exchange must primarily be based on pumped
storage agreements. As technical, economical and environmental aspects make it unfavorable
to regulate thermal plants rapidly to follow the immediate and daily variations of the load,
access to hydro power for this purpose may be interesting for utilities on the continent and/or
in Great Britain with a thermally dominated generation mix.

The development in cable technology provides an economical basis for cross-North Sea links
even with the considerable distances involved. The cost of Norwegian peak load capacity over
HVDC links may be competitive with thermal alternatives.

From the Norwegian viewpoint such agreements will be interesting for several reasons. The
utilization of the installed capacity will be improved. Flexible agreements with options to
reserve parts of the capacity for occasional power export in ”wet” years and import in ”dry”
years are desirable. Increased exchange capacity may stabilize and give a more predictable
domestic spot market price level. Long term agreements will also reduce the financial risk to
necessary, but capital-intensive, modernization of old plants.

On the continent pumped storage agreements may reduce or postpone investments in new
generating capacity in thermal capacity-constrained systems. Operation costs will be reduced
due to saved fuel costs and an improved degree of efficiency. Fewer starts and stops and a
more smooth thermal output may reduce the wear and tear. Emission may also be reduced and
severity in emission regulations may therefore make peaking from hydropower attractive. The
flexibility for scheduled maintenance will be improved.

The HVDC submarine cables will then mainly be used for export of hydropower during peak
load periods, with options to return the energy during low load periods depending on inflow
conditions and differences of marginal costs in the thermal power and hydropower system.
The main conclusion is that a stronger interaction between the Norwegian hydropower system
and the thermal power system in Continental Europe may be of benefit for both parties. Power
interchange must primarily be based on flexible pumped storage-type agreements.

28
Three new power exchange agreements which include establishing of HVDC links between
Norway and the continent have so far been signed by commercial partners and also approved
by Norwegian authorities.
The new possible HVDC links with an agreed-upon capacity of 600 MW are:
• NorNed (Norsk Krafteksport, Norway and SEP, Netherlands)
• Eurokabel (Eurokraft, Norway and Eurostrom, Germany)
• Viking Cable (Statkraft, Norway and PreussenElektra, Germany)

At the time of writing some of these projects are under review due to the changing market in
Europe and it is likely, that the program will be modified.

2.13 STATCOM at Sullivan Substation

A ± 100 Mvar static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) at the Sullivan substation in the
TVA power system has been in operation in 1995.

Transmission System Conditions :

The Sullivan substation site is one of the few locations on the TVA power system where the
total range of reactive power output (full capacitive to full inductive) of the STATCOM can
be utilized. The substation lies on the fringe of TVA’s service territory in northeastern
Tennessee and is supplied by a 500 kV bulk power network and by four 161 kV lines that are
interconnected through a 1,200 MVA transformer bank. Seven distributors and one large
industrial customer are served from this substation. A one-line diagram of the Sullivan
substation is shown in the figure 13, below.

Figure 13: Sullivan Transmission System

29
Installation Technical Characteristics:
Installation of the TVA STATCOM consisted of the following major pieces of equipment:
A 48-pulse, two-level voltage source inverter that combines eight, six-pulse three-phase
inverter bridges, each with a nominal rating of 12.5 MVA
A single step-down transformer having a wye and delta secondary to couple the inverter to the
161 kV transmission line
A closed-loop liquid cooling system that contains a pumping skid and a fan-cooled, liquid-to-
air heat exchanger unit
A central control system with operator interface.

The STATCOM system is housed in one building that is a standard commercial design with
metal walls and roof and measures 90’ x 50’ (27.4 m x 15.2 m). All of the STATCOM
inverters and associated control equipment are located inside the building, while the main
transformer that couples the STATCOM to the 161 kV transmission line is located outdoors.

The STATCOM central control system is interfaced to the supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) system and is controlled on a routine basis over the SCADA system.

Obtained Benefits:
The STATCOM regulates the 161 kV bus voltage during daily load increases to minimize the
activation of the tap changing mechanism on the transformer bank, which interconnects the
two power systems. The use of the STATCOM to regulate the bus voltage has resulted in
reduction of the use tap changer from about 250 times per month to 2 to 5 times per month.
Tap changing mechanisms are prone to failure, and the estimated cost of each failure is about
$1M.

The Sullivan substation is also equipped with a mechanically switched 84 Mvar capacitor
banks to extend the effective range of the STATCOM to 184 Mvar capacitive to 100 Mvar
inductive. This bank is directly controlled by the STATCOM on a contingency basis in the
event that the Sullivan transformer bank is lost during winter peak conditions. If this occurs, a
10 to 15 percent drop in the 161 kV bus voltage will result. The rapid and coordinated control
of the STATCOM with the fixed capacitor bank will eliminate this problem by maintaining
the voltage at reasonable levels until shunt capacitor banks at other substations in the general
area can be energized.

Without the STATCOM, TVA would be compelled either to install a second transformer bank
at Sullivan or to construct a fifth 161 kV line into the area; both are costly alternatives. The
STATCOM has allowed TVA to defer these large expenditures.

2.14 UPFC at Inez Substation

The first UPFC at the AEP Inez substation was commissioned in 1998.

30
Transmission System Conditions :

The Inez load area has a power demand of approximately 2,000 MW and is served by long
heavily loaded 138 kV transmission lines. This means that, during normal power delivery,
there is a very small voltage stability margin for system contingencies. Single contingency
outages in the area will adversely affect the underlying 138 kV system, and, in certain cases, a
second contingency would be intolerable, resulting in a wide-area blackout.

A reliable power supply to the Inez area, therefore, requires effective voltage support and
added real power supply facilities. System studies have identified a reinforcement plan that
includes, among other things, the following system upgrades:

• Erection of a new double-circuit high-capacity 138 kV transmission line from Big Sandy
to the Inez substation.
• Installation of a FACTS controller to provide dynamic voltage support at the Inez
substation and to ensure full utilization of the new high capacity transmission line. The
UPFC satisfies all these needs, providing independent dynamic control of transmission
voltage as well as real and reactive power flow.

Installation Technical Characteristics:

The UPFC installation comprises (See Figure 14):

Two identical, three-level 48-pulse, 160 MVA voltage source inverters coupled to two sets of
dc capacitor banks
The two inverters are interfaced with the ac system via two “intermediate” transformers, a set
of magnetically coupled windings configured to construct a 48-pulse sinusoidal wave shape.

Two identical step-down shunt transformers and a single series transformer. The transformers
are connected to the inverters through buswork and manually operated disconnect switches as
indicated in the simplified one-line diagram in the figure below.

31
Figure 14. One-line Diagram of the Inez UPFC Installation

With this arrangement, the following operation modes are possible:

Inverter 1 can operate as a STATCOM, with either one of the two main shunt transformers,
while inverter 2 operates as a static synchronous compensator (SSSC).
Alternatively, inverter 2 can be connected to the spare shunt transformer and operates as an
additional STATCOM. With the latter configuration, a shunt reactive capability of ± 320
MVA would be available, necessary for voltage support at some transmission contingencies
in the Inez area.
Under normal operating conditions, the installation will be configured as a UPFC with the
two inverters connected at their dc terminals.
In the event that either inverter is out of service, the other inverter can be disconnected by
means of dc bus switches and can operate independently, providing reactive power support.

Expected Benefits of the Installed UPFC are seen to be:

• Dynamic support of voltage at the Inez substation to prevent voltage collapse under
double transmission contingency conditions.
• Flexible, independent control of real and reactive power flow on the new high capacity
(950 MVA thermal rating) Big Sandy to Inez 138 kV transmission line.
• Optimal utilization of the existing transmission system
• Frees up transmission capacity for years of load growth
• Reduction of real power losses by more than 24 MW, which is equivalent to a reduction
of CO2 emissions by about 85,000 tons per year.

32
The quantified impact of the UPFC on power transfer and voltage quality a the Inez substation
is:
- more than 100 MW increase in the power transfer and
- excellent voltage support at the Inez bus.

2.15 Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) at Marcy Substation.

Experience with the convertible static compensator (CSC) will be obtained at the Marcy
substation on the New York Power Authority (NYPA) transmission system. The system is
expected to be in operation
in 2001.

Transmission System Conditions:

The New York State (NYS) system has two major interfaces, the „Total East“ interface and
the „Central East“ interface. Currently, the transfer across these interfaces is limited to 6,150
MW and 2,880 MW, respectively. Voltage collapse conditions and power system damping
concerns, which could occur at critical contingencies, impose these limits. NYPA and EPRI
have conducted extensive studies to identify the means by which existing operational
restrictions could be removed in order to increase power transfer capabilities while
maintaining network reliability and providing flexibility to meet future uncertainties.

The conducted studies have resulted in the identification of a FACTS controller that could
serve a dual role by initial application as a shunt device, for voltage support in the near term,
and as a series device for power flow management in the long term.

Installation Technical Characteristics:

This innovative concept provides the operational functionality to eliminate the current limits
of NYS transmission system and provides the possibility for power flow management on
more than one transmission corridor. A conceptual block diagram of the CSC structure is
shown in the figure 15, below.

33
 MARCY NORTH BUS

BR12

NEW SCOTLAND
NS-18
MARCY SOUTH BUS

TR-SE2

BR11

COOPERS CORNERS
UCC2-41

TR-SE1

TR-SH

LV1 LV2

MOD 1 M MOD 2 M MOD 3 M MOD 4 M

& CS 1 &CS 2 & CS 3 & CS 4 THYRISTOR
BYPASS
SWITCH
THYRISTOR
BYPASS
SWITCH
I I
inv1 SWDC1 inv2

INVERTER INVERTER
NO.1 NO. 2

Figure 15. CSC Structure

This structure consists of a number of 100 MVA inverter blocks and will provide the
following distinct and interchangeable operation modes:

± 200 Mvar STATCOM

± 200 Mvar SSSC
± 100 Mvar STATCOM, ± 100 Mvar SSSC
± 100 MVA, ± 100 MVA rated inverters for a UPFC operation
± 100 MVA, ± 100 MVA rated inverters for an interline power flow controller (IPFC)
operation.

Expected Benefits of the CSC are seen to be:

- Increase upstate-to-downstate power transfer by 240 MW

- Relieve power transfer bottleneck
- Provide maximum utilization of NYS transmission system
- Relieve power transfer bottlenecks
- Improve voltage control
- Reduce system losses.

34
2.16 Forbes SVS.

Northern States Power Co. (NSP), USA, is operating a SVC in its 500 kV power transmission
network. The SVC, located at Forbes, is part of the Manitoba- Minnesota transmission
system, the purpose is to increase power exchange capability between Winnipeg and
Minneapolis.
The main purpose of the SVC is to improve the generation and transmission systems dynamic
response to network disturbances. With the SVC in service the capability of the transmission
system has been increased by some 200 MW.

The SVC has a dynamic range of 450 Mvar inductive to 1000 Mvar capacitive at 500 kV,
making it one of the largest of its kind in the world. The large inductive capability of the SVC
is required to control the over-voltage during loss of power from the incoming HVDC at the
northern end of the 500 kV line. The SVC consists of two thyristor switched reactors (TSR)
and three thyristor switched capacitors (TSC). The overall dynamic range of the SVC as seen
from the 500 kV side is:

149 Mvar inductive continuously

450 Mvar inductive during 10 seconds every 30 minutes

110 Mvar capacitive continuously

400 Mvar capacitive during 10 seconds every 30 minutes

The step down transformer, rated 168 MVA, has likewise been designed to have a 10 seconds
overload capability of 450 MVA. This short time rating offers substantial economical and
technical benefits to the user.

Two 300 Mvar, 500 kV Mechanically Switched Capacitor (MSC) banks are being controlled
by the SVC controller to extend the compensator range for the slowly changing reactive
power demand of the power grid.

The SVC control is co-ordinated with the switching of the MSC's in order to keep the voltage
changes on 500 kV within 2,5 %. The MSC's are furthermore switched in a synchronised
mode thereby minimising switching transients.

35
CHAPTER 3.

TOOLS PLANNING METHODS AND SIMULATION TOOLS.

3.1 Introduction

In order to collate the large amount of information concerning the planning methods and
the simulation tools used to assess the need and advantages of FACTS devices, a
questionnaire was prepared by three JWG members. This questionnaire was also aimed at
preparing an up-to-date review of the current and recent investigations 1 undertaken by the
different countries and utilities as to understand the actual and possible use of FACTS
devices for their respective system.
This questionnaire was sent to all JWG members and answers were received from:
• eight European countries : Belgium, England and Wales, France, Germany, Norway,
Poland, Romania and Sweden,
• Brazil, USA (two utilities) and Japan

Although all countries were involved at least once in investigations regarding some FACTS
assessment for their power grid, it is not clear whether particular planning methods or specific
protocols of studies were used for this special class of equipment. On the contrary, answers to
the questionnaire tend to show that classic and well established planning methods and criteria
were used.
Except for special cases (British and Swedish studies for instance), it also appears that such
studies were more of conventional planning studies type rather than operational planning
study type which often includes investigations in the field of network topology, operation and
control. No definition of control law for FACTS command is mentioned. Studies involving
both planning and operational planning point of view were only performed in England.
In Brazil and in the USA (2 utilities sampled), the economics of a FACTS project is not made
by conventional planning studies. It is rather a very pragmatic combination of technical and
economical consideration that leads to the investment decisions (investment payback is
generally compared to the direct profitability of an increased system transfer capability).
Information about the planning criteria and the main characteristics of planning studies
involving FACTS are summarised below.

1
Investigations about the interactions between several FACTS devices are not considered
here.

36
3.2 Specific driving forces for FACTS investigation

Some members related actual problems that led to consider a FACTS application as a possible
solution. Some of those problems were identified:

• need to increase the network transfer capacity or to relieve a congested power

transfer corridor,
• better voltage control,
• oscillation damping and subsynchronous resonance damping,
• transient stability improvement against faults for heavy loaded lines,
• specific needs to reinforce the system capability as to allow the connection of a new
IPP to the system or to improve a market position project,
• growing uncertainties in future transmission duties (dispersed generation, IPP…).

Some other reasons were also quoted, justifying some feasibility studies:
• difficulties in obtaining new right of way,
• voltage stability problems,
• the mitigation of unwanted loop flows and power sharing distribution,

3.3 Time frame considered for FACTS investigation

Looking at the general study time frame mentioned by each member, it clearly appears that
FACTS investigations are regarded in some approaches that can be classified in two groups.
A first group where FACTS assessments are made in a relative short term time scale (less that
5-6 years in advance) and a second group where a longer term is considered (10 to 20 years
time frame). This is very coherent with the driving forces which were notified, and which can
also be in two main groups: studies initiated for shortly arising or actual problems, and studies
led by more prospective approaches (feasibility studies sometime led to the scope of a more
long term system development policy).

3.4 Main planning criteria

Looking more in details at the planning intrinsic parameters used in member’s investigations,
some general planning criteria can be listed.

• Load conditions for FACTS investigations

Peak load situations are the most common conditions to be considered in the studies. This is
particularly true for investigations driven by actual problems, which seem to arise in the most
stressed network situations.
More flexibility on the choice of load conditions is found for more theoretical feasibility
studies: mean load level or low load level situations are considered in addition to peak load
conditions. England performs all year round investigations.

37
 • Load Growth rates

Apart from Brazil which have used a very high load growth rate of 4 % for the past years,
load growth rates values raging from 0.5 % per year up to 2.8 % per year are mentioned in the
survey. For the German Feasibility studies, it is not possible to define growth rates because
there is no explicit defined time frame. The Romanian team considered the highest value in
Europe. Other members seem to consider an average load growth rate of 1 to 2 % per year for
their studies, although generally never exceeding 2 %.

• Voltage margins criteria

When studying FACTS options for other issues than pure active power flow control (which is
the case for all members), different voltage margins are considered, all according to each
country planning standards (or grid code). A usual steady state voltage range is the 0.95-
1.05 p.u. domain (especially for the 400 kV level). Some countries seem to widen this range
for N-1 situations or post contingency conditions. A larger voltage range of 0.90-1.10 p.u.
appears to be generally admitted for the 225 kV level.

• Definition of devices overloads

Information has been mostly given for overhead lines. For most countries, an overload
situation arises when the current rises above 100 % of the continuous thermal rating of lines
(defined as the current that the equipment or any system or facility can support or withstand
indefinitely, through the daily demand cycles, without accelerated loss of equipment life).
Also, for most countries, planning criteria take into account of short-term overloads
(conventionally for N-1 states). A 1.2 p.u. overload is generally admitted during a period of
20 minutes, provided that that overload can be removed by authorised manoeuvres within this
period. Sweden defines its overload considering an increase of the OHL conductors
temperature of 20°C. According to planning rules in France, and only in the case of FACTS
devices planning, larger overcurrent limits can be admitted for some cases and during shorter
periods while considering the FACTS rapidity to react.

• Planning criteria (outages and contingency situations considered)

Each individual country has its own rule, according to its planning rules or grid code,
although some general trends are common to all.

N-1 circuit
All members use these.
N-1 transformer

Some members but not all use this planning criterion. Japan
N-1 generator
considers the shutdown of its largest capacity unit.

38
 Apart for England and Wales where this criteria is taken into
account in all cases, N-1 double circuit line and N-2 circuits
are considered by some members and for special cases: with
N-1 double circuit line
lines connecting nuclear plant (Romania, France), or when
N-2 circuits
supplying important areas (Japan) or deficit areas where the
qualitative assessment of inadequate supply show that
dramatic consequences are involved (France and Poland).

N-1 generator and circuit

This is used by some members
N-2 generator

This is studied in Romania and England, to assess the

Simulation of load /
possibility for a given area to be strongly exporting /
generation unbalance in
importing, and to study the maximum transfer capacity
some areas
between this area and the others.

These are sometimes investigated in England and Wales, and

Specific “out of
in Brazil where the kind of contingency scenario depends on
standards” contingency
the structure of the local network (peculiar scenarios for radial
plans
networks and long corridors).

3.5 Planning tools.

• Load flow modelling and analyses

Deterministic methods are the most commonly used for FACTS planning studies, especially
for near term design studies. All countries but France and Japan (for rough evaluation) use
AC load flow modelling for active and reactive power flow studies. France uses an DC
approximation model for most of its active power flow assessments, and a AC load flow for
more in-depth active power studies and for reactive power flow and voltage analyses. The last
one is performed by a model which optimises the voltage profile while making use of any
available reactive power capabilities, and allow the planning of additional necessary
compensation means to maintain the voltage within acceptable limits.
In each country, load flow analyses are performed for steady state conditions and for all
outage situations. The number of different situations under investigation depends on the type
of study being undertaken.
For generally long term strategic views, large number of situations are simultaneously
considered by the means of a probabilistic approach (in France and England).
Names of software and tools are given in tables (the list cannot be exhaustive due to the large
number of “home made” tools which are not commercialised).

39
• Short circuit calculation

All short circuit current calculations are performed according to IEC 909 or better. SC tools
are developed in accordance to those norms.

• Stability Tools

Not all members perform static stability, voltage stability and transient stability. Germany,
Romania and Norway seem to concentrate on transient stability (with some modules that
include the possibility of free definition of control means for FACTS). Belgium, England and
France perform transient and voltage stability with a tool based on a variable time step
integration method which simulates the dynamic behaviour of the system, from
electromechanical phenomena, to long term dynamics and in which FACTS devices are
described as block diagram through a graphic interface. Several different software are used in
Poland to assess static stability, voltage stability and transient stability, while a similar tool is
used for all by the Swedish planners, who use written dynamic models for FACTS devices
such as UPFC, SVC and TCSC when needed in dynamic simulations. Regarding control
system behaviour, it must be noted – as noted by England - that investigations are generally
made at the design stage rather than at the planning stage.

• Economics Tools

Although all members at some point study the profitability and pay back conditions of any
new equipment, three members have declared to perform more in depth economics studies
based on the intensive use of specific economical tools.
In Romania, some cash flow and economic indicators are calculated. They provide indications
of the Net Present Value, the Cost Benefit Ratio, and the Rate of Return or Discounted
Payback.
In France, economic analyses are performed by the mean of probabilistic tools. Based on DC
load flow approximation, they measure costs of redispatching, losses and cost of unserved
energy, by a single point or annual system behaviour analysis, considering a very large
number of random network situations taking account of the system availability. Simulation of
FACTS and their fast acting actions are possible within these tools.
In England, a program aimed at securing the cost benefit ratio of reinforcements is used.

• Other tools

Adequacy of supply and expected costs of unserved energy are assessed by Polish planners,
based on analytical calculations of expected values of failures, frequency, and duration
indices, taking account of partial interdependencies of events.
A tool is also used within NORDEL as to accomplish better analysis of system marginal
profits and utility values derived from -for example- FACTS devices and new transmission
lines. This newly developed Norwegian model integrates market simulations, energy
management and power simulations model with load flow analyses.

Brief details of some of the aforementioned tools are given in Appendix. 3.1.

40
The following tables give a general review of the main planning methods and their
characteristics, and quote the simulation tools used by the seven utilities from which replies to
a questionnaire were received. Information contained in those tables is not exhaustive; tables
aim at allowing general comparisons between countries at a glimpse. Blank spaces relate to
missing information.

41
TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES
AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA

Driving
forces for Master plan (long Compliance with Actual problems Actual problems Actual problems
Feasibility studies
FACTS term prospects) security standards. Feasibility studies Feasibility studies Feasibility studies
studies
2 to 3 years ahead for Y+3 to Y+10 for
4 years
Usual Time actual problems At most 5-6 years actual problems
Later years - some Not explicitly defined
Frame 5 years outlook for ahead Y+10 to Y+15 for
time.
feasibility studies feasibility studies
Peak load conditions
Peak Load conditions
(January 9 am)
Load Peak load conditions Peak load conditions (evening peak load in
All year round Off load conditions Defined for a normal winter)
conditions Medium load level conditions Market driven
studied (January 4 am or June situation
conditions scenarios Off load conditions
4 am depending of the
(summer night load)
problem)
Load
Growth As advised by the Normally set to 1 % 2.8 % per year from
About 2% per year
rate supply companies. per year 2005 to 2020
considered
N-1 circuit/ N-1 circuit/
N-1 circuit/ transformer transformer
transformer N-2 circuits N-1 circuit, IPP and
N-1 double circuits N-1 circuit /
Planning N-1 generating unit generators
N-1 circuit + N-1 Some specific lines for some cases transformer / busbars
Criteria contingency plans N-2 circuits + N-2 circuit connecting
generating units
sometimes N-1 generating unit generator nuclear plants
N-2 generating units combined with N-1
circuit/transformer.

42
TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES
AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

NORWAY POLAND BRAZIL USA JAPAN

Driving Actual problems
Master Plan. Feasibility studies
forces for Actual problems Short term actual Feasibility studies
Actual problems. Master plan (medium problems
FACTS Master plan based on actual
Feasibility studies. term prospects)
studies Feasibility studies problems
Master plan : 10
years, Feasibility Up to 10 years ahead
Usual Time Several years to 10
studies : 3 to 5 years, 10 years ahead (formerly, it used to
Frame years
Actual problems : 1 be 15 years)
to 3 years ahead
Peak load conditions
Average historic
Average peak load (average of 3
Load peak load
conditions Peak load scenarios measures), off load
conditions Light summer load conditions (the lowest
studied Off load conditions Light load scenarios load monitored during
Worst loading cases (July 3 am)
the lightest load
for specific problems
season)
Load 1.4 % from 1999 to
Around 4 % per year Generally less that
Growth rate 2005; 0.5 % from 2 % per year
for the past 3 years. 2%
considered 2006 to 2020.
N-1 circuit/
N-1 circuit/ N-1 and specific but
transformer
transformer N-1 gen. numerous N-k criteria
N-1 circuit / for extra long To be referred to local N-2 circuits for some
unit, N-1 circuit + N-1
Planning transformer / busbars gen. Units, N-2 gen. corridors. Administrations specific cases
Criteria standards (WSCC and
units in some cases, Specific voltage N-1 largest generating
NYPP in our survey
N-2 circuit (limited requirements for unit
for rare cases). radial systems.

43
TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES
AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA

Normal state range
Voltage 219<V<242 108<V<123
Margins As planning standards 380<V<417 Values according to Normal state range 200<V<242
considered Grid Code 0.95 – 1.05 p.u. 380<V<420
N-1 state range
(kV) 205<V<245
365<V<420
SC current
63 kA for 400kV. 63 kA for 400 kV
Limits 31.5 kA for 400, 220,
level, 31.5 kA for 225
generally 31.5kA for 275kV. 110 kV equipment
kV level
admitted
Up to 1 p.u. of line
1 p.u. of line thermal thermal rating for
1 p.u. of line thermal
rating for steady state steady state operation
Line rating for steady state
operation
normal and operation Overload capability Up to 1 p.u. of line
Light overload Appropriate lines and
overload transformers overload For N-1 situation, 1.2
1.0 p.u. of line defined as an increase thermal rating for
thermal admitted if they ca be thermal rating of conductor steady state operation
ratings. p.u. during 20 min
rating removed by temperature by 20°C.
1.3 to 1.5 p.u. during 5
authorised easy
considered or 1 min (depending Transformers overload
manoeuvres (pre-
of the voltage) capability of 1.2 to 1.4
defined list)
p.u.

44
TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES
AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

NORWAY POLAND BRASIL USA JAPAN

Normal state range
Normal state range
Voltage 210<V<245
380<V<420 For SVC : 95 % to According to
Margins 420 kV : 390<V<420
105 % of normal standards set by the
considered 300 kV : 280<V<300 N-1 state range operation range government
(kV) 200<V<245
132 kV : 125<V<145
360<V<420
No fixed value given ;
SC current varies at different 50 kA for 400 kV
Limits places and based on level
generally specific calculation 40 kA for 225 kV
admitted and standard level
procedures
Up to 1 p.u. of line
Line thermal rating for 0.8 to 1.0 p.u.
1 p.u. of line thermal
normal and steady state operation rating for steady state
depending of the
overload equipment.
Overload capability operation
thermal allowed during 15 SVCs must withstand
For N-1 situation, 1.2
rating minutes defined from overvoltage for 1
p.u. during 20 min
considered the loading before second.
outage.

45
 TABLE 2 TOOLS USED FOR FACTS INVESTIGATIONS.

BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA

Probabilistic DC Deterministic AC
Deterministic AC Deterministic DC load flow (PAS- Deterministic AC load
Load Flow and Deterministic PSS/E
load flow load flow INTEGRAL) flow
AC/ DC load flow SINCAL
QUASAR Deterministic AC
Deterministic AC Deterministic AC Deterministic AC load
Voltage limits Deterministic AC load flow (PAS- PSS/E
load flow load flow flow
load flow INTEGRAL)
Calculated according
Calculated Calculated to IEC 909 (PAS-
Short Circuit Calculated according Calculated according to
according to IEC according to IEC INTEGRAL PSS/E
currents 909 to IEC 909. 909 IEC 909
SINCAL
NETOMAC

EUROSTAG PAS-INTEGRAL
EUROSTAG (transient and voltage EUROSTAG (Transient Stability Programs for steady
Stability matters (transient and stability) (transient and studies) PSS/E state, dynamic and
voltage stability) voltage stability) PTI-PSS/E transient stability
PTI-PSS/E NETOMAC

Probabilistic SAMLAST
tools METRIS- MAPS-Mecore
Economical tools ESCORT OPERA (yearly (calculation of
and punctual LOLP and power
studies) deficiency)
SISTAZ Plus
Other tools (reliability
calculation)

47
TABLE 2 TOOLS USED FOR FACTS INVESTIGATIONS.

NORWAY POLAND BRASIL USA JAPAN

Deterministic DC load
PLANS flow
NH2 (from CEPEL)
Load Flow PSS/E PSLF
PSS/E
PSS/E
IPFLOW-PSAPAC Deterministic AC load
flow
PLANS
Voltage NH2 (from CEPEL) Deterministic AC load
PSS/E PSLF PSS/E
limits PSS/E flow
IPFLOW-PSAPAC

Short SHORT
PSLF
Circuit PSS/E PSS/E PSS/E
Calculated according
currents to IEC 909
SSSP-PSAPAC (static
stability) ANAREDE for static EMTP
Stability PSS/E DYNAEMTDC- and voltage stability EMTDC Program codes
PSAPAC (transient (from CEPEL)
matters SIMPOW PSS/E developed by CRIEPI
stability) PSS/E (transient
VSTAB-PSAPAC stability) ETMSP
(voltage stability)
Economical SAMLAST Microsoft EXCEL
tools
EMTDC NIEZ (expected costs EMTDC
Other tools of unserved energy)
PACDYN ATP

48
CHAPTER 4.

FACTS and Open Access Networks – Case Studies.

4.1 Introduction

This chapter considers the application of FACTS devices to meet the specific requirements of
Open Access Networks. Initially the state of deregulation – at the time of writing - is given for
the countries who contributed to the Report, followed by a discussion of the unique
requirements of Open Access Networks and how FACTS devices can help to meet these
requirements. The final section contains a summary of different case studies seeking to
answer these questions for specific examples. The summary is based on cases from the United
Kingdom, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Italy, and France. In some cases FACTS
based projects have been implemented as described, in other cases project implementation
decisions have yet to be taken.

4.2 State of Deregulation with Respect to Open Access

The UK and Norway were among the first countries in the world to deregulate their power
markets by means of open access to bulk transmission facilities in the early 1990s. Since then
Sweden, Finland and soon Denmark have joined the common Nordic Power Pool (Nordpool),
the European Community has taken the first step towards deregulation and most other
industrialised nations are preparing for some degree of deregulation of their power markets.

The implementations vary, from the present single power exchange introduced in the 1990s in
the UK, to the Norwegian model where, in addition, bilateral contracts are options for all
market participants, including household consumers.

Deregulation is moving forward in the US. A few ISOs have been formed and are operating.
In the Western US system the California ISO is operational. Effort is still under way by FERC
to accelerate the formation of Regional Transmission Organisations (RTO) with the goal in
place to have RTO plans formulated by the end of 2000, and the RTOs operational by the end
of 2001.

South America started out early by deregulating bulk power trading and followed up by
deregulating the transmission sector. As an example Brazil recently passed bills to provide
open access both within transmission and distribution.

In Europe the network operations have been kept as monopoly operations. Even though the
energy market is deregulated, network operation is seen as a natural monopoly and network
owners, private and public, have been granted a monopoly under government supervision. In
the U.S.A, Australia and New Zealand this concept has been challenged and competition has
been introduced also with respect to transport services. The argument is that only the core part
of the system operations tasks, such as security and co-ordination of operations, is really
monopoly or government responsibility.

49
At the time of writing this Report, the Nordic countries and UK are fully exposed to
deregulation. The rest of the European countries (following the EC deregulation process) and
Japan have variations of deregulation of the wholesale market. Despite these differences, it
can be argued that even a modest deregulation, like energy wholesale through IPPs, will
create a situation where flow patterns can no longer be predicted with certainty. Thus all
countries deregulating are facing a situation where the system of the future must be able to
cope with potentially large variations in flow patterns.

4.3 Unique requirements for Open Access Networks and how FACTS can
help

Applications of FACTS devices are, clearly, not restricted to Open Access Networks. In
general they are one amongst several options for realising transmission capacity, damping
power oscillations, controlling voltage profiles and stability, and limiting overloading in case
of faults. However restricting ourselves to Open Access Networks and FACTS, we should
question what the unique requirements of Open Access Networks are and how FACTS
devices can help meet them.

In an Open Access Network the Market is dominant. The transmission providers must ensure
that the transmission services do not constrain the development of the energy market. In other
words the Market dictates the flow patterns and the goal of the transmission providers must be
to meet its demands both in the short and long term.

Satisfying this demand is more difficult in a deregulated market than in the old centrally
planned situation. More uncertainty in the planning of new generation directly leads to more
uncertain future transmission demands. This uncertainty related to future flow patterns
favours a transmission system that is flexible in the sense that it must be able to accommodate
all the future possible flow scenarios. FACTS devices for power flow control provide an
attractive option to meet this situation.

In the UK a trend towards building gas turbine units with fairly short planning and
construction times have dramatically reduced the time available for planning and installing
the related network reinforcements. The increased speed of change and environmental
constraints on new transmission lines will lead to increased utilisation of the existing system.
To push transmission capacities to the limit there is a need for flow control in existing
systems. Similar needs are observed even in countries where production capacity is not
expanded, but where increased power input from neighbouring countries have met an increase
in domestic demand. FACTS devices are obvious candidates for controlling flows on parallel
paths and over interconnections in competition with line upgrading or static flow control
devices.

In operations, the trend in the Nordic system is that the market wants to trade closer and
closer to the operating hour. Currently the “standard” timeframe is to close the market a day
ahead, in the future trading up to less than an hour ahead of real – time is foreseen. This trend
leaves less and less time for operational planning and interacting with the market to ensure
system security, and pushes the system planner and operator towards automating services for
handling deviations from the agreed exchanges to ensure system security.

50
Usually a regulating or balancing market takes care of the mismatch between power delivered
and power demanded, manually or automatically operated. For taking care of system security
ancillary services like power reserves allocation and stability control (power oscillations,
transient stability, subsynchronous resonance etc) are needed. With hardly any time for
security planning, both detecting the need for such services and calling upon them will have
to rely on remote control and a large degree of automation, again favouring FACTS type of
devices.

Besides the ancillary services described, FACTS can be used in different ways for “leading”
transits inside given corridors – see Figure 1. These methods based on research activities – see
reference [1] for more details - are somewhat academic because of the investment cost, but
can give transit paths that do not influence the neighbouring power systems. Actual
investigations have been undertaken to check the feasibility of the methods in large power
systems. Those investigations are based on steady - state power flows. After the determination
of the best locations for the FACTS elements the additional advantages e.g. the fast control
possibilities for power oscillation damping (POD) can be investigated.

D D

F F F

F F F F F
A C B A C B

F F F

E E

Figure 1: Direct and indirect method for ”leading” transits

Another operational aspect is the need to control across-the-border power transfer to

accommodate market agreements and security requirements. The whole problem of loop
flows and how to control across-the-border trade is discussed in chapter 5 on FACTS and
Large Interconnected Systems. In a common access bulk transmission system similar to the
one in the Nordic countries, there is an overall objective to utilise the system as a whole,
given the needs of the market. In this scheme there is no need to control across the border
flows due to contract or domestic security reasons, the flows are controlled seeing the bulk
transmission system as a whole. In a transmission path based system, as at present in the
U.S.A., there is an inherent need to control the flow on all lines in the system according to
contracted paths of transmission. Pushed to the extreme, this scheme favours a pure DC, or
heavily FACTS based ac system where line flows can be set at will. However the trend in the
USA is to form large Regional Transmission Organisations (RTO) and internalise loop flow.

51
Bottlenecks can then be addressed in a reasonable manner. In the past phase shifting
transformers were often installed as protection against the unwanted effects of the schedules
of other companies. The RTOs are a requirement of restructuring.

Another area of application of FACTS devices is related to distributed small-scale power

production in weak regional or distribution networks. Wind turbines, solar power, tidal power
and small-scale hydro plants provide power when the source is available and not when
demanded by the consumer. This mismatch is a challenge for power quality and flow control
in traditionally radial distribution systems. In such a scenario FACTS devices can serve as
power quality and flow controllers to ensure the customer receives the same quality of supply
to which he is accustomed.

In summary FACTS devices can help meet the requirements of Open Access Networks in the
following ways:

• Provide flow control (load sharing and interconnection flow)

• Increase transmission capacity i.e. increase utilisation of existing transmission
capacity.
• Improve stability and damping control
• Provide enhanced security control
• Provide ancillary services
• Help post fault system recovery and control
• Control small scale distributed power input in weak networks

4.4 Case studies.

The cases discussed in this section are relevant to the study of or use of FACTS devices to
meet Open Access conditions. Uses of FACTS to meet more general system expansion needs
are not included.

UK

The increase in requirement was driven by multiple individual generation connection

applications. The timescale for treating each of these, and the need to contain risk meant that
solutions were sought within existing technologies, using circuit thermal uprating,
rearrangement of connections and thyristor based SVCs and mechanically switched
capacitors. These alone were insufficient, however, and further improvement in load sharing
i.e. power flow control was needed to avoid a requirement for new circuits. This was
achieved by specifying five 400 kV quad boosters or phase shifters on North-Midlands
circuits and a trans-Pennine circuit, to balance flows. These are the UK’s first at this voltage
and rating (2000 MVA) but the technology is well known (smaller, 275 kV, examples have
operated satisfactorily for many years) and designers could readily model and specify them.
Three of these large quad boosters are now commissioned at Legacy and Stocksbridge
substations, the remaining two (now at 2750 MVA each) are scheduled for Keadby in 2001.
Each has a boost/buck tapping range of ± 20%.

52
Two further 400 kV 2750 MVA units are to be installed at High Marnham and Staythorpe in
2002.

Whilst the system is voltage constrained and requires reactive compensation equipment,
uncertainties in generation siting mean that some areas may require voltage support at short
notice, due to generation closure, whereas new generation openings may reduce requirements
elsewhere. As a consequence NGC now requires new reactive compensation plant to be
readily relocatable. Specifications were developed for relocatable -0/+60 Mvar SVCs for
transformer tertiary connection, and ten of these were commissioned by the end of 1998.
Elimination of a dedicated transformer means these modular devices can be dismantled and
reassembled at a new site in less than three months.

Phase Shifting Transformer (phase shifters) interconnecting France and Italy

The European Directive, introducing competition in the electricity market, requires a better
market liquidity between the numerous European partners. Wishing to increase this market
liquidity and to allow all market actors better interconnection access, EDF has studied various
means to increase the existing exchange transfer capacity between France and Italy. Building
a new 400 kV overhead line between the two countries would encounter severe problems, and
therefore phase shifting transformers appeared to be the most practical and efficient solution.
The interconnection between France and Italy consists of a high capacity two circuit 400 kV
line (north Albertville – Rondissone line) and a weaker one circuit 400 kV line (south

53
 Albertville

Grande le La Bathie

To Rondissone

Coche

Le Cheylas FRANCE ITALY

Praz St
André Villarodin
Super-
Bissorte
Phase Venaus
Vaujany Shifter
Piossasco

Figure 2: EHV network between France and Italy.

The south line has a far lower capacity than the north line, which raises two problems:

- It does not allow optimum use of the water resources in the Alps region: In case of
contingency of the double north line, the power flowing from France transfers to
the south line, which can become overloaded if the flows are too high. To avoid
this problem, specific security rules have been designed as to reduce preventively
the use of local hydroplants. The consequences are economic (congestion
management calling for the substitution of hydro power by more expensive
energy) and environmental (the corresponding energy will have to be produced by
thermal plants which emit pollutants (CO2 , Nox , SO2 ).

- It does not enable to increase the European exchanges: due to important loop
flows in the highly meshed European network, this low transfer capacity corridor
creates congestion on other interconnections (overloads between France and Italy
generally involve limitations of the level of exchanges between France and
Switzerland, France and Germany and even France and Belgium). As a result, the
French Transmission System Operator (TSO) may not be able to satisfy all
demands for transactions toward Italy or other countries, and despite the opening
of the Internal Electricity Market (IEM), may hinder the market liquidity.

Of course, the most efficient solution would be to build a new 400 kV line between the two
countries. However, this construction seems barely possible in the foreseeable future.
Therefore the FACTS solution was adopted.

It was shown that the main constraints would occur on the south line in the case of the loss of
one of the circuits of the two-circuit north line, or in the case of a loss of a tower
(simultaneous loss of both circuits).

To cater for these conditions, the phase-shifter must induce an adjustable additional phase
angle on the south line to operate as a flow regulator, bucking the power in the line. Used then
as a power limiter, the phase-shifter makes it possible, after an outage, to avoid overloads on
the low capacity south line, and to better use the transmission margins available on the north

54
line (if one circuit is available) or on further lines in case of double contingency. The
hydroplants located near to the south line can then be used more effectively, and the level of
exchange with Italy may be increased - as well as the global exchange capacity between
France and her eastern neighbours.

In the case of the interconnection between France and Italy, the phase shifting transformer
size was calculated so as to allow a sufficient bucking action to avoid the south line load to
reach its thermal capacity rating, until the secondary control start to provide additional power
from Italy. Simultaneously, the control law of this device was determined so as to comply
with all possible events. The advantages and disadvantages of both preventive (pre-
contingency) or corrective (post-contingency) actions were considered.

In this work, active power flow studies were performed by the means of the graphic
deterministic XPLOR tool, in which phase shifting transformers are modelled. Then,
economical considerations aimed at checking the profitability of the phase shifter were treated
with the METRIS and OPERA tools, designed for “snap – shot” and yearly studies taking into
account both the hydro resources and the power system.

As a result, EDF has decided to install a 2 x 270 MVA phase shifter located at La Praz
substation. The PST maximum phase shift has been specified to be 15°, so as to enable the
power system to remain stable after the loss of the double north line. An automatic controller
will alter the phase shift according to the situation and the kind of event: in normal operation,
the phase angle will be set near to zero so as to avoid disturbances for the Italian TSO. The
phase angle will be shifted to its maximum for the most severe contingency (loss of the
double line).

German feasibility studies

This section is a summary of the feasibility study undertaken by FGH in close co-operation
with DVG and others. For more detailed information please see the CIGRE paper reference
[2]. In addition information is presented concerning various research projects that arose from
the recommendations of the feasibility study described.

The feasibility study was carried out for a model power system representing the behaviour of
the German bulk power system. Realistic transmission scenarios were investigated as well as
realistic demand forecasts. The system contains about 200 Generators, the total load was 45
GW and the length of the overhead lines – usually double circuit – varies between 30 km and
100 km. The following questions regarding of the use of FACTS were investigated:

• Can FACTS elements be integrated into planning in addition to classical

components?
• What technical and operational prerequisites for the use of FACTS have to be
satisfied in an electric power system, and what consequences result therefrom?
• Do FACTS elements show an economic benefit or do they contribute to a more
efficient network operation?

55
 • To what extent can other investments into the network development be delayed
through the use of FACTS elements?

As a first step, load-flow and stability analyses were used as a basis to determine the possible
applications of FACTS elements for the purpose of:

• Load-flow control and realisation of the network's inherent transmission capacity

in the (n-1) case,
• Improvement of system voltage control and
• Improvement of the system dynamic behaviour.

After determining the particular applications, the technical, operational and economic
advantages and drawbacks of this equipment were compared with conventional solutions.

On the basis of model transmission scenarios, the impact that the use of FACTS elements for
load-flow control would have on interconnected
operation under competition aspects was subsequently, analysed and conclusions drawn as to
the technical, operational and organisational consequences. Furthermore, the required
investment expenditure was assessed by means of specific examples of transmission
reinforcement projects.

FACTS devices can be used in two principal ways: for line current limitation on a temporary
basis or for load flow control on a permanent basis.

The load flow analyses lead to the conclusion that the application of FACTS is not necessary
for permanent action in the scenarios that were investigated. For temporary action the
analyses lead to two situations where FACTS can be used for this purpose. Figure 3 shows an
interesting situation for the possible FACTS application for power flow control.

• Overload of 46 % occurs in the case of a single circuit outage.

• Need of two control elements each 150 MVA
• Centre position of the investigated system.
• SVC, STATCOM and UPFC were the options investigated

56
 E

150 MVA 150 MVA

F

Figure 3.

The dynamic investigation led to the conclusion that transient stability is only slightly
improved. The resulting transient voltage reductions are similar with and without FACTS.

As alternatives the operation with conventional equipment was investigated. Series reactors,
quadrature booster transformers and the construction of new lines were compared with
FACTS. Figure 4 shows the results of the economical analyses assuming a service life of 30
years. The series reactor is used as reference. The FACTS elements are twice as expensive.
The alternative of building a line will be more costly and faces environmental and
institutional difficulties.

GTO-CSC 390%

TC-QBT 340%

TCSC 220%

Conventional 180%
QBT

Series reactor 100%

AC line, loss
reduction low 160%

AC line, loss
-35%
reduction high

0% 200% 400%

Figure 4.

The use of FACTS for permanent operation was investigated for “leading” transits to a given
transit channel. Here different solutions are possible. A reasonable solution will be the not
completely “led” transit i.e. not all participating lines of the chosen transit channel are

57
equipped with FACTS devices. The disadvantage is that the neighbouring system can
experience additional load flows.
If only current limitation on one or several circuits is required in the case of failure, reactors
or conventional quad boost transformers will constitute the most economically favourable
variants.

The investigated FACTS elements stand out for their fast controllability; furthermore they are
able to efficiently improve the system performance with regard to oscillation damping as well
as transmission and voltage stability. However, as compared to conventional equipment,
FACTS elements give rise to higher investment costs.

The construction of new lines, on condition that they can be put through, constitutes the most
long-term economic solution.

A further aspect is the use of FACTS elements for power-flow control in a competitive
environment. The use of several FACTS elements in different partner networks, possibly for
different purposes, is likely to necessitate in most cases a co-ordination of the mode of
operation. This leads to the use of a superordinate master controller that calculates, for
example, the target values of control voltages to be adjusted on the different FACTS devices.

None of the investigated scenarios revealed that the use of a large number of FACTS elements
in the network with fast local control would adversely affect the characteristics of oscillation
damping.

The advantage of power electronic and conventional control elements lies in their mobility.
Therefore, when dimensioning the control elements, it should be possible to assess in advance
the requirements of the location with a view to a later shift.

The results of the study refer to the conditions of a closely meshed German 380 kV network
with generation close to consumption centres. The results and the examples used differed
considerably from the studies implemented in other countries, particularly in the USA. These
countries have mostly installed their generation remote from consumption centres, which
means long transmission distances and long transmission lines. The resulting large distances
between substations and the tendency towards system oscillations - in contrast to the network
conditions in Germany - give rise to a more efficient application of fast acting power-flow
control equipment.

Poland

Several studies have been performed in Poland, projects aimed mostly at controlling the flow
of power domestically and cross-border to its neighbours. Beside load flow analysis, transient
stability conditions and the need for damping of low frequency power oscillations have also
been checked.

Within Poland some new mechanically controlled FACTS (400/220 kV autotransformers in

quadrature or skew ratios) are planned in order to control unbalanced loading of parallel 220

58
and 400 kV systems. Technical and economic assessments showed that power electronic
FACTS controlled devices were too expensive and their fast response performance was not
needed.

Several cross-border flow control projects are at the study/planning stage:

- Existing two 220 kV lines interface at the Polish-Czech border operate in parallel
with the double-circuit cross-border 400 kV line, and tend to be overloaded in
single contingency conditions. It has been concluded that conventional Mechanical
Phase Shifters (QBT type) controllers are efficient countermeasures and should be
preferred economically to upgrading lines.

- A 240 km long, + 450 kV HVDC cable link between Southern Sweden and
Northern Poland, with two 600 MW converter stations is expected to be
commissioned in 2000. The converters will be equipped with fast load control
devices, measures for mitigating SSR resonance and – if needed – with controllers
for damping LF oscillations (being thus counterparts of fast FACTS-controllers).

- Studies performed together by Poland and Lithuania proved the usefulness, in

2005 of a 400 kV AC double-circuit link, interconnecting both countries systems
through a back-to-back HVDC station 600 MW (or 2 x 600 MW) on the
Lithuanian side. A definitive decision concerning the implementation of this
project has not been taken yet.

- In the Southeast the present 750 kV AC line between Chmielnicka Nuclear Power
Plant (Ukraine) and the 750/400 kV substation in Rzeszów (Poland) is
permanently de - energised because of the impossibility of running the two
systems in synchronism. Studies have been made to show the effect of installing
back-to-back (DC/AC/DC) equipment in Rzeszów, transferred and reutilized from
Etzenricht and/or Vienna-South. Implementation will possibly be in 2005 but the
decision depends yet on bilateral agreements between Polish and Ukrainian sides.

Norway

A series of studies of possible applications of FACTS devices was initiated in 1995 – see
reference [3] for more detail. The most promising component was a TCSC. A model for
studying TCSC and/or UPFC performance in relation to flow and stability control in PSS/E
was developed and tested. The studies showed that a TCSC could increase the transfer limits
from west to east in the southern part of Norway by means of flow control. A similar study
was done to test out the performance of a UPFC. The network configuration is shown in
figure 5.

A TCSC would also increase the flow limit for the existing lines between the northern and
southern part of Norway by increasing the transfer level at which power oscillations occurred.

59
A similar study of the exchange between the southern part of Norway and Sweden is
described in the following section.

The results from other studies indicate that TCSCs are effective for handling oscillations
between areas. Their effect in meshed systems is not as obvious, and depends on careful
tuning of the regulators. Implementation is still considered feasible but a decision has not yet
been taken because of the high cost of the devices. So far traditional, manually controlled
devices seem sufficient and represent a less costly alternative.

P1

1,3
Klæbu
Nea
P1 Po

0,7

UPFC
-3 0 3 n

TCSC

Aura

P
2

Vågåmo

P2 Po
Xc

Figure 5: Load flow control between middle and eastern part of Norway.

Sweden and Norway

The demand for increased transfer capacity on the Hasle interconnection has risen during the
1990s mainly as a consequence of market reforms / deregulation in Norway and Sweden.
Active power flows derived from different market reactions have forced main grid operation
in southern Sweden to extremes. Different FACTS applications together with classic grid
reinforcements have therefore been evaluated. Svenska Kraftnät and Statnett presented, in
1997, a feasibility study on a TCSC application in the Hasle interconnection between Sweden
and Norway – see reference [4] for more details. A TCSC was shown to be effective for
damping of electromechanical power oscillations in the Hasle intersection. Electromechanical
power oscillations are however not the single most important limiting phenomenon in this
interconnection. Many of the issues related to energy transit must be solved before any

60
common bilateral investments of considerable proportions are taken. Economic criteria have
led to a FACTS-solution not being adopted due to the very long payback period.

Sweden

Subsynchronous resonance: An evaluation of performed feasibility studies at Svenska

Kraftnät clearly showed that a TCSC-solution was the most effective measure to handle
subsynchronous resonance at the nuclear plant Forsmark 3.
Technical as well as economical realities disqualified other solutions. The TCSC at Stöde was
commissioned in 1998. The project is described in a Cigré report (D.Holmberg,
M.Danielsson, P.Halvarsson, L. Ängquist: ”The Stöde Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor”,
paper 14-105, CIGRE session 1998).

Small scale generation/weak networks: In 1997, ABB Power Systems and GEAB, the local
power supplier, agreed to install the world’s first HVDC Light transmission system on the
Swedish island of Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. GEAB is a subsidiary of Vattenfall, which is
financing the project together with the Swedish National Energy Administration.
In recent years the emerged market reforms together with the push for renewable forms of
energy have brought wind power mills into focus on the island of Gotland. Installed capacity
has greatly expanded on the southern tip of the island while the main load area is the city of
Visby some 70 kilometres to the north.

Today the island needs additional transmission capacity and better means of maintaining good
power quality. Rated at 50 MW the HVDC Light link will connect the windmill park with the
Visby load area. The link will run in parallel with existing AC connection.

The link is based on HVDC Light technology, with voltage source converters (VSC) and two
extruded HVDC Light cables. The main advantages that qualified an HVDC Light solution
were:

• Rapid control of both active and reactive power, giving a high level of power
quality
• Minimal environmental impact
• Connection to weak AC network
• Preassembled enclosures, which reduces civil work, installation and
commissioning to a minimum.
• Cost effective with a favourable payback time.

TEN-Study: New HVDC Electricity Links between Central Europe and Scandinavia

The TEN-Study was initiated by plans for three new HVDC-cable connections between
Scandinavia and Central Europe – see Figure 6. The participants in the study are Norway,
Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands.

The main technical task of the study is to investigate the interaction of the different power
systems involved. Therefore three working groups (“System Interaction Common”, “System

61
Interaction Norway”, and “System Interaction Continent”) have been established to deal with
particular aspects of the complete system.

The investigations deal with

• short circuit analysis
• oscillatory stability (inter - area oscillations) of the interconnected systems
• transient behaviour of the system for faults in different systems (transient and
dynamic stability)
• transient overvoltages
• harmonic interaction between the converters.

According to the time schedule the complete study will finish in autumn 2000.

Equivalent,
Equivalent buses
buses machines
machines

Detailed
model

Equivalent POLAND
UCTE
GERMANY
system

Figure 6: Overview of the investigated power system

The “East-West High Power Transmission System”

In 1994 a feasibility study was initiated on the “East-West High Power Transmission
System”. The linking of the four power systems of Russia, Belarus, Poland and Germany was
investigated with a maximum east-west load flow of approx. 4000 MW. The following
alternatives have been investigated:

• HVDC transmission system between Smolensk and Frankfurt via Minsk, Warsaw
and Berlin with 5 converter stations, one for each partner (multiterminal).

62
 • 750 kV AC lines with HVDC back-to-back stations in Smolensk and Minsk.
• Utilising the existing grid with some reinforcements and a HVDC back-to-back
station between Belarus and Poland.

The comprehensive feasibility study has been undertaken with the following main objectives:

• Investigate various options ; alternating and/or direct current (technical, system-

strategic, ecological and economic aspects)
• Preliminary determination of transmission line routes and location of substations
• Determination of nominal electrical parameters (transmission line capacity,
voltage, losses, electromagnetic fields, radio interference, etc.)
• Loadflow and stability calculations
• Analysis of expected future power production situation of the partners
• Determination of economic effects and conditions of power exchange
• Estimation of expected investments for considered variants
• Clarification of financing possibilities
• Evaluation of the benefits of the variants for the partners
• Clarification, presentation and evaluation of the advantages and risks of realising
the variants
• Definition of the preferential variant for the high power transmission system
• Clarification, presentation and evaluation of the economic, legal and political
conditions for the joint realisation of the project
• Definition of the status of power transmission system including clarification of
legal possibilities in the event of a joint realisation of the project especially
regarding the question of the creation of a joint-venture company with the
following possible tasks: planning, projecting, construction, question of
ownership, control, operation and maintenance.

The investigation was performed for the years 2005 and 2010 taking into consideration that
the UCPE and the Unified Power System (UPS) are not synchronously connected. Because of
technical, ecological and economic reasons the + 500 kV Multi-Terminal HVDC
Interconnection was the preferred option. The cost details refer to a DC line with two bipoles
and a conductor cross section of 4 x 564/72 ACSR for each pole. The following route was
assumed having a total length of app. 1800 km: Smolensk (Russia) – Minsk (Belarus) –
Warsaw/Ciechanow (Poland) – Berlin (Germany, VEAG) – Frankfurt a. M. (Germany, PE).

Figure 7 shows the route of the East-West High Power Transmission System as planned as a
consequence of the 1994-feasibility study. In the meantime further studies have been
performed and the planning has been extended to include the future (possible) Baltic Ring. A
feasibility study is presently being undertaken which includes the High Power Transmission
System and the Baltic States. The actual planning of the HVDC multiterminal system consists
of 7 locations with 9 converters (Fig. 8) with stations in Germany (2), Poland, Russia
(Kaliningrad), Lithuania, Belarus and Russia (Smolensk).

63
Figure 7: Route of the East-West High Power Transmission System (Planning 1994).

Figure 8: Route of the East-West High Power Transmission System (Planning 1997)

64
After completing the study, which was funded by The European Community (TEN), in spring
2000 the conclusions regarding the future of the HVDC-connection can be summarised:

• The overhead-line route starting in Wahle (Germany) to Smolensk (Russia) has a

total length of about 2000 km. Official approval of this route seems to be possible.
• The available transmission power of the HVDC line is 4000 MW. The reliability
of the supply exceeds the reliability of comparable power plants.
• The economical assessments are positive, given the different load characteristics as
well as time zone differences (1 – 2 h).
• The main advantage is given by transmission of middle and peak load power as
well as by reserve power.
• Compared to the transport of gas the HVDC transmission has nearly the same cost
of investment as well as comparable losses. The main advantage of the HVDC is
that operation is bi - directional.

The implementation of this project is dependent upon the need for/timing of additional power
plants and/or the refurbishment of existing power plants in the western part. The HVDC
alternative has economical advantages compared to the costs of building new plant.

[1] Schnurr, N.; Weber, Th.; Wellßow, W.H.; Wess, Th.: Load flow control with FACTS
devices in competitive markets. DRPT London April 2000
[2] R.Gampenrieder et al. – Load – Flow control in EHV networks. Feasibility study on the
possibilities of application of FACTS elements in the German power system. CIGRE 1998.
SC 14 – 110.

[3] EFI TR A4376, Grande/Fosso/Gjerde/Hernes/Uhlen: HVDC and power electronic

components (FACTS) – Technical status, network analysis and possible utilization in the
Norwegian main grid. December 1995.

[4] Svenska Kraftnät, Statnett: ”Innledande studie av systemmessige forhold med to TCSC-
anlegg med demperegulering i Hasle-snittet”, common report 1997.

65
CHAPTER 5.

OPEN ACCESS AND LARGE SYSTEMS

5.1 Introduction.

FACTS have been commissioned around the globe for many years. As the FACTS definition
has deliberately been enlarged to the most classic and basic devices in this survey, we can
state that the first FACTS devices were installed during the 30’s, long before open access
perspectives. At this very first stage, the main idea which drove such commissioning was to
increase the natural load of a specific high impedance electric path, or to allow a better load
sharing of local unbalanced parallel electric links. Better management of reactive power of
more stable network behaviour were also in the scope of a better utilisation of assets in
specific more or less constrained areas.

The problem today is not different while the electric utilities often focus on more advanced
power electronic devices:

1) The most classic devices are still used to allow a more balanced use of parallel electric
links and a better loop flow management, to relieve congestion and redistribute flows to
relieve overloads,
2) More advanced devices are used for reactive power management and low voltage profiles
which are generally a consequence of the load increase in electric lines,
3) To help to keep the system stable and robust to all events which could possibly affect the
static or dynamic stability of the network.

In all cases, the problem is local (limited to a corridor, the interconnection between two
regions) and generally due to either an increase of energy transfer through this corridor or
this interconnection, or a drastic change of load flow pattern compared to what was
scheduled at the planning stage.

The local characteristic of such problems is easy to demonstrate. In the same way as for road
networks, weak capacity portions always create congestion also called bottlenecks in the
power industry. Then, in all countries, capacity or other technical restrictions on high voltage
networks are always concentrated in a few specific areas, always well addressed by
Engineers. They often correspond to regions of highly growing development, or places where
a network reinforcement (new line, refurbishment of existing assets) was decided but never
commissioned, mostly for political or environmental reasons.

The main other reasons of such bottlenecks (or even limited transfer capacity from one spot to
an other due to voltage or stability problems) come from the world-wide evolution which
affect more and more the scene of the electricity sector, and rapidly change the hypothesis
used during the last decades of network development and planning. Deregulation of the
electricity sector, development of open access, birth of a European Internal Electricity Market
(IEM) are all the cause of the problem which will be considered in the following in two stages
according to the market force (national and international).

66
5.2 Use of FACTS for National Open Access

Open access in most countries involves generally well known consequences. While the right
for any customer to choose from a range of supplier remain a subject of subsidiarity of each
European member states (notion of eligibility), more and more have the choice to contract
electricity purchase to numerous generating companies which compete for market. It implies
that:

1) Electricity transits pattern resulting from contracts arrangement are more and more driven
by the market rather than the long term equilibrium which was involved by a long term
vertically integrated development policy ;
2) Bulk electricity transfer is more and more concentrated in denser geographical corridors
which form between two specific areas: some areas where for numerous reasons the
settlement of new generators attracted by low price generation prospects is facilitated, and
some areas where industry and energy customers gather and concentrate.

Numerous examples of such situations exist in many countries and the situation sometime
arises where local network transfer capacity increase are required as to follow the
development of bilateral contracts (or even to allow the access of an increasing number of
actors to some electricity markets of pools).

Many examples show that in such situation, classic or more advanced FACTS were used to
allow additional implementation of generating assets; chapter 4 relates some cases where one
or several FACTS devices were specifically installed conjointly to the connection of a new
power plant or a new IPP (which without the FACTS would have been substituted to an other
higher costs generator, better located from the network point of view). The problem to solve
was to increase the global transfer capacity of a given corridor by a better balance between
different lines with different impedances, different compositions (OHL versus cables) or
different capacities, or was to manage loop flows and load sharing of different voltage
equipment. It could also have been the need for voltage support due to this higher power
concentration or system stability support within security limits.

In many cases, FACTS do not provide additional system capacity, and have limited life in
their application. In other cases, it is not possible to envisage the connection of additional
generators or IPPs without envisaging the development of the system with new assets (lines or
cables). Such situations well predicted in advance are one of the reasons why FACTS tend to
be relocatable (another reason is the fluctuating character of generating units profitability or
life).

67
5.3 International Scale Open Access and FACTS.

The question, which should be dealt with, is to what extent FACTS could provide suitable
solutions to enhance the open access at larger scales than regional, for power transactions
between countries or some group of countries.

One of the best examples for such a case is the European Internal Electricity Market (IEM)
which is emerging from the European Community Directive, and progressively being
implemented by all European Community countries.

Long term collaboration in electricity exchanges took place long ago between different
European partners. Such exchanges were common agreement among the members of the
synchronous zone of former UCPTE (now become UCTE), and UCPTE had exchanges with
other interconnected areas such as CENTREL, NORDEL, SUDEL and England and Wales
(connected to the rest of Europe by an HVDC link) which were themselves practising energy
exchange within their zone of synchronism. It is important to note that due to those very long
term political and financial involvement’s, the European transmission grid developed as it is
now, with specific cross-border tie lines commissioned between long term exchanging
countries.
Following the European directive and all matters involved in the unbundling of former
vertically integrated companies, the market structure of European exchanges is experiencing
drastic changes. To promote competition on the generation business, the directive requires an
extreme market liquidity in parallel to a non-discriminatory access to the network for all
actors to be granted by the TSOs.

The TSOs are responsible for:

1) the non discriminatory allocation of capacity on international tie-lines,

2) the management of congestion which should be as efficient as possible as to enhance the
market liquidity,
3) the assessment of system security (operational planning duties and real time security
assessment).

At the heart of Open Access is the consumer’s right to choose supplier at will. This implies
that the customer and the supplier in principle make deals independent of the physical
transmission capacity of the transmission network. The market is “right” and the main
purpose of the transmission system is to enforce as few restrictions as possible on the
marketplace.

It can be argued that open access does not change the power flow in the distribution system
compared to the old scheme. The flow is mainly given by the power demanded by the
consumer and not by which bulk supplier he buys power from. The conclusion would be that
the load demanded by the customers it’s serving still would dimension the distribution
system. The market influence is restricted to how price variations affect the amount of power
demanded.

For the transmission system the situation is different. It is fully exposed to the changes caused
by open access. Markets decide where and when power is produced, and dictate the flow
pattern in the transmission system. The equilibrium of flow patterns generated by the long

68
term, stability oriented, vertically integrated (often national or regional) utilities no longer
applies.

Experience from the development of the Nordic power market indicates that these challenges
follow the expansion of the marketplace. When the Norwegian market became a Nordic
market, the congestion at the border tie lines were similar to any market restricting lines
within Sweden or Norway. The transition from a national to an international marketplace
based on open access included both technical and cultural aspects. Technically there are now
no national borders, only congested tie-lines between areas, but the cultural and political
aspects demand that the specific national interests of consumers and producers be considered
and addressed.

It is also now recognised that in a true open access market, the theory is that economic
incentives slowly will remove nationally based restrictions as the advantages become obvious
and as trust between the participants is established.

Enhancing market liquidity and satisfying all market actors requests for transactions involves
an efficient treatment of congestion which by nature limits the number of transactions, the
number of request of network access and thus hinder international trade. In the short term and
for limited volumes of exchanges, congestion treatment may be envisaged by specific
congestion management methods which are to be chosen by the member states, the TSOs and
according to the severity of the congestion; some congestion may also be cleared out by the
way of technical means (FACTS are one option). But anyhow, it is obvious that structural
congestion must call for much more efficient and durable solutions such as network
reinforcements, or more generally the development of interconnections. Let us examine those
points with the western and central European countries, where traditions for balancing supply
with demand within the nations have put restrictions on power exchange across national
borders. The situation is that with open access introduced and consumers starting to see the
results of market freedom within the country, they progressively ask why they can’t start
buying power from neighbouring country suppliers at lower prices.

Then some specific trends have been emerging from a few years experience of open access at
the European system scale:

• In most cases, the electricity market is extremely volatile and for different reasons
(electricity price, demand,…) is constantly changing, sometimes several times a day. It is
particularly the case for all transactions towards electricity pools, short terms markets such
as intra day markets, spot markets etc.

• Bottlenecks within Europe and between countries could be classified into two groups. A
first one would be the group of congestions, occurring on very special situations of
network topology, and for non-typical load generation schedules (forced outages
situations, typical day-off in some countries involving particular load pattern, etc…). Such
situations are scarce, generally forecasted and are specifically addressed by adequate
preventive measures. A second group gathers the well known and well located more
severe structural congestion, which are occurring most of the year and are created by
strong and constant unidirectional demand of unidirectional transactions. Among this
second group, some congestion have a long existing record and are mostly linked to a new
network reinforcement project which was postpone or cancelled; others are newer, and are
the consequence of new market trends i.e. when the market is extremely profitable in one

69
 specific direction with very high profit expectations attracting too many market actors. For
European examples of such structural bottlenecks, one may quote the interconnections
Holland-Belgium-France-Germany, or France-Spain, or even the international links with
Italy.

• The requests of IPPs or large generators to access specific high profit zones is such that
the corresponding global volume of request (in MW) sometime exceeds by several times
the actual existing or available capacity. For instance, in November 1999, during the
reservation process of interconnection capacity for importation to Holland, the sum of the
firm requested capacity allocation was more than 10,000 MW to be compared with an
actual available capacity of 800 MW (the first declarations of intention went up to a total
request of 350,000 MW of capacity). As a matter of fact, the pro-rata allocation principle
chosen by the Dutch Regulator led to an allocation of 5.3 MW for each one of the
transactions…. Such extreme example shows that some markets like the APX in Holland
or other markets in Europe are so attractive for market actors that any interconnections
leading to the supply of such markets will always be over-requested and thus always used
up to their full transfer capacities, while several transactions will have to be limited to
avoid congestion. Such example also shows that market liquidity in so congested
interconnections may be an unreachable target.

The analysis of those specific aspects of large system scale bottlenecks brings the question
whether devices such as FACTS may be well adapted to the problem. Two different groups of
congestion, respectively coherent with two different time frames can be envisaged.

The short term challenge or managing unexpected congestion

A market settlement might be infeasible due to a lack of transfer capacity in the transmission
system while it involves congestion that in some way must be managed. In the short term, one
has to make the best use out of the system at hand. The following figure - Figure 1 -illustrates
what type of limits that cause congestion and the role of FACTS devices in alleviating the
congestion.

Stability limit (with FACTS)

Thermal limit (with FACTS)

Line loading

Thermal limit (without FACTS)

Stability limit (without FACTS)

Security margin

Operational line limit

Figure 1 - Security limits on interconnections.

70
In this example dynamic stability is the limiting phenomena. If the stability problem can be
managed, the thermal limit of the heaviest loaded line in the interconnection is limiting.
FACTS devices might help control the dynamic stability problem to “move it behind” the
thermal limit of the interconnection, and help distribute the power flow more evenly among
the lines in the interconnection (a security margin is added to the most limiting security
problem). It should be noted that operating lines to their thermal limits increases losses
significantly and this has to be taken into account in the economic appraisals.

A competitor to FACTS devices for stability control is traditional control systems. For flow
control, the alternative is traditional devices like capacitor banks or phase shifters. In the last
case the flexibility and robustness of FACTS devices can be met with relocatable traditional
devices.

The long term challenge or managing structural congestions

While the challenge in operations is to minimise the restrictions put on the market by the
transmission system under changing flow patterns, the long term problem is to find out how
and when to increase transmission capacity. FACTS devices can help utilise the existing
system components up to their thermal limits but not beyond. The remaining alternatives are
to increase the system transfer capacity or to increase production at the load side of the
interconnection. The long-term challenge is a complex incentive problem, and will not be
dealt with here except for pointing out that it has a strong relationship with how economics of
short-term congestion are handled. Who gains and who loses due to operating restrictions
form incentives for addressing system expansion.

A real competitor to “technical solutions”: Economic tools for congestion management

A simple and elegant way of handling congestion is by means of economic tools. For
instance, dividing the market into price areas or using buy-back or buy-forward to avoid
bottlenecks are already well proven techniques in several energy markets. Capacity allocation
on different economic basis are also a solution. In all cases, economic tools put the cost of
congestion on somebody. Then, the size of the cost over time will decide at which moment a
FACTS device for flow control or a system expansion project is the better option.

Economic tools for congestion management can therefore be said to serve two purposes. They
handle unexpected congestions a lot cheaper that expensive control or FACTS equipment, and
they provide a motive for such devices or system expansion when congestions are persistent
over time.

5.4 Tentative Conclusions.

One of the main challenges for Large Open Access Systems is handling bottlenecks in the
system, created by a mismatch between the desire of the marketplace and the transmission
systems physical capability.

71
FACTS devices provide Open Access systems with flow- and stability (voltage and power
oscillations) control functionality, and are as such one of several options for increasing the
systems physical capacity. Their main advantage over transmission line expansion and
traditional flow control units is that they are more robust with respect to varying flow
patterns. The main disadvantage is that they do not really increase capacity, they only enable
the utilisation of the systems maximum capacity, usually to the thermal limit. To this regard,
one can see that the treatment of international congestion with FACTS remains essentially a
local and very limited issue unable to provide sufficient further transmission capacity on the
interconnections leading to real market liquidity.

One of the main competitor to physical flow control (or stability enhancement devices) are
economic tools for handling bottlenecks, mainly cross-border co-ordinating redispatching
(also called counter trading in the Nordic Countries) price areas (in countries where spot
market exist), or numerous capacity allocation mechanisms based on Auctioning. Trading can
be used both ways to fully utilise a path: cross-border co-ordinating redispatching when
power flow is too high and parallel trading when not fully utilised. Note however that except
cross-border co-ordinating redispatching, all those economic mechanisms allow to fully use
capacities but do not really provide new room for international trade by physical capacity
enhancement.

The economic control schemes also put the cost on “somebody”, creating a motivation for
spending money on physical flow control devices or on capacity expansion. This leaves a
“space” for FACTS devices between economic control schemes and real physical capacity
expansion (new lines, upgrading old lines..).

This “space” is presently independent of network tariff scheme. In a point tariff system the
TSO will seek to optimise operations by minimising bottleneck costs (and losses), having to
face the long term risk involved in answering the question: Should I use my economic tools,
should I invest in control (FACTS & other control options) or expand capacity? In a contract
path system, as in the U.S.A, with many independent transmission providers it seems to be
more of a challenge to come up with a regulatory concept that gives the correct signals to
address the same problem i.e. finding the right balance between economic tools, control and
expansion.

When it comes to actual examples of the use of FACTS devices in relation to open access, the
obvious examples are tied to increasing the capacity on interconnections as shown in some of
the case studies in chapter 4. When it comes to security enhancement like stability control or
fault trajectory control, it remains to be seen if the cost of the devices can give them a role in
the mentioned space between economic tools and system capacity expansion.

72
CHAPTER 6.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF FACTS DEVICES.

6.1 Introduction.

Except in situations, where the application of FACTS devices is required by technical

necessity or where very strict environmental constraints make impossible or prohibitively
costly extensions to an existing network, the use of FACTS devices is most often optional.
The preferred reinforcement option, for any particular situation, will depend on the results of
comparisons of the different possible solutions available, with and without the application of
FACTS devices. In these complex comparisons, economic factors will often be the most
important consideration that determines whether or not FACTS equipment is used.

Shortage of adequate meaningful information on FACTS device initial costs (present and in
the future) is one of the main factors which limits the accuracy level of any economic
calculations undertaken when justifying their use.

The principal objective of this chapter is to establish a credible base of coherent specific cost
data for various FACTS controller types – which can be used in cost - benefit or feasibility
analyses.

Other objectives of the chapter are:

♦ To identify the main reasons of FACTS controller cost discrepancies.

♦ To assess the actual and maximum achievable accuracy levels for FACTS device specific
costs. This level should be taken into account when determining acceptable
simplifications in performing economic analyses.

6.2 FACTS controllers – estimated specific costs.

Table 1 presents an overview of presently available information on specific investment costs
for various FACTS controllers and for their conventional counterparts. This information is
derived, in the main, from FACTS installations commissioned prior to 1996, with some
information from studies concerning post 1996 projects.

Before commenting upon the mutual coherence and “goodness” of the collected information
for performing economic analyses –which it is suggested anyway are limited to feasibility
study level - a short critique of the “source” information material is needed.

73
Most of the source material, particularly that showing relatively good coherence, is concerned
with the North – American market. This is to be expected given the fact, that for over 10 years
the appropriate source publications were sponsored and co-ordinated in the USA by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

Of the source materials used, the most valuable was the report [1] which contains, besides the
bare values of specific costs levels, information about how the investment cost structure and
its components have been used as a basis for the calculation of specific cost

Of the other source materials utilised and quoted in [1] as original, most came from EPRI co-
ordinated and sponsored studies. In particular one was a scoping and overview study, which
tried to define the dispersion range for the estimated specific costs for different controllers
types. The remaining material is based upon specific FACTS controllers application studies
for various utilities.

A significant feature was that most of the aforementioned studies were technical in nature and
tended to treat the question of devices investment costs in a less than rigorous manner.

Given the above observations the following reservations arise concerning the coherency and
“goodness” of the specific costs quoted in Table 1:

The dispersion (spread) of the estimated values is distinctly greater for new FACTS device
types. This is obviously logical, bearing in mind the following:

• the very small number of installations, i.e. the results are highly dependent upon
particular projects and their specific local conditions,

• most installations were prototype in nature.

At the same time it is interesting to note that there is considerable disparity even between the
specific costs for the established FACTS devices (for example SVCs). The most likely
explanation is that the device specific costs have been assembled from the component costs in
an incomplete and inconsistent manner.

Another sources of inconsistency in the FACTS controllers specific costs may arise because
of the use of different definitions for controllers ratings. For example an SVC – is assigned a
rating possibly the larger but not the sum of the inductive and capacitive outputs. Confusion
also seems to arise between the continuous and short-term ratings of FACTS devices.
Reference 1 suggests a methodology for improving the accuracy and coherency of FACTS
device specific costs.

An important “drawback” of the data presented in Table 1 specific costs is their relative
“obsolescence”. (This remark concerns mostly the newest of the considered FACTS devices -
TCSC, STATCOM, TCPST, SSSC and UPFC).

74
For these controllers it would be useful to undertake additional investigations, analysing in the
first instance the probable costs reductions over next 5 or 10 years due to various reasons e.g.
technological advances, standardisation of certain solutions, quantitative increase of
production and sales. 1)

6.3 Conclusions.
The general conclusion (drawn from analysis of Table 1) is that the cost data presented is not
consistent, for the reasons given, and should be used with care when undertaking economic
analyses. Clearly sensitivity studies must be undertaken using the variations indicated.
However the data given in Table is a useful compilation of existing data and can be used as
the basis for further more accurate cost information compilation.

References:

[1] J.Van Coevering et al. – The next generation of HVDC.

Needed R and D Equipment costs and cost comparisons.
Paper on the Conference: The Future of Power Delivery, April 1996, Washington.

[2] EPRI – TR – 112965 – Application of FACTS Technology to the Polish Power Grid
EPRI, Palo Alto CA, PPGC Warsaw Poland, 1999.

1) In [1] it was mentioned, that such a short analysis had been performed in 1996 by the two
(of three) major vendors operating on American market for HVDC turnkey costs
estimating the probable reductions of these costs.

75
Table 1. Specific costs of different FACTS devices and their conventional counterparts
(1)

Specific
Dispersion
cost (C s ) Year of
No. Device range of C s Comments Source of information
2)
publication
$/kVA, value
$/kVAr
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Shunt controllers

1.1 Shunt capacitors (conventional)

most references in
1.1.1 8 [1] 1996
USA
1.1.2 10 +/-10% E P R I-EL-6943 1990

1.2 SVC
referred to sum of
[1] Chester (550MVAr)
1.2.1 45 inductive and 1990
SVC actual costs
capacitive ratings

1.2.2 45 E P R I-TR-103167 1993

1.2.3 40 -30%+50% E P R I-EL-6943 1990

seems to be too
1.2.4 80 E P R I-TR-103641 1993
high

1.2.5 35-50 [1] ABB-sales estimate 1995

[2] cited after EPRI
1.2.6 35 spnsored study for a 1996
USA utility
1.3 STATCOM and/or shunt portions of UPFC

G E /TV A-IEEE paper

1.3.1 48 1994
(cited in [1])

[1] Westinghouse-sales
1.3.2 50 1995
estimate

as in 1.2.6 position
1.3.3 80 1996
(above)

2. Series controllers

2.1 Series capacitors (conventional)

included costs of
2.1.1 20 +/-25% devices for SSR E P R I-EL-6943 1990
mitigation

2.1.2 10 E P R I-EL-6943 vol.II 1991

2.1.3 13 E P R I-TR-103641 1993

2.1.4 20 E P R I-TR-103167 1993

2.2 MC PST (PAR,QBT) - mechanically switched phase shifters

2.2.1 20 +/-15% E P R I-EL-6943 1990

2.2.2 10-20 E P R I-TR-103904 1994

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
76
Table 1 (cont.)

1.1.11 2 3 4 5 6 7

PST(QBT type, [2], based on ABB-Elta

2.2.3 30 1998
220kV 50 MVA) (Poland) budget prices

2.3 TCSC

2.3.1 40 -30%+50% E P R I-EL-6943 1990

2.3.2 32,5 E P R I-EL-6943 vol.II 1991

2.3.3 40 E P R I-TR-103641 1993

2.3.4 40 E P R I-TR-103167 1993

2.4 TCPST (TCPAR, TCQBT) - thyristor switched phase shifters

strongly dependent
2.4.1 50-100 E P R I-TR-103904 1994
on configuration

2.5 SSSC or series portions of UPFC

[1] Westinghouse-sales
2.5.1 50 1995
estimate
[2],cited, after EPRI
2.5.2 80 sponsored study for a 1996
USA utility

additional comments to table 1

1) Data taken mostly from publication [1], containing information from before 1996,
completed by some more recent information from other sources, collected in [2].
2) Publication number codes, quoted in column 6 of table above as original sources of
information denote reference numbers of EPRI and EPRI sponsored publications

77
CHAPTER 7.

CONCLUSIONS.

This Report is intended to be a Planner’s Guide to FACTS applications in the context of Open
Access Transmission networks. FACTS technology and their areas of application have been
reviewed; also a number of case studies are described which it is hoped will be helpful to
Planners of transmission networks. A wide range of analytical techniques is described. The
information provided is mainly related to European experience and is a snapshot of the
situation in a fast developing scene.

This report has described a number of FACTS devices, the result of 10 years or more of
development. It seems certain that developments of FACTS technology will continue aimed
at finding flexible control devices to meet the needs of deregulated systems whilst continuing
to strive for lower costs.

Deregulation and the opening of electricity networks to facilitate competition has led to
changes in power flow patterns in transmission networks, previously planned on an integrated
basis. It has also led to much uncertainty in the way markets for new generation and
customers will evolve making planning of transmission networks more difficult. Measures
such as relocatability of transmission plant, as described in the Report, are meant to address
this aspect. However another important measure is system flexibility and an ability to control
or channel flows so as to make maximum use of existing networks. Building new lines against
uncertain future transmission needs is difficult particularly in view of environmental
concerns.

FACTS devices do not provide new transmission capacity but they will certainly remove
constraints and enable improved use of existing transmission networks, and are capable of fast
control. Where new lines are not an option their application must be compared with
conventional methods e.g. network rearrangement, circuit upratings or the use of phase
shifters which are often quite adequate. FACTS device economics as shown in this Report are
difficult to establish – there is limited information available, mainly from prototypes, and
quite understandably manufacturers are reluctant to provide information for planning
purposes against the background of a limited number of applications.

The consequence of these factors is that in most cases conventional measures e.g. the use of
phase shifters will be adequate and more economic than FACTS devices.

One of the main challenges of large international open access systems is handling bottlenecks
or congestions in the system, created by mismatch between the desire of the marketplace and
the transmission networks physical capabilities. In this context the treatment of congestion
with FACTS devices remains essentially a local and very limited solution unable to provide
sufficient further transmission capacity on the interconnectors leading to real market liquidity.

78
APPENDICES.

APPENDIX 0.1.

Terms of Reference of the Joint Working Group - FACTS Technology for Open Access.

Background:

New institutional arrangements are evolving almost everywhere, implying increased access to
the transmission networks. This will probably create the need to better control the sharing of
power flows on parallel lines. It also leads to more heavily loaded networks and possible
associated voltage and stability problems. Moreover, in a very competitive environment,
utilities will try to limit investments as much as possible and possibly favour FACTS based
solutions.

Scope.

The JWG will focus on power electronics devices, but also cover conventional devices such
as phase shifters and HVDC links, applied to power systems. The following tasks will be
undertaken:

1. Summarise available information on realised FACTS controllers for different

applications (why they were installed, how they are operated and which benefits they provide
for electric systems). Present future trends concerning FACTS technology.

2. Summarise planning methods and simulation tools to study and evaluate FACTS
applications.

3. Analyse the use of FACTS controllers in the system focusing on the applications to
support Open Access and extension of large interconnections. Evaluate economic and
technical justification of FACTS controllers for these applications.

Deliverables and Original Time Schedule:

Installation of the JWG March 1998

Beginning of the work May 1998
Interim Report Duration 24 months
Final Report Duration 12 months

79
APPENDIX 0.2

Joint Working Group Contributing Members’ List.

Mr Maurice G Dwek,
Consultant, UK (Convenor)

Mr Eric G Cleobury,
National Grid Company, UK. (Secretary)

Dr Mircea Eremia
University “POLITEHNICA “ at Bucharest, Romania.

Mr John Loughran
Alstom, Power Electronic Systems, UK

Mr Pierre Pramayon
EDF, France.

Dr Rolf Witzmann
Siemens AG, Germany.

Dr Thomas Weber
Forschungsgemeinschaft fur Elektrische Anlagen und Stromwirtschaft e. V.
Abt. SY, Germany.

Dr Petter Stoa
SINTEF Energy Research, Norway.

Per Halvarsson
ABB Power Systems AB, Sweden.

Dr Maciej Kula.
T & D Engineering and Consulting Company, Poland.

Mr Carlos Gama.
ONS, Brazil.

Mr.Carson W Taylor.
BPA, USA.

80
APPENDIX 3.1

Additional Information on Economic Tools

The ESCORT Tool (NGC)

ESCORT 2 (Economic and Secure Costing of Options for Reinforcement of Transmission) as
the expansion of the acronym suggests was originally designed to aid transmission system
development decisions and is used daily within NGC to evaluate the cost of a portfolio of
different investment options. The program was developed “in-house”, after a comprehensive
review of other software options had shown that the required functionality was not available
at that time.

- In operational planning timescales ESCORT is used to evaluate the expected transmission

constraint uplift costs of different transmission maintenance plans and;
- In the commercial planning timescales ESCORT is used daily to evaluate the expected
transmission constraint uplift costs against a range of uncertainties (e.g. generator costs
and availability) and can thus be used for contract assessments.

As indicated ESCORT is designed to assist in the assessment of changes to the transmission

system by calculating the economic/financial benefit of transmission reinforcement. It does
this by producing transmission reinforcement constraint forecasts, outage constraint forecasts
and losses forecasts. It contains data for a full year, and is used for weekly or yearly forecasts
and rapid costing of transmission system or outage change proposals. The model can also aid
the economic selection of generation based on generator running costs. It contains a full DC
network model and automatically produces a DC (i.e. thermal) security constrained system.
ESCORT includes the following features:

- Input data major time slice is a week. This is broken down into two day-types of weekday
and weekend, each consisting of up to eight demand blocks. The blocks are of a number
of hours (fixed for the whole year per block (at a demand level, produced using a load
duration curve with the assumption that the same generation output will be on at all times
of the same demand level. Each time block of weekday/weekend has a certain demand
level in terms of percentages of the national peak demand and any voltage or stability
limits.
- A full DC network model including pre-fault, post-fault short-term and post-fault
continuous ratings for each season and assumptions made on pre-fault flow (refined
during the year).

2
R M Dunnett, J F Macqueen, “Transmission Planning by Monte Carlo Optimisation”, 10th Power System
Computation Conference (PSCC), Graz, Austria, August 1990

81
- The planned outages of generators and transmission equipment can be modelled either
probabilistically or deterministically based on known or typical outage patterns. A
substation configuration changes and demand transfers under different demand level and
different outage patterns can also be modelled.
- The unplanned outage of generators can be modelled by using breakdown rates to scale
back the unit MW output.
- Multiple generation merit orders can be accommodated, for example to take account of
different generator running costs or bidding behaviour in different seasons.
- Standard protection measures (under circuit faults), including the use of system-to-
generator intertrips are modelled.
- Post-fault actions taken by system operator to relieve system limitation, e.g. generator
output increase or decrease, and quadrature booster tap change, are also modelled.

The main output from the model is cost and energy volume (GWh) of constraints, in total and
by individual generator. Forecasts of the cost and volume associated with the transmission i2 r
losses are also produced. By applying actual data (circuit outages, running arrangements,
voltage/stability, generator availability and bids), the model can be checked post-event, and
individual indicative retro costs for all circuits can be produced.

The SAMLAST Tool (the NORDEL)

Samlast is a model for the calculation of socio-economic benefits of transmission capacity in

the power grid. It integrates market simulations (Energy Management and Power Simulation
model) with load-flow analyses. As the model is unique it provides a substantial improvement
in relation to earlier models when it comes to simulations of main grid utilisation in a market-
based power system dominated by hydropower. Since there are increased efficiency demands
on the parts of the electricity supply industry that have a monopoly and there are also income
limits on electricity delivery, it will become increasingly important to make correct decisions
about grid reinforcements.

The model provides many results that had not been available earlier. This will give a
significant improvement in the calculation of the utility values for different components in the
power system. Energy losses and loss utilisation times may be calculated for single lines or
sections of the grid, and mean yearly energy delivery can be calculated from the simulations.
With 60 years of inflow statistics and four price area levels for each week, a total of 12 480
load-flow situations can be analysed. The Samlast model can calculate issues such as load
duration, the power loss and loss periods for individual power lines or the whole network.

The model is utilised by the main grid companies in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. With
detailed data for the production system, main grid and the market in the Nordic countries, this
is the most comprehensive model for power system simulations available in Scandinavia
today.

82
The METRIS Tool (EDF - France)

The tool METRIS is used to measure the network’s capacity to handle the power transactions
by assessing both operating costs and transaction reliability. It is also used by network
planners and operational planning teams to identify network constraints and to assess where
reinforcements are most needed to reduce operating costs or match power transactions.

METRIS meets those needs in three ways:

• Operating costs : for each utility, METRIS computes the operating costs, taking into
account the availability of generating units and transmission lines,

• Transaction reliability : METRIS determines the reliability of each transaction while

taking into account network constraints, considering a preventive security criterion,

• Weak points: METRIS identifies « weak point » where increased transmission capacity
offers significant improvements in operating costs or transaction reliability.

The assessment of network adequacy and transaction reliability is made possible by using a
probabilistic approach (like the EDF’s MEXICO model, now replaced by METRIS).
To model interconnected power systems operated by independent utilities, METRIS
introduces new modelling concepts. Power transfer contracts are explicitly represented.
Simultaneously, the balance between generation, load and transfers is reached for each utility.
Moreover, each randomly generated scenario is analysed to minimise an objective function
including operating costs as well as an indication of contract renegociation possibilities.
METRIS superimposes a model of the electrical system and a model of inter-utility
transactions. This enables the user to measure the power transfer capabilities of the different
utilities.
A graphic, interactive post-processor offers efficient resources for the detailed analysis of the
numerous results. This reinforces the interest of the probabilistic approach.

Although METRIS uses new modelling concepts, it is based on a tried-and-tested

probabilistic approach and sound algorithms. The approach and algorithms are similar to
those that have proven their performance with MEXICO, an EDF software adopted by a large
number of utilities.
Working in a probabilistic framework, the algorithms can handle large networks while taking
into account a wide range of contingency constraints.
These advantages are further improved by METRIS with the detailed analysis of the
transactions between the interconnected networks.

83
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87