Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PART 1
Use an before a vowel sound. Notice that an is used before words beginning with h when
the h is not pronounced.
Take an umbrella. It's raining.
You have an hour to finish the test.
Use a/an with singular countable nouns. There is no difference between a and an in the
way they are used.
She was writing a letter when he called.
Use a/an:
Use a/an:
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
This section is about definite articles. Choose a topic from the outline to learn more. Click
on the plus sign next to "Definite Article: the."
Use the when there is only one possible person, place, or thing in the environment.
There has been an accident. Does the President know about it?
Are you going to the post office this morning?
Exercise is good for the heart.
Do you mind if I open the window?
the Earth, sun, moon, sky, etc. - The Earth travels around the sun every 365 days.
institutions - The World Bank lends money to many nations.
public bodies - The government collects taxes.
publications - The Singapore Straits Times is a daily newspaper.
Nouns without any article at all use the zero article. Use the zero article (-) with:
English uses the zero article in general statements with uncountable nouns and plural
countable nouns.
Life is full of surprises.
Do you like classical music?
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Overview of Pronouns
A pronoun is a word like he, she, or it used in place of a noun. Use pronouns when it is
already known who or what is referred to. - Martina called. She wants you to call her back.
Words like I, me, they, and them are called personal pronouns.
1st person forms refer to the speaker: I (singular); we (plural). We can either include
the listener or not.
We're leaving tomorrow. What about you?
2nd person forms refer to the person or people who are being spoken to: you (both
singular and plural).
Are you ready to go?
3rd person forms refer to the person or thing that is being spoken about: he, she, it
(singular); they (plural). It can refer to a thing, place, or animal, though animals (for
example, pets) can also be referred to with he or she.
Joanna is here. She can't stay long.
The car didn't sound right, so I took it to the mechanic.
The dog wagged his/its tail.
Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns come before a verb. Notice that the pronoun you can refer to one person
or more than one person.
My name is Pietro Bustelli. I work in the New York office.
Don't forget your books. You'll need them to do your homework.
Greg isn't here. He's out sick today.
Please call Jennifer Green. She's in her office.
The clock isn't working. It needs a new battery.
Anna and I just got back from Greece. We had a great trip.
John and Sandra are here, but they can't stay long.
Object Pronouns
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
In informal speech, object pronouns are used in short answers, but in more formal speech
and writing, a subject pronoun + verb is used.
Informal
A: Who wants ice cream?
B: Me!
Formal
A: Who wants ice cream?
B: I do.
One and ones are often used after which, this, that, and adjectives.
A: I like the red roses. Which ones do you like?
B: The white ones.
It
Every English sentence needs a subject. Sometimes, it is used as an "empty" subject. Use it
to talk about:
time
A: What time is it?
B: It's 12 o'clock.
weather
Wear a coat. It's cold outside.
the environment
It's getting dark. Let's go home.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives refer to the one who owns or has the thing possessed. They do not
refer to the thing that is possessed.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns stand alone. Do not use them before nouns. Notice that there is no
possessive pronoun form for it.
That isn't my briefcase. Mine is black.
Bill's passport was on the desk, but I didn't see yours.
Sharon has her ticket and Andy has his.
Irene isn't here right now. Are you a friend of hers?
Most companies have a holiday tomorrow, but ours doesn't
The staff received their bonuses, but the supervisors haven't received theirs yet.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are formed from possessive adjectives + -self or -selves. Notice that
“you” has both a singular and plural reflexive form.
I enjoyed myself at the party last night.
Be careful with the knife. You'll cut yourself.
He looked at himself in the mirror
She doesn't live with her family any more. She lives by herself (= alone).
We don't need help. We can do it ourselves.
You and Kate will have to cook for yourselves while I'm away.
They're old enough to take care of themselves.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
when the subject and object of a verb are the same - He used the money to buy
himself some new shoes.
when the object of a preposition is the same as the subject of the verb - Tell me a
little about yourself and why you want the job.
to emphasize a noun or pronoun - I myself heard him make that promise.
Some verbs, such as get up, sit down, and stand up, are reflexive in other languages but not
in English. There are very few verbs in English that must be followed by a reflexive
pronoun. These include: absent, avail, busy, and pride.
She busied herself in the garden to make the time go faster.
Demonstrative Adjectives
Use that/those to refer to people or things that are far away or that have already been
mentioned. Use:
Use this/these to refer to people or things that are near or that have already been mentioned.
Use:
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Indefinite Pronouns
Use nobody/no one and nothing to mean "not a single person/thing" in affirmative
sentences. Use a singular verb after these words.
I didn't go to the meeting because nobody/no one told me about it.
She's always complaining. Nothing makes her happy.
Quantity
Overview of Quantifiers
Quantifiers are words like a lot of, a little, and some, or numbers. They show how much of
something or how many things we are talking about.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Some quantifiers are used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
A lot of employees are at a training course now.
There was a lot of information on their web site.
in affirmative statements
I have some phone calls to make.
in questions inviting a "yes" answer
A: Do you need some more time?
B: Yes. I'm not quite finished.
in offers
A: Would you like some coffee?
B: Yes. Thank you.
in requests
A: May I have some milk?
B: Of course.
to mean "certain"
Some people will believe anything they read.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
in negative statements
I didn't take any sick days last year.
in uncertain questions
Are there any holidays in May?
in statements with a negative meaning
There were hardly any (= very few) seats left by the time we got to the theater.
in conditional sentences
If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them.
to mean "every"
Any child could answer that question.
No + countable or uncountable noun can be used in place of not any to show complete
absence. No may sound more emphatic.
There are no sandwiches because there was no time to make them.
There aren't any sandwiches because there wasn't any time to make them.
in negative sentences
Not many people know who he is.
in questions
How many people work in your office?
after so and too or with as…as
So many qualified people have applied for the job that it will be difficult to choose
just one.
in ordinary affirmative statements. A lot of is more usual in conversation; many
sounds more formal in affirmative statements.
Many foreign companies have set up factories there.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
in negative sentences
There wasn't much traffic this morning, since it's a holiday.
in questions
How much water should I give the plants?
in statements with a negative meaning
The noise prevented her from getting much sleep.
after so and too or with as…as
I can't go out to dinner tonight. I have too much work to do.
Much can be used in ordinary affirmative statements, but it sounds very formal.
Other quantifiers are usually used in its place, such as a lot of or a great deal of.
Much effort went into the development of this project.
A lot of is more usual in conversation than many or much in affirmative sentences. Use
a lot of (informal lots of) with:
plural nouns
I took a lot of pictures on the trip. (more natural than: I took many pictures on the
trip.)
uncountable nouns
He has a lot of experience in marketing. (much more natural than: He has much
experience in marketing.)
Notice that the verb agrees with the noun that follows a lot of.
There was a lot of water on the floor.
There were a lot of people waiting to board the airplane.
Few and little are negative in meaning. They mean "hardly any" or "not enough." Few and
little sound formal when they are used without a modifier like very.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Use both + plural noun and both (of) the (or both (of) my/these etc.) + plural noun in the
same way to refer to two people or things.
Katherine wrote two letters. Both letters were about the company's new advertising
campaign.
Both the letters were short. Both of my brothers are older than me.
Usually all is not used by itself as a pronoun to mean "all the people" or "all the things."
Use everyone, everybody, or everything instead.
Everyone has gone home.
I think everything is ready for the presentation.
Each is used for two or more things to suggest "one by one," "separately."
You must sign each copy of the form.
Every is used for three or more things and suggests "all together."
The meal was delicious! I enjoyed every bite.
However, each and every are often used in exactly the same way.
The company's profits have increased each/every year.
Each (not every) can be used after a noun or at the end of a sentence.
The tickets are fifteen dollars each.
Every (not each) can be modified by words like almost or not.
I buy a newspaper almost every day.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Use other + plural noun to refer to additional or alternative people or things of the
type mentioned.
He shares an office with two other people.
There must be other ways of solving the problem.
After quantity words such as some, any, no, or one, the word other can be used with
an uncountable or singular noun.
We don't have any other information about the accident.
There is one other person I could ask.
Use the (or my/her, etc.) other with either a singular or plural countable noun to
refer to one or more of the rest of a group.
I found one glove, but I can't find the other one.
Use the others by itself to mean "the rest."
Alicia, what do you think? Do you agree with the others?
Use another + singular noun to refer to an additional or an alternative thing or
person.
Would you like another cup of coffee?
Thursday isn't good for me. Can we meet another day?
Another can be used with a plural noun if few or a number comes before the noun.
I'll be staying here for another two days.
Overview of Adjectives
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Position of Adjectives
before nouns
We bought a new computer.
after linking verbs. Be, look, seem, feel, taste, smell, and become are common
linking verbs.
This computer is new. We just bought it.
Note that adjectives come after, not before, indefinite pronouns like anything, anyone,
something, somewhere, nothing, everything.
Did you notice anything unusual?
Some adjectives are used only after a verb (usually a linking verb like be), not before a
noun. These include:
adjectives that either give emphasis (e.g., mere, sheer, utter) or restrict the reference
of the noun (e.g., chief, main, only, sole)
The meeting was an utter waste of time.
adjectives referring to location (e.g., bottom, indoor, lower, outdoor, top, upper)
She bit her lower lip nervously.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
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A limited number of adjectives (e.g., available, eligible, imaginable) can either go before or
after a noun.
There are no rooms available/available rooms for the 23rd.
Some adjectives can take on different meanings when they are used in different positions.
He's an old friend. (= I've known him a long time.) [used only before a noun]
My aunt is very old now. (= She has lived for a long time.) [used either before or after a
noun]
Modifying Adjectives
Many adjectives that describe a quality can be modified with very, too, or enough.
Some adjectives cannot be modified by very, too, or enough. These adjectives often
describe an extreme quality. Other modifiers may be used to emphasize them.
The weather was absolutely perfect.
What you're asking me to do is utterly impossible.
He won't hear you. He's fast asleep.
Adjective or Adverb?
Use adjectives, not adverbs, after linking verbs such as be, seem, look, taste, feel, smell, etc.
He was/felt/looked sick.
She seems happy.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Many past participles ending in -ed and present participles ending in -ing are used as
adjectives. Common pairs include: bored/boring, confused/confusing,
disappointed/disappointing, interested/interesting.
Use -ing adjectives to describe the thing or person that caused a feeling.
The archeologists made an exciting discovery.
The after-dinner speaker was boring.
Use -ed adjectives to describe how someone feels.
The archeologists were very excited about the ancient tools they discovered.
The audience was bored and restless.
The + Adjective
Usually, a noun or the pronoun one must be used after a determiner (the, a, my, your, etc.)
+ adjective.
A: Which coat is yours?
B: The black one.
Some adjectives can be used alone after the to refer to "the group as a whole." The meaning
is plural.
The rich want lower taxes.
The sick want better health care.
The poor want more opportunities.
When talking about nationalities, adjective forms are preferable to nouns. Remember:
nationality adjectives can only be used as nouns if the adjective ends in -an. Some
nationalities can have -man or -woman added to make a noun.
Reiko is Japanese. (preferable to Reiko is a Japanese person.)
Joao is Brazilian. (preferable to Joao is a Brazilian.)
Pierre is a Frenchman.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Adjectives used together are usually in this order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin,
material, use.
No more than three or four adjectives are used together to modify a noun..
opinion
They have a beautiful horse.
opinion + size
They have a beautiful little horse.
opinion + size + color
They have a beautiful little black horse.
opinion + size + color + origin
They have a beautiful little black Arabian horse.
use
There was a conference table in the room.
shape + use
There was a round conference table in the room.
size + shape + use
There was a large round conference table in the room.
size + shape + material + use
There was a large round oak conference table in the room.
Overview of Adverbs
verbs
He spoke slowly and clearly so that everyone would understand.
adjectives
My department is very busy now.
other adverbs
I don't know her very well.
whole sentences
Unfortunately, sales were much lower than we expected.
how
She walked quickly to keep warm.
how long
The training session lasted all day.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell how something happens. They are typically formed by adding -ly or
-ily to an adjective.
It was a slow train. It crept slowly through the tunnel.
She was happy. She sang happily as she worked.
Some adverbs have two forms: a form that is the same as an adjective and an -ly form. The
two forms often have different meanings.
He didn't work hard (= using effort). In fact, he hardly worked (= almost didn't work) at
all.
I worked late (= past my usual time) last night. I've had a lot of work to do lately (=
recently).
Some adverbs have two forms that have the same meaning. The form without -ly is usually
used only in informal speech or writing.
Please don't talk so loud/loudly. I'm trying to read.
Go call the police quick/quickly! There's been an accident.
Some adjectives end in -ly. Since they are adjectives, they cannot be used as adverbs.
(Incorrect: Everyone smiles very friendly.) Other adjectives like this are: cowardly, lively,
lovely, silly.
My neighborhood is a friendly place. People smile in a friendly way when you pass them
on the street.
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time describe when something happened. They are usually points of time, such
as last week or yesterday. Other time adverbs include already, still, yet, and soon.
I presented my proposal last week.
They had a staff meeting yesterday.
They've already made their decision.
I'm still waiting to hear what they decided.
No one has told me anything yet.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Adverbs of Duration
Adverbs of duration describe how long an action continues. They are usually adverbial
phrases. Use:
since with a point in time or event in the past to indicate when something started
He's been out of work since March/since the company closed.
for with a period of time
He's been looking for a job for ten weeks.
over and during with a period of time
He answered several ads over the weekend.
by (= not later than) with a point in time
He hopes to have a job by June.
until/till (= up to the time of) with a point in time
He won't feel relaxed until/till he's working again.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency are words like always, usually, frequently, often, sometimes, seldom,
and never (arranged from most to least often) that answer the question How often? They
have three basic positions:
adjectives
She's very excited about her promotion.
adverbs
I feel very strongly that you should reject the offer.
Really and extremely can be used for special emphasis in place of very. Really is more
informal in use.
I'm really sorry, but I made a mistake.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Some intensifiers, like very, really, and extremely, can be used with most adjectives and
adverbs. Other intensifiers tend to combine with particular adjectives and adverbs.
The advertising campaign was highly successful in attracting new customers.
It's awfully hot in here.
The price was drastically reduced to attract buyers.
Be careful: in spoken British English, quite can also mean "not as much" - I quite like it,
but I prefer the other one.
Focus Adverbs
Use focus adverbs like even and only to focus attention on a word or words. They can be
used in various positions:
after be or an auxiliary (or the first auxiliary, if there is more than one)
I'm only going to be in Paris for two days.
before a main verb other than be
The hotel chiefly attracts business guests.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Also is usually used after be or an auxiliary or before a main verb other than be. It
can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.
Diana is good at problem-solving. She's also very creative.
I play tennis and I also swim for exercise.
Too is usually used at the end of a sentence. Use also and too to link affirmative
sentences or ideas.
Manuel seems like a natural leader. He has a lot of experience, too.
Use either at the end to link negative sentences or ideas.
Stephanie doesn't have much experience. She didn't seem very enthusiastic about
the job, either.
Viewpoint Adverbs
Viewpoint adverbs add a comment about the sentence. They express the viewpoint of the
speaker or writer.
Unfortunately, I can't stay long.
Frankly, I don't think he's qualified for the job.
The product obviously appeals more to women.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Notice: Short forms, shown in parentheses, are used in conversation and when writing in a
conversational style.
A Yes/No question with Yes + subject pronoun + am/are/is (no short form) or No + subject
pronoun + am/are/is + not (using a short form in the negative).
A: Are you ready?
B: Yes, I am.
A: Am I late?
B: No, you aren't.
A: Is it cold out?
B: No, it's not.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
A Yes/No question can be answered with Yes + subject pronoun + was/were or No + subject
pronoun + wasn't/weren't.
A: Was she surprised to see you?
B: Yes, she was.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
before nouns
They are employees of Netcom.
before adjectives
I'm happy to be here.
before prepositional phrases
I wasn't at work yesterday.
in imperatives
Be here at six o'clock.
Don't be late.
with -ing to refer to temporary behavior
The children were being good.
after there, used to say that a person or thing exists, as when mentioning something
for the first time or reporting an event. It is more idiomatic to say "There's a car in
the driveway" than "A car is in the driveway." Notice that the does not usually
follow there + be.
There's a package for you.
There weren't any tickets left.
There has been an accident.
Uses of be as an Auxiliary
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Have
Notice: Short forms are not used in American English for have as a main verb.
To form affirmative statements in the simple past, use had with all subjects.
Our office had a party yesterday.
To form negative statements in the simple past, use did not (= didn't) + have with all
subjects.
I didn't have breakfast this morning.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Have combines with past participles to form perfect tenses, such as:
For more information, see The Present Perfect and The Past Perfect.
Have got
Have got is often used in place of have in casual conversation (particularly in British
English) to show:
Short forms of have are normally used with got (I've got, she's got, we've got, etc.).
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Do
To form affirmative statements in the simple past, use did with all subjects.
The doctors did everything they could to save him.
To form negative statements in the simple past, use did not (= didn't) + do with all subjects.
She did not do anything to help.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Uses of do as an Auxiliary
Notice: Short forms are commonly used for the negative forms of auxiliary do.
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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
PART 1
Do and make
work - I'm not sure I can finish it by then, but I'll do my best.
household tasks - I do the cleaning every weekend.
obligations - Can you do something for me?
speed - He got a ticket because he was doing 90 on the highway.
subjects and school work - I'm not going to take physics, because I can't do
calculus.
action in general - What are you doing after work?
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