________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 3 ELECTRIC FIELD IN DIELECTRICS

________________________________________________________
3.0 INTRODUCTION

In previous chapter, you have learned about electric field due to

charges. In this chapter, you will study the electric field in dielectrics
or the effect on electric field due to dielectric. It is very important
topic as dielectric plays very vital role in capacitors.

________________________________________________________
3.1 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to

 know different kinds of materials and

molecules
 derive an expression for the Gauss’s law in
dielectrics, and
 obtain an expression for the electric field in dielectrics.

________________________________________________________
3.2 MATTER AND MOLECULES

Matter is composed of small particles called molecules containing

atoms. An atom has a positive charged nucleus and negatively
charged electrons moving around the nucleus in circular orbits having
radii of the order 10-10 m. This means that these electrons are confined
in a very small region and hence these electrons are known as bound
electrons. The nucleus has positively charged particles, protons and
neutrons that have no charge. The number of protons and electrons
are always equal in an atom, meaning that an atom is electrically
neutral. The nucleus has the radius of the order much less than 10-10
m.

1
In case of solids, the electrons are closely packed. The electrons close
to the nucleus are more strongly bound than the electrons in outer
orbits. The electrons in outer orbits are known as free electrons as
they may be detach by giving some external energy to the atoms.

________________________________________________________
3.4 Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

3.4.1 Conductors are materials in which electric charges (electrons)

can move quite freely as shown in Fig 1.5.1. Examples are
metals, copper, and iron. In solids the number of atoms per
cubic meter is of the order of 1028.
Metal rod

++ ++ ++
++++++
++
++

Charged Neutral

Fig. 1.5.1: Electric charge flows in conductors easily

3.4.2 Insulators (or bad conductors) are materials through which

charges (electrons) can flow with great difficulty as shown in
Fig 1.5.2. Examples are glass and nylon. Such substances are
also known as dielectrics. Gases are mostly insulators so as
the liquids with the exception of mercury.
Wooden rod
++++++
++ +++
+++
++

Charged Neutral

Fig. 1.5.2: Electric charge does not flow in insulators

2
3.4.3 Semi-conductors are the materials whose electrical properties
are somewhere between those of conductors and insulators
(fig. 1.5.3). Their conductivity is about 10-10 times the
conductivity of good conductors. Examples are silicon and
germanium.

Semiconductor material

++++++ +++ ++
++ +++

Charged Neutral
Fig. 1.5.3: Electric charge flows in semiconductors partially

3.4.4 Dielectrics are the materials which does not conduct

electricity. That is, electrons are hardly free to move.
Examples are glass, mica, ebonite, paraffin, air, etc.

3.5 CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:

1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.

2. Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must reside entirely on

its surface.

3. The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular

to the conductor’s surface and has a magnitude /o where  is the
charge per unit area at that point.

4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, charge tends to accumulate at

places where the radius of curvature of the surface is the smallest,
that is, at sharp points.

3
________________________________________________________
3.6 POLAR AND NON-POLAR MOLECULES

The radius of the electrons orbit is of the order of 10-10 m. This is so

small that in the ground state of an atom, the centre of gravity of
negative charges lies exactly at the centre of the nucleus of the atom.
The nucleus of the atom consists of positive charge. The dipole
moment is equal to the product of one of the charges and the
separation between them. Hence the dipole moment of an atom is zero
because the separation between the centers of positive and negative
charge is zero. The molecules of a dielectric can be categorized into
two types: (1) non-polar and (2) polar molecules.

3.6.1 Non-polar molecules

These are the molecules in which the centre of gravity of positive
charges coincides exactly with the centre of gravity of negative
charges. The net dipole moment of such molecules is zero and do not
have any permanent dipole moment because of the dipole length is
zero. H2, O2, N2, and CO2 are a few examples of non-polar molecules.

3.6.2 Polar molecules

In polar molecules the centre of gravity of positive charges does not
coincide with the centre of gravity of negative charges. These
molecules have permanent dipole moment. H2O, HCl, and NH3 are
good examples of polar molecules. The polar and non-polar
molecules are shown in figure 1.


+ -

(a) (b)

4
 Figure 1: (1) Non-polar molecules (b) polar molecules

The dipole moment of polar molecules is of the order 10-29 Coulomb

meter which gives the separation between central positive change and
negative charge of the order of about 10-10 m. In the absence of
electric field, the polar molecules are randomly oriented and thus their
dipole moments point in all possible directions, cancelling the effect
of each other as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Polar molecules in the absence of electric field

Macroscopically, the resultant dipole moment per unit volume in a

material is zero. It means that individual molecules do have the dipole
moment and the net dipole moment of all molecules is zero.

3.6.3 Polar molecules in electric field

In the presence of an electric field, the dipole moments of polar
molecules are oriented (or tend to orient) in the direction of electric
field and thus their dipole moments point in a particular direction as
shown in figure 3. If E is the electric field and p is the molecular
dipole moment then the torque, , experienced by each molecule is
=p×E (1)

– +

5
Figure 3: Polar molecules in the presence of electric field

The torque tends to align the molecules in the direction of the electric
field. However, this tendency is opposed by the molecules and hence
the degree of alignment will depend upon the strength of the electric
field and the temperature of the material. When the molecules of a
material (dielectric) are aligned in the direction of electric field due to
its presence, the dielectric is said to be polarized as shown in figure 3.
If the strength of the electric field increases, it increases the separation
between the centers of positive and negative charges, increasing the
length of the dipole and hence increasing the dipole moment per unit
volume. Thus the alignment tendency of molecules is increased as the
electric field increases. At lower temperature, the thermal vibrations
of the molecules will be less and hence dipole molecules will align
themselves easily at low temperature.

3.6.4 Non-polar molecules in electric field

When a non-polar molecule is placed in an electric field the centers of
positive charges move in the direction of electric field and the centers
of negative charges move in the opposite direction of the electric
field. The separation between the centers of positive and negative
charges keep on increasing until the force on them due to the electric
field is balanced by the internal force due to their relative separation.
Thus the molecule develops a kind of induced dipole moment and the
molecule is said to be polarized. This induced dipole moment
becomes zero when the electric field is removed.

________________________________________________________
3.7 Atomic dipole moment and polarization

The atomic dipole moment is the product of the positive or negative

charge of the molecule (or atom) and the atomic separation between
the centers of the positive and negative charge in the direction of the
electric field. Thus if dl is the separation between the centers of a
positive and a negative charge and q represent either positive or
negative charge on the molecule then the atomic dipole moment p is
given by

6
p = q dl (2)

We have already mentioned that the induced dipole moment of a

molecule due to the electric field E is proportional to the strength of
the electric field. Therefore,
p  E or p = α E (3)

Where, α is a constant and known as the atomic polarizability. It can

be defined as the induced dipole moment of the atom divided by the
strength of the electric field. The direction of the dipole moment is in
the direction of the electric field.

Example 1
Find the unit and dimension of the polarizability.

Solution
Unit of α:
α = p/E = (coulomb meter)/(Newton/coulomb) = C2 N-1 m
Or α = p/E = (coulomb meter)/(volt/meter) = C V-1 m2 = F m2
Because coulomb/volt = Farad (F)

Dimension of α:
Dimensions of α are C V-1 m2
However, if we represent α as α = p/o E, then its dimensions are m3.

Example 2
Show that the induced atomic dipole moment is given by
p = α Eo = 4 π o R3 Eo where R is the radius of the atom and Eo is the
external applied electric field.

Solution
Let us consider that an atom has atomic number Z and e is the charge
on a proton or on an electron. The charge on the nucleus will be q = +
Ze and the net negative charge on all the electrons will be q = – Ze.
Now the electric field Eo is applied and due to the polarization, r is the
separation between the centers of positively and negatively charges
then the magnitude of the induced dipole moment of the atom is
P = q r = Ze r (i)

7
If we take the volume charge density of electrons as ρ then
ρ = – Ze/(4 π R3/3) and therefore, the net negative charge within the
sphere of radius r is
qr = ρ × (4 π r3/3) = [– Ze/(4 π R3/3)] × (4 π r3/3) = – Ze r3/R3

The electric field due to the negative charge qr within the sphere of
radius r is given by

E = k qr ŕ/r2 = – k Ze r ŕ/R3 (ii)

Where, ŕ denotes the unit vector of r.

Therefore, the net force on the nucleus due to negative charge is

F = k Ze qr ŕ/r2 = Ze E = – k Z2 e2 r ŕ/R3 (iii)

The force on the nucleus due to the applied electric field Eo is

F = Ze Eo = Ze ŕ Eo (iv)

Note that E and Eo are different, E is the electric field produced by

the net negative charge and Eo is the external applied electric field.
Since the system is in equilibrium, the net force on the atom will be
zero and hence
Ze ŕ Eo – k Z2 e2 r ŕ/R3 = 0 giving
Ze r = Eo R3/k = 4 π  R3 Eo (v)

Comparing equations (i) and (v), we get

p = 4 π  R3 Eo or p = 4 π  R3 Eo (vi)

If N is the number of molecule per unit volume then the polarization

density vector Pd is given by

P d = N p = 4 N π  R3 Eo (vii)

Pd is a vector quantity (as it is the vector sum of dipole vectors and

gives the resultant vector dipole moment per unit volume) and P is the
induced atomic dipole moment.

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________________________________________________________
3.8 Electric field inside a polarized dielectric

Let us find an expression for the electric field inside a polarized

dielectric due to the induced polarization charge.
L + + + + + p = + Pd
E A
– p + p Ep
–––– –  p = – Pd
(a) (b)
Figure 4: (b) Dielectric material (b) Surface charge density and
electric field

Consider a rectangular block of length L and uniform cross section

area of A of a dielectric material polarized by the electric field E as
shown in figure 4a. The surface charge density  is given by the
charge per unit area and hence the polarized surface charge density at
the end faces of the block are - p and + p as shown in figure 4b.
Therefore, the induced charge on respective face will be – p A and +
p A. The magnitude of the net polarized induced dipole moment is
p = p A L

The vector sum of all the induced dipoles in a unit volume

(polarization density) is also given by

Pd = p/V = N p, where, N is the number of atoms per unit volume.

This equation gives

p = Pd V = Pd A L
Comparing both equations, we get Pd = p (4)
Thus the polarization vector per unit volume (or polarization density)
equals the induced (bound) surface charge density. This can be
written in vector form as
p = Pd . n or simply P . n (5)

Where, n is unit vector normal to the surface.

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The electric field inside the polarized dielectric material due to
induced polarized charge is (see figure 4b)

Ep = p/o or Ep = – Pd/o (6)

________________________________________________________
3.9 Gauss’s law in dielectrics

Let us consider a parallel-plate capacitor with free surface charge

density free as shown in Fig. 5.5.1a. When there is no dielectric
present between the plates, the electric field between the plates is Eo.
When a dielectric is introduced in between the plates, a charge is
induced on the dielectric as shown in Fig. 5.5.1b. The direction of the
electric field inside the dielectric is opposite to the direction of Eo.
We may call it as polarized induced electric field Ep.

+ free – free
+
Vacuum –
+ –
+ Eo –

(a)

+ +free
 - p i + p
– – free
Eo - +
+ –
+ Ep –
+ - + –

Dielectric
Gaussian surface
(b)
Fig. 5.5.1: (a) Parallel-plate capacitor filled in air, (b) parallel-
plate capacitor filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant k

If Ed is the resultant polarized electric field in the presence of a

dielectric, then

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 Ed = Eo – Ep

Since Eo = free/o and Ep = p/o, then

Ed = free/o – p/o = (free– p)/o (5.5.1)

Therefore,

(free – p) = Ed o (5.5.2)

or

p = free – Ed o (5.5.)

Since Ed = Eo/k, then

p = free – o (Eo/k) (5.5.4)

Also Eo = free/o, therefore,

p = free – free/k = free (1 – 1/k) (5.5.5)

or

free – p = free/k (5.5.6)

Equation 5.5.6 can also be obtained directly from equation 5.5.1. The
dielectric constant, k, can be defined as the ratio of free charge
density to the difference between the free and polarized charge
density. In case of metals, free = p and therefore k is infinity and for
vacuum, p = 0 so that k is unity. Since k is always greater than one,
(1 – 1/k) will always be a positive quantity. This means that the
induced polarized charge p will always be less than free and hence k
is always greater than unity for most of the dielectrics.

Now applying Gauss’s law to the gaussian surface as shown in figure

5.5.1b, we get

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 ∮ Eo . dA = Qin/o (5.5.7)

or

Eo A = Qin/o = free A/o

This gives

Eo = free/o in the absence of dielectrics (5.5.8)

In the presence of the dielectric, equation 5.5.7 becomes

Eo A = (free – p) A/o (5.5.9)

Using equation 5.5.6 for (free – p), we have

Eo A = free A/ko

 k Eo A = free A/ o

 k Eo A = Qin/o (5.5.10)

In integral from, equation 5.5.10 is

∮ k Eo . dA = Qin/o (5.5.11)

Equation 5.5.11 is the mathematical integral form of Gauss’s law

in dielectrics. We will derive its differential form later in this
chapter.

Relation between three electric vectors E, Pd = P, and D

Let us consider a plane parallel plate capacitor whose plates have free
charge density. When there is no dielectric between the plates of the

12
capacitor, then the magnitude of the electric field in between the
plates of the capacitor (free space of vacuum), Eo is given by
Eo = free/o

Now the capacitor is filled with a dielectric having dielectric constant

k. If P is the polarization per unit volume and parallel to Eo. The
polarized electric field Ep is opposite to Eo, then,

Ep = – P/o

The net electric field in the dielectric is given by

E = Eo + Ep = Eo – P/o and therefore,

Eo = E + P/o or o Eo = o E + P or D = o E + P (1)
Where, D = o Eo in a dielectric is known as electric displacement
vector and has the unit of coulomb/meter2. In free space (or vacuum),
there is no polarization, hence
D = o E (in space) (2)

________________________________________________________
3.10 Electric susceptibility

Electric susceptibility is defined as the ratio of polarization per unit

volume to the electric field o E and is denoted by e. Therefore,
e = P/o E (3)

Now from equation 1, D = o E + P, we get

D/o E = 1 + P/o E = 1 + e (4)

But D = o Eo so that
o Eo/o E = Eo/E = 1 + e (5)

Since Eo/E = k, we can write equation 5 as

k = 1 + e =  r (6)

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Where, r = Eo/E = D/o E = /o is the relative permotivity of the
dielectric. Thus
D = o r E = E (7)

Example 3
The electric field inside a capacitor filled with a dielectric and without
a dielectric is 1.0 × 105 N/C and 3 × 105 N/C respectively. Find the
induced (polarized) charge density on the surface of the dielectric.
Given o = 8.85 × 10-12 C2N-1m-2
Solution
o = 8.85 × 10-12 C2N-1m-2
P = – p but o Eo = o E + P giving
P = o Eo – o E = o (Eo – E) = 8.85 × 10-12 × (3 × 105 – 1 × 105)
= 1.77 × 10-6 C/m2

Example 4
The relative permitivity (dielectric constant) of a gas is 1.000075 and
is kept inside an electric field of 3 × 105 N/C. Find the dipole moment
of each atom of the gas. Given o = 8.85 × 10-12 C2N-1m-2

Solution
Avogadro number = the number of gas atoms per gram = 6.06 × 1023
Volume of the gas per gram = 22.4 litre = 22.4 × 10-3 m3
Number of gas atoms per unit volume
N = 6.06 × 1023/22.4 × 10-3 = 2.7× 1025

r = 1.000075 = 1 + e, giving e = 1 – 1.000075 = 7.4 × 10-5

But P/o E = e so that
P = o E e
= 8.85 × 10-12 × 3 × 105 × 7.4 × 10-5 = 1.96 × 10-11 C m

Dipole moment per atom is

p = P/N = 1.96 × 10-11/2.7× 1025
= 7.26 × 10-37 C m

SELF MARK TEST 1

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 1. Two parallel plates each of area A are separated by two
insulating slabs of thickness t1 and t2 having dielectric
constants k1 and k2 respectively. If the plate charge is Q, find
(i) the electric field within each insulator
(ii) potential difference across the plates, and
(iii) the capacitance of the capacitor

2. Show that the polarization of a dielectric is given by

 . P = – ρp

3. Derive the differential form of Gauss’s law for dielectric.

4. A thin dielectric rod of unifrom cross section area A extend

along the x-axis from x = 0 to x = L. The polarization of the
rod along x-axis is given by Px = (3 x2 + 2) i. Find
(i) The bound (polarized) volume charge density, and
(ii) The bound surface charge density at x = 0 and x = L

SOLUTIONS OF SELF MARK TEST 1

Two parallel plates each of area A are separated by two insulating
slabs of thickness t1 and t2 having dielectric constants k1 and k2
respectively. If the plate charge is Q, find
(i) the electric field within each insulator
Consider the plates and slabs as shown in the figure
Plate P1 A +Q

E1 k1 = r1 t1

E2 k2 = r2 t2

Plate P2 A -Q
+ = Q/A and - = – Q/A
The electric field E1 in the slab of dielectric constant k1 is
E1 = /o r1 from plates P1 to P2

The electric field E2 in the slab of dielectric constant k2 is

E2 = /o r2 from plates P1 to P2

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 (ii) potential difference across the plates
The work done by a unit postive charge from plate P2 to P1 is
W = E1 t1 + E2 t2 = (/o r1)t1 + (/o r2)t2. This is the potential at
plate P1 and the potentia at plate P2 is zero. Therefore the potential
difference across the plates is
V = VP1 – VP2 = VP1 = (/o r1)t1 + (/o r2)t2

(iii) the capacitance of the capacitor

The capacitance of the capacitor is
C = Q/V = A/[(/o r1)t1 + (/o r2)t2]

Q. Show that the polarization of a dielectric is given by  . P = – ρp

Solution
Imagine an element of area dA inside a non-polar dielectric as shown
in figure below. When the dielectric is polarized, the center of
positive charge +q of a molecule lies at a distance x from the center of
the negatively charge –q. This x is the same for all the molecules over
an infinitesimal region.
E
- + dA

- +
x
- +
Figure 5: Bound and surface charge density

When electric field is applied, n+ positive charges cross the element of

area dA by moving in the direction of x, and n- negative charges cross
it by moving in the opposite direction. The net charge that crosses dA
in the direction of x is therefore
dq = n+ q – n- (–q) = (n+ + n-) = N q (1)

16
Where (n+ + n-) = N is simply the number of molecules within the
imaginary parallelepiped of the figure whose volume is x  dA. Then
dq = N q xdA = N pdA = P  dA (2)

Where, q x is the dipole moment p of a single molecule and N p = P.

If now dA lies on the surface of a dielectric, then dq accumulates
there and the bound surface charge density
dq
σ b= =⃗p⋅n
dA (3)
Where, n is the unit vector normal to the surface and is pointing
outward.
Thus b (also denoted as p polarized surface charge density) is equal
in magnitude to the normal component of P and is pointing outward.

The Bound Volume Charge Density b or Polarized Volume

Charge Density p
The net bound charge (polarized charge) that flows out of a volume v
across an element dA of its surface is P dA is calculated already.

The net bound charge that flows out of the closed surface of area A is
qout = ∫A P. dA (5)
The net charge that remains within v must be –q out. If b is the volume
density of the charge remaining within v, then
∫v b dv = – qout = – ∫A P. dA = – ∫v  . P dv (6)

The integrals are equal at every point in the dielectric and therefore
the bound volume charge density is
b = –P = p (7)

17
 Q. Derive the differential form of Gauss’s law for dielectric.
Solution
Consider that a given volume v contains various dielectrics and the
net (total) volume charge density in terms of total free and bound
charge density within v is given by
t = f + b Or qt = qf + qb

There are no surface charges on the surface of v. Gauss’s Law relates

the flux of the electric field intensity E through the closed surface of
area A to the total net charge qt enclosed within that surface. So
∫A E. dA = ∫v  . E dv = qt/o = (qf + qb)/o (8)
If the volume v lies entirely inside a dielectric then there are no
surface charges and qt must include bound as well as free charges. So
qt = ∫v (f + b)dv
Therefore,
∫A E. dA = (1/o) ∫v (f + b)dv (9)
∫A E. dA = (1/o) ∫v t dv (10)
Where, t is the total volume charge density. Applying the divergence
theorem to the surface integral of E gives the volume integral of E.
That is
∫A E. dA = ∫v E dv = (1/o) ∫v t dv
Equating the integrals, we get
E = t/o (11)
This is Gauss’s Law in differential form. This is one of Maxwell’s
fourth fundamental equations of electromagnetism.

Q. A thin dielectric rod of unifrom cross section area A extend

along the x-axis from x = 0 to x = L. The polarization of the rod
along x-axis is given by Px = (3 x2 + 2) i. Find
(i) The bound (polarized) volume charge density

18
 P = (3 x2 + 2) i
P = –p = (/x i + /y j + /z k) . (3 x2 + 2) i
/x (3 x2 + 2) = 6 x and therefore, p = –6x

(ii) The bound surface charge density at sufrace x = 0 will

be P (x = 0) = 2 i
bound surface charge density at x = 0 will be
p = –P. n = – 2 i . i = – 2
Where n is outwarddrawn unit vector.
The total bound charge at sufrace x = L will be
P (x = L) = (3 L2 + 2) i
bound surface charge density at x = L will be
p = P. n = (3 L2 + 2) i . i = (3 L2 + 2)

Summary
In this chapter you have learnt
 different kinds of materials and molecules
 how to use Gauss’s law in dielectrics, and
 electric field in dielectrics.

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