Central-forces perturbations of conical orbits

Maurizio M. D’Eliseo∗
Osservatorio S.Elmo - Via A.Caccavello 22, 80129 Napoli Italy

The relativistic precession of a planetary orbit is treated from the point of view of the analytic
geometry of a conic on the plane.

I. THE UNPERTURBED ORBIT
We need the vectorial expression of the conic described
by an unperturbed planet (considered as a test-body)
around a star located at the origin.√ If we let r = rr̂
be the position vector, where r = r · r, we have the
first-order system
being the eccentricity vector, directed toward the perihe-
lion, and whose length is the usual scalar eccentricity e.
The eccentricity vector is situated, as one can see, in the
plane of motion. So, we have constantly a closed vector
triangle formed by the variable vectors −v × h, µr̂ and
the constant vector µe. The orbit is obtained dotting
Eq. (9) with r

dr µe · r = (v × h) · r − µr, (10)
= v, (1)
dt but
dv µ
= − 2 r̂, (2)
dt r r · (v × h) = (r × v) · h = h · h = h2 ,
where µ = GM is the standard gravitational parameter and so we get
of the star. Operating on Eq. (2) by r×, we get
h·h √
dv d µ = r · r + e · r. (11)
r× = (r × v) = − 2 r × r̂ = 0, (3) µ
dt dt r h2
= r + er cos(θ − ω). (12)
and integrating, µ
r × v = h = const. (4) where we have assumed as reference direction for angles
the positive x-axis, and denoted with ω the fixed angle
Since formed by e. Equation (12) is the polar expression of the
magnitude of the radius vector from which, comparing
(r × v) · r = 0, (5) with the polar equation of a conic, we deduce that h2 =
µa(1 − e2 ), being a the semimajor axis of the orbit. We
the motion takes place in the plane h · r = 0. We will
will assume that e < 0, that is the conic is an ellipse.
match this plane with the xy-plane. By considering the
Notice, in particular, that r is comprised between
infinitesimal triangle formed by the vectors r and dr, we
see that |r × v| is twice the area swept out by the radius a(1 − e) ≤ r ≤ a(1 + e), (13)
vector per unit time. In polar coordinates, twice the area
of the triangle swept out in time dt and per unit time are and that the minimum occurs at the point of orbit when
respectively θ = ω.

r(rdθ), r2 θ̇, (6)

II. THE PERTURBED ORBIT
so we have

h = hĥ = r2 θ̇ĥ. (7) We study now the effects of a perturbing force f when
the test body is initially moving on a conic described by
To get the orbit, we need one more integral of motion: Eq. (11). The method of variation of the arbitrary con-
the Laplace integral. We consider the time derivative of stants assumes that the motion happens always on an
the cross product orbit of the same type, but whose constants h, e slowly
vary in time in a form depending from the nature of the
d dv µh dr̂ perturbing force. The problem is thus shifted from the
(v × h) = × h = − 2 r̂ × ĥ = µθ̇θ̂ = µ , (8)
dt dt r dt solution of the unperturbed equation of motion to the
which may be integrated to give the Laplace integral solution of the differential equations related to these un-
known functions. The values they assume at each instant
µe = v × h − µr̂, (9) t identify the osculating orbit, that is the orbit the planet
would follow if the perturbing force in this same instant
where e is a constant vector. The factor µ is needed to was put equal to zero. From the point of view of the dif-
get a natural geometric interpretation for e, namely that ferential equation of motion, the values of r(t) and ṙ(t)
 2

at a particular instant t can be seen as the initial values A consequence of Eq.() is that
of the unperturbed conic the body would follow, and so
r and ṙ are the same at any time for the two paths, the δ`2 δ`
real and the elliptical. Only the second derivative will = 2` = 0, (19)
dt dt
reveal the presence of the disturbing force. We introduce δ`2 δ δa δe
so a derivative operator δ/dt with the property that = [µa(1 − e2 )] = µ(1 − e2 ) − 2µae = 0,
dt dt dt dt
(20)
δr δv
=0 =f, (14)
dt dt and by separating the variables
and, consequently, we have also
µ δa 2µe δe
δr δr̂ = =h (21)
= 0, = 0. (15) a dt 1 − e2 dt
dt dt
where h is a constant. Now, a and e are two independent
Let first submit h to the action of this operator. We constants in the unperturbed motion so, for continuity
have, by Eq. (11) reasons, we can put h = 0.
δh δ δv We will suppose f (r) to be of the form
= (r × v) = r × =r ×f (16)
dt dt dt
k
f (r) = − (22)
After we have, by Eq. (9) r5
µ ¶
δe 1 δv δh
= ×h+v ×
dt µ dt dt III. THE VARIABLE PHASE
µ ¶
1 δh
= f ×h+v × .
µ dt To find higher order corrections to the relativistic pre-
cession formula, we must find more and more approx-
If the the perturbing force is central, that is of the type imate solutions to the Eq. (??), expressing bound pe-
f = f (r)r̂, we have riodical motions. Equation (??) indicates two possible
alternative on the method one can follow to achieve this
δh
= r × f = f (r × r̂) = 0, (17) result. We can act by searching the frequency or the
dt phase variations. The study of the phase is more sim-
δe fh ple, because it leads directly to the perihelion formula
= (r̂ × ĥ) = . (18)
dt µ without the need of any final transformation.

∗ 3
Electronic address: s.elmo@mail.com A. H. Nayfeh, Perturbation Methods, Interscience, New
1
M. M. D’Eliseo, ”The first-order orbital equation”, Am. J. York, 1973.
4
Phys. 75, 352 (2007), J.Kevorkian, J. D. Cole, Perturbation Methods in Applied
2
A. d’Inverno, Introducing Einstein’s Relativity, Oxford Uni- Mathematics Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981.
verity Press, Oxford, 1992.