COVER STORY
BIOFUELS IN GAS TURBINES
NEW OPPORTUNITIES?
KALYAN KALYANARAMAN
iofuels have traditionally been seen
B as alternatives that can be used
when fossil fuels are scarce or
expensive. Recent surges in crude
oil prices brought biofuels, among a vari-
ety of alternatives, to the fore once again.
Today, biofuels have an added attraction
— as “carbon-neutral renewables.”
While there has been considerable
debate regarding the net obtainable car-
bon from these fuels, some regulators,
especially in the U.S., have nevertheless
classified biofuels as renewables. Recent
legislation, such as state-level Renewable
Portfolio Standards (RPS), are driving a
surge in interest in using these fuels in
gas turbines.
Questions gas turbine users are ask-
ing include:
• Where do I get biodiesel from?
• How do I get it here?
• Where do I put it and how long does it last?
• Can I use it “straight,” or should I blend?
• Can I switch whenever I need to?
• How much is this going to cost?
• Do I need to modify my unit?
Expectations cover the range. The
best case may be a large-frame gas tur-
bine operating in baseload or “dispatch-
able-on-notice” and producing hundreds
of megawatts certified as renewable. But
critics say that biofuels are not available
in sufficient volumes in the U.S. to sup-
port utility-scale power generation.
Suppliers are saying that they are
ramping up capacity, and also hoping that
imports from Asian nations would help to
fill the gap. A more reasonable scenario
would be blending the biofuel with the
regular diesel by up to 20% - 30%, and
obtaining carbon incentives for the
amount of biofuel used.
OEMs, such as GE and Pratt &
Whitney, and users, such as Duke Energy,
have been testing the use of biofuels in
their gas turbines. While the OEMs are
drawing up extensive recommendations
on biofuel use, preliminary reports
(Figure 1) from short-term tests suggest
that if a few “technical” bogies are tack-
led, it would be possible to use biofuels.
Questions remain regarding the varia-
tions in the composition of these fuels
and their compatibility with gas turbines.
For instance, biodiesel could potentially
20 Turbomachinery International • November/December 2008
Figure 1: Test results from a GE Frame 7
gas turbine using Next Generation Biofuels’
product
have a high level of alkali salts, which
could corrode turbine blades.
Suppliers are confident that the fuel
production processes can be tailored to
meet gas turbine needs. Experience from
the automotive industry may also help to
study the compatibility of materials used
in power plant equipment.
Considering changes
Of various biofuels, biodiesels may offer
characteristics comparable to convention-
al liquid fuels. Alcohols, such as
methanol and ethanol, may require that
the fuel-handling equipment is scaled up
by 40% to compensate for the lower heat-
ing values.
Biodiesel (methyl ester) is obtained
by processing natural fats and oils, such
as soybean, rapeseed, tallow-poultry and
yellow grease, with alcohols, such as
methanol and ethanol. Catalysts, such as
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydrox-
ide, facilitate the process.
There are over 175 biodiesel facilities
in the U.S. with a total capacity of 2.6
bgpy, according to the National Biodiesel
Board. In general, biodiesels, in their
pure form, are non-toxic, have excellent
lubricity and are miscible with petroleum
diesel. Recent ASTM standards include
specifications for various blend percent-
ages of biodiesel with regular diesel.
Biomass feedstocks may contain
alkali salts. Sodium and potassium-based
catalysts used in biodiesel production
could lead to trace amounts of the salts.
These can cause:
• Deposition on turbine blades
• Hot gas path corrosion
• Burner plugging
OEM fuel specifications typically
recommend 1 ppmw (max.) for sodium
and potassium, combined. To investigate
the operation of gas turbines on biodiesel,
GE recently field-tested a Frame 6B at
the Cornauz power plant, Switzerland.
The Frame 6B is a 40 MW class machine
and has traditionally enjoyed a wide port-
folio of alternative fuels.
Pure biodiesel was used during the
testing without blending. Considering the
similarities between diesel and biodiesel
properties (Figure 2), no changes were
made to the gas turbine hardware or con-
trol system.
It was found that gas turbines can start
up with biodiesel. Biodiesels are general-
ly more viscous than diesel oil and they
may need to be heated to conform to
OEM requirements for viscosity.
Biodiesels are intrinsically lubricious
and are sometimes used as lubricity
agents in some fuels. Therefore no spe-
cial measure is required for the operation
of the high-pressure fuel pump and the
flow divider, GE says.
The Cornauz plant fuel supplier used
a soda-, potash-free process to manufac-
ture the biodiesel. GE says that contami-
nation during transportation and transfers
are also possible and should be consid-
ered when using biofuels.
While pure biodiesel is non-toxic and
bio-degradable, commercial products use
additives, such as pour point depressants,
antioxidants and biocides, which make
the final product less ecofriendly, though
less toxic than diesel.
Biodiesels have high solvency
power, which can lead to a progressive
attack on conventional rubbers.
Synthetic elastomers for seals and gas-
kets need to be used.
Although, biodiesel is miscible with
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Figure 2: Table compares typical biodiesel and diesel properties. However, the composition, quality and
properties of biodiesel vary widely
diesel oil in any proportion, a minimum
mixing energy is required to get a
homogenous phase. This means that
adding biodiesel to a tank partly filled
with gasoil can lead to phase segregation.
Since biodiesel is biodegradable, it is
more sensitive than diesel to bacterial
growth in storage tanks. GE says adding
biocides and draining storage tanks peri-
odically could mitigate the problem.
Thermal stability varies based on
feedstock types. While this may not
affect combustion, it still is a concern.
Also, biodiesel has a higher cloud/gel
point than diesel and requires blending
in cold weather.
The tests showed:
• SOx is minimal — biodiesel is non-toxic
• No visible plume
• CO2 emissions on biodiesel is slightly
higher due to the lower heating value and
consequently higher fuel consumption
•CO and Volatile Organic Compounds are
as minute as with No. 2 Diesel
• NOx emission is lower — 2% lower
without water injection and 19% lower
with water injection
• The NOx abatement effect of water injec-
tion is normal and similar to that of diesel oil
GE says that the following are the
lessons learned from short-term tests on
the 6B and 7EA. Users should start the
permitting process early, partner with
fuel providers to determine the actual
composition of fuels to be used, and
establish a fuel-sampling program. Fuel
www.turbomachinerymag.com
(Courtesy of DOE report DOE/GO 102006-2358)
pre-heating may be necessary, and spare
fuel filters may be required, especially
during the start of biofuel burning.
GE says it has concerns about fuel
quality, fuel properties and impact on
hardware since fuel can act as a solvent.
Seal compatibility is a key issue and is a
concern for some polymer materials.
Long-term storage issues include fuel
stability, potential need for fuel additives,
and heating may be required (depending on
location). GE warns: “Such considerations
are preliminary and must not be considered
as extensive recommendations for embark-
ing on a commercial use of biodiesel for
which the OEM shall be consulted.”
Controlling quality
The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) has embarked on a project that
aims to:
• Describe biodiesel properties, composi-
tion and feedstocks
• Review published experience with
B100 and biodiesel blends in large frame
and aeroderivative gas turbines
• Perform screening tests for combustion
characteristics, and fuel handling and
material compatibility
• Perform field demonstration tests
Elements of the project include com-
paring gas turbine emissions and perfor-
mance characteristics operating on distil-
late and biodiesel, and assessing the
impact on fuel handling and storage sta-
bility. The project hopes to study techni-
cal feasibility and economic viability of
using biodiesel blends, and to generate
data that could be useful for supporting air
permit decisions and switching to
biodiesel based on RPS.
In the winter of 2007-2008, EPRI
conducted a two-day test on a 6B unit
with water injection and a Selective
Catalytic Reduction system. B100
(100% biodiesel) was used from poultry
tallow feedstock.
EPRI recommends that, due to
variability in biodiesel quality, com-
position and properties, users need to
formulate a firm quality assurance-
quality control system. “The composi-
tion and quality could vary from sup-
plier to supplier and even batch-to-
batch,” says Leonard Angello, EPRI’s
Program Manager.
An “off-take approach” can solve
the quality problem, says Sam Gray,
Vice President of Market Development
for Verde Biofuels, Inc. “This approach
creates an exclusive supply agreement
between the purchaser of biodiesel and
the plant.”
The off-take approach offers consis-
tent plant production schedules by guar-
anteeing the purchase of the finished
product. In this manner, a 30 million-
gallon-per-year plant, such as Verde’s
Wilmington, NC facility, actually pro-
duces up to its capacity and can supply
large customers including utilities.
This will help to control the raw
material input, which allows for greater
quality control and cost management.
“Sourcing raw materials from reputable
firms, such as Cargill, provides initial
quality that we depend on for our prod-
uct consistency,” says Gray.
“Decreasing the variables that go into
the production process creates greater
confidence in the certificates of analysis
that we offer with every batch of pol-
ished biodiesel.”
Gray advocates that utilities enter
into forward contracts with fewer
biodiesel suppliers rather than playing
the spot fuel market in an attempt to
reduce cost, often to the detriment of
quality. “It is far easier to rely on prod-
uct consistency from a plant with strong
quality control protocols rather than
relying on spot deals that may occasion-
ally deliver price savings.”
Meanwhile, EPRI also suggests that
the fuel control valve limits may need to
be reset or the valve replaced to compen-
sate for the 10% to 12% lower heating
value in cold ambients. Storage and fuel
delivery temperature should be controlled
to prevent deposits in cold weather and
vapor lock at elevated temperatures.
November/December 2008 • Turbomachinery International 21
 biodiesel feedstocks and burner config-
urations. The institute is seeking hosts
for the tests.

Not always favorable

The regulatory environment may not
always favor using biofuels. While pro-
posed carbon legislation and renewable
standards (Figure 3) promote biofuels,
the prospect of switching to biofuels from
gas or liquid, or even blending it, may
require re-drawing the permit as per other
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
regulations, such as New Source
Performance Standards, New Source
Review or Maximum Achievable Control
Technology (MACT) rules.
Mack McGuffey, an attorney with
Troutman Sanders LLP, advises operators
to check their existing permit to deter-
Figure 3: Statewide Renewable Portfolio Standards could provide a significant impetus to biofuels mine fuel restrictions and emission lim-
its. Each permit and each state will be
Since biodiesels are biodegradable, fuel flow rate, CO and NOx emissions different. A typical permit may say: “The
their storage duration should be limited. with biodiesel are lower compared to permittee shall not discharge from each
The atomization of heavier and more diesel. While at a constant heat release combustion turbine, when burning fuel
viscous biodiesels, especially those rate, CO and NOx emissions with oil, NOx emissions in excess of 190 tons
from animal fat, should be improved to biodiesel and diesel-vegetable oil during any 12 months.”
prevent increases in emissions. The blends are slightly higher than those Before embarking on a biofuels pro-
Wobbe Index should be optimized to from diesel. ject, operators can test the fuels. The U.S.
control emissions. EPRI is planning additional field EPA has special rules built in to allow
A recent study by the Universiy of demonstration tests this year to broaden such testing. And then use the data
Alabama indicates that at a constant its experience base to additional obtained to modify the permit.
The question is: Will biofuel consti-
tute a “modification.” The test data can be
GASIFYING BIOFUELS compared with maximum achievable
Spray diffusion burners are used to to burn liquid fuels in gas turbines. The LPP hourly emission rates in the past five
system vaporizes the liquid and converts it into a substitute for natural gas. This years to make that decision.
would enable the use of liquid fuels in conventional lean premixed combustors Gas-fired combustion turbines are
and produce emissions comparable to natural gas levels. Testing by LPP shows exempt from MACT rules. But McGuffey
that gas turbines operating under stringent NOx and CO emission limits for nat- believes they may apply for biofuels. A
ural gas can potentially burn biofuels, which can be freed of alkali salts after key MACT restriction relevant for biofu-
vaporization. els is the formaldehyde limit of 91 ppb at
The LPP system (Figure 4) is a fuel conditioning skid consisting of a vaporizer, 15% O2 on oil.
nitrogen generator, compressors, heaters and heat exchangers. Co-firing with A driving factor for biofuels is the
natural gas is possible. Switchover can be done on the fly without shutting down. monetary incentives built into regula-
tions. Mike Ramotowski of LPP
Combustion estimates that a typical
B100 fuel (100% biodiesel) priced at
$3.39/gallon could see its cost
reduced to $1.58/gallon from the fol-
lowing incentives:
• Federal blending credit (up to $1.00
per gallon)
• Green power premiums ranging from
$0.015/kWh to $0.08/kWh
• Federal production tax credit of
$0.01/kWh to $0.02/kWh for renewable
power production power
• Carbon credits (RGGI: $4/ton, EU ETS:
$25/ton)
Assuming a lower heating value of
118,296 Btu/gallon, this would be
equivalent to $13.36/MMBtu. A federal-
ly mandated carbon cap program may
Figure 4: The LPP system vaporizes the biofuel to help burning in any type of combustor further reduce biodiesel costs. TI

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